What is an earthquake ?

An earthquake is a sudden shaking or rupture in the earth caused by the release of

accumulated stresses in the crust. The point within the earth where the rupture starts is
known as the focus or hypocenter. Directly above it on the surface of the earth is a point
called the epicenter.

Earthquake classification according to the depth of their foci:

A shallow focus earthquake has focal depth of from 0 to 70 km. The focal depth of an
intermediate focus earthquake ranges from 70 to 300 km., and that of a deep focus
earthquake from 300 to 800 km. Focal depths greater than 800 km do not occur.

Seismic Intensity

Before instrumental observations were possible, it was realized that the effects of an
earthquake could be classified according to the apparent intensity of its tremors. Every
earthquake has many intensities, the strongest usually being at the epicenter; intensities
decrease the farther a region is from this point. Intensities are quantified using a scale(
here in Philippines, we used PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale ), which has
numerical values ranging from I to X. After the numbers are assessed at various
localities, a contour map, known as the isoseismal map, is prepared depicting regions of
equal seismic intensity.

Seismic Magnitude

One of the first questions asked about an earthquake by both scientists and public is its
size. Thus seismologist (Charles Richter, the inventor of the Richter magnitude scale)
have developed simple ways to identify earthquake size from the records of
seismographs. The most common measure of size used at observatories is seismic
magnitude. Because earthquake vary in size over huge range, it is convenient to
compress the measured wave amplitude by using logarithms. The Richter magnitude,
ML, is the logarithm base 10 of the maximum seismic wave amplitude.

In general sense, the Richter magnitude also may be related to the damage expected
from an earthquake. A M = 8.0 or above is considered to be a great earthquake,
capable of causing catastrophic damage; an earthquake with Richter magnitude greater
than 7.0 is a major earthquake, capable of causing widespread damage; an earthquake
of M = 6.0 can cause considerable damage, depending upon factors such as location and
surface materials present.

Effects of Earthquakes

Primary effects of earthquakes are caused directly by the earthquake and can include
violent ground shaking motion accompanied by surface rupture and permanent
displacement.

Short-term secondary effects of earthquakes include liquefaction, landslides, fires,

seismic sea waves (tsunami), and floods (following collapse of dams). Long-term
secondary effects include regional subsidence or emergence of land-masses and
regional changes in groundwater levels.

Liquefaction:

Liquefaction is defined as the transformation of water saturated granular material from

solid to a liquid state. During earthquakes, this may result from an increase in pore –
water pressure caused by compaction during intense shaking. Liquefaction of near –
surface water – saturated silts and sand causes the materials to lose their shear strength
and flow. As a result, buildings may tilt or sink into the liquefied sediments, tanks or
pipelines buried in the ground may float to the surface.

Landslides:

Earthquake shaking commonly triggers many landslides (a comprehensive term for

several types of hill slope failure) in hilly and mountainous areas. Landslides can be
extremely destructive and cause great loss of life.

Fires:

Fire is a major secondary hazard associated with earthquakes. Shaking of the ground
and surface displacements can break electrical power and gas lines and ignite fires. The
threat from fire is doubled because fire fighting equipment may be damage and water
mains may be broken.

Tsunami:

Tsunami, or seismic seawaves, can be extremely destructive and present a serious

natural hazard. Fortunately , damaging tsunami are relatively rare and usually are
confined to the Pacific Basin. Tsunami originate when ocean water is displaced vertically
during large earthquakes, submarine mass movements, or submarine volcanic eruptions.

"TSUNAMI" Japanese word for harbor wave"

The most destructive waves on earth are not wind driven but generated by violent
displacement of the ocean bed. Tsunami (the word is both singular and plural) are large
long water waves caused by underwater earthquakes or submarine volcanic eruptions or
landslides. One of the strange things about these these fearsome water waves is that
they are hardly noticeable out at sea because their offshore wave height is insignificant. It
is their wavelength that gives remarkable speed and energy.

When one of these monstrous waves strikes a coastline, people standing onshore see
the sea level rise above the highest tide level, then suddenly retreat far below the lowest
water level - only to rear back and strike the shore at astonishing height and speed. The
impact on a populated coastline can be calamitous.

Tsunami can strike any coastline, but because of their particular positions on the circum-
Pacific belt (where 80 % of all earthquakes take place) and the configuration of their
coastlines (it is the angle of incidence relative to the shoreline that determines how bad
the damage will be), the areas of the world most susceptible to devastating tsunami are
Japan, Hawaii, Indonesia, and the Pacific coast of South America.

Damage caused by tsunami is most severe at the water's edge, where boats, harbors,
buildings, transportation systems, and utilities may be destroyed. The waves also may
damage aquatic and supratidal life in the near shore and on shore environments.