Gordon Williams Professor Nick Brooks German Christian Thought: Middle Ages to Enlightenment 15 August 2011

The coming of Caravaggio was an omen of the ruin and demise of painting, comparable to how at the end of the world the Antichrist, with false miracles and strange deeds will lead to perdition great numbers of people, who will be moved by his works, apparently so admirable, but actually deceiving, false, and transitory Vincencio Carducho 1633. Undoubtedly Caravaggio was one of the most pivotal artists in the transition from the Late Renaissance, particularly the Mannerist school, to the Early Baroque. Whether the transition that Caravaggios dramatic new style brought on was a good change, was a matter of greater controversy however. Caravaggio, both adored and abhorred, was very much influenced in his artworks by his equally dramatic and interesting life. A pugnacious fellow, a published notice on him once claimed After a fortnights work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him, Caravaggio was often found in the middle of controversy and strife which revealed itself repeatedly in his artwork throughout his life. Also important in understanding Caravaggio as a transitional figure, is understanding both the influences he rejected and assimilated. While Caravaggio found the popular Mannerist style of his day much too caught on the past, he nonetheless took from tradition himself, referencing the works of artists before him. Examination of Caravaggios oeuvre itself reveals his

revolutionary aesthetics and techniques. Caravaggios unrelenting realism, drama and chiaroscuro not only started a long lived trend in how paintings where done, but in how an artist conceived of his work. Finally in examining the artists his influenced in following ages, his role as a transitional figure is realized, having begun a new movement in art history. Caravaggio, representing both a departure and reference to the past, influenced art through his technique, aesthetic, and persona, bringing forth a new dramatic style known as the baroque. Michelangelo Mersisi was born in 1571, in a small village outside of Milan (Hill 8). As a child he faced much hardship, including famine and plague (Warwick 26). His father died when he was only six and shortly following his mother moved the family to a small town known as Caravaggio. Mersisi would later become eponymous with the town in his adult career. Mersisi studied art in Lombardy for 7 or 8 years before departing from Northern Italy, even serving an apprenticeship under Simone Peterzano (Warwick 26). Caravaggio set out to Rome as a young man of 20, hoping to make his way as an artist, despite not having secured any significant commissions or patronage (Artble). Early during this period he was apprenticed to Giuseppe Cesari, painting detailed floral and fruit arrangements within Cesaris larger works, perhaps an early start to his naturalistic style (Warwick 27). In fact many of Caravaggios works including Boy with a Basket of Fruit, The Supper at Emmaus, and Boy Bitten by a Lizard draw on the skill gained during this period, prominently featuring figuration of a similar nature. Caravaggio, always an independent spirit, soon grew tired of this work and set out to sell his own pieces. Though still the work of a developing artist, paintings such as Bacchus and Cardsharps caught the eyes of Del Monte (Hibbard 23). Under Del Monte Caravaggio grew immensely popular and gained many commissions. His first important commission was for three paintings, The Calling of Saint Matthew, The inspiration of Saint

Matthew, and The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew, in the Contarelli Chapel (Warwick 27). During this period, the Counter-Reformation of the Catholic Church created a large market for religious artwork, and as a result many of Caravaggios paintings from this time depict biblical scenes. One of Caravaggios earliest religious scenes was the Penitent Madonna, of which Giuseppe Silos said We can see the silent remorse hidden in her conscience, and in the depths of her heart she is burned by a secret flame. Certainly Caravaggios colors are so lively as to reveal even her most intimate sentiments. A rare bird is that painter who can so clearly expose in a mere image that which is hidden in the blind darkness of the conscience. Silos comments contrast much of the initial reaction to his naturalistic depictions of biblical scenes. Many found Caravaggios depictions of biblical figures irreverent or even outrageous. For example, while most artists idealized and painted the apostles as dignified figures draped in beautiful folds Caravaggio depicted them as common laborers, with weathered faces and wrinkled brows (Phaidon 393). Caravaggios unrelenting dedication to realism is once again evident in this refusal to idealize biblical figures, even to please patrons or avoid accusations of sacrilege. Caravaggio, never one to dodge a controversy, played into this outrage going so far as to use the corpse of a prostitute as the model for his Death of the Virgin (Artble). Caravaggio, in spite of his antisocial mannerisms and controversial style, became wildly popular during his middle period and secured a number of commissions. In this painting there are but vulgarity, sacrilege, impiousness and disgust. One would say it is a work made by a painter that can paint well, but of a dark spirit, and who has been for a lot of time far from God, from his adoration, from any good thought once stated a secretary to the Cardinal (Artble). Despite his success as an artist, Caravaggios ill temper and dark spirit often caused him great trouble. Caravaggio was forced to flee from Rome to Naples, after a

stabbing he committed resulted in a young mans death (Hill 10). Never staying in one place for long during this period, he moved from Naples to Malta to Sicily and would have returned to Rome, if he had lived long enough. Matching his life, this time marks the darkest period of his composition. Caravaggio still was frequently commissioned and completed many works despite having been banished from Rome. During this period Caravaggio depicted himself as the severed heads in both his Salome with the Head of John the Baptist and David with the Head of Goliath, perhaps showing condemnation of his violent life and the troubles it brought him. Caravaggio died in 1610, and as Baglione put it He died as poorly as he lived, receiving little recognition, funeral or catafalque (Warwick 16). When he was shown the most famous statues of Phidias and Glykon in order that he might use them as models, his only answer was to point towards a crowd of people saying that nature had given him an abundance of masters tells Bellori in his early biography of Caravaggio. While Belloris telling of Caravaggios life was often extravagant and lenient with the truth, and the more accurate quotation would perhaps be Nature has given me an abundance of masters., nonetheless Bellori captures Caravaggios rejection of the popular Mannerist style. Mannerism, which flourished in the years 1520-1600 featured figures that were agitated and were rendered in disturbingly bright colors, was the conclusion of the Renaissance, formed out of the Churchs attempts to reform and feature artwork that was strictly religious and within bounds prescribed by the church (Hill 7). Caravaggio found the idealism of Mannerism uncompelling, favoring a natural, true to life style instead. While the Mannerists chose to look on antiquity for inspiration, Caravaggio pioneered a radically new aesthetic, drawing primarily on how things actually appeared in his artistic depiction of them. Mannerists often chose to idealize, selecting the most beautiful traits to form an aesthetic pastiche. Caravaggio chose to depict the

whole as it was, rendering even flaws and ugliness. In contrasting Tintorettos Last Supper to Caravaggios The Supper at Emmaus, two similarly themed pieces, the first in the Mannerist style and the later in the early Baroque, the differences in the two styles become clear. Caravaggios setting is more intimate, emotional and more natural. Tintoretto makes use of symbolic imagery and lighting, with halos around the heads of Jesus and the apostles and an illuminating lamp. Caravaggios supper on the other hand, features realistic depictions, with fine attention to detail in the tablecloth, food, and clothing. Caravaggio paints each person with much more individual character, than Tintorettos figures. Similarly, comparing El Grecos The Disrobing of Christ and Caravaggios The Taking of Christ, reveals the drama and emotion of Caravaggios distinct style. In El Grecos painting, the action serves to frame an aloof Christ, distant from the turmoil surrounding him. Caravaggio however, with intense chiaroscuro, depicts a Christ conflicted though submissive to the action against him. Comparisons of the Mannerists and Caravaggio reveal the past Caravaggio was rebelling against and the bright future he proposed with his revolutionary approach. He not only ignored the most excellent marbles of the ancients and the famous paintings of Raphael, but he despised them claims Bellori in his questionable biography. Although Caravaggio rejected many of the traditional conventions of art and pioneered his own distinct style, he was often inspired by artists from the past. The most direct influence was the Lombard school (Hibbard 29). The Lombard school was a northern style, and favored more naturalistic depictions, as are seen in Caravaggios work. Caravaggio studied in the Lombardy style for about seven or eight years before his departure to Rome (Warwick 26). Caravaggio also drew inspiration from artists such as Durer, Michelangelo and Da Vinci. Durer represents the most obvious influence as an artist from the north. The Northern style was often less idealized, and

featured more down to earth subject matter. The large production and distribution of prints, assures that Caravaggio would have been well aware of Durers works (Varriano 29). Caravaggio was influenced greatly in his positioning of figures by Michelangelo. While the Mannerists often depicted figures directly drawing on statues, Caravaggio preferred to pose live models in a similar pose to the statues to attain a more natural result. Caravaggios Amor Vincit Omnia, quite clearly draws on Michelangelos earlier statue, Victory (Varriano 22). Leonardo da Vincis Medusa (now lost) served as a model for Caravaggios Head of Medusa. Because of Caravaggios reliance on painting what he saw, he often found the need to imitate other artists when painting mythological subjects (Varriano 24). Despite first appearances, Caravaggio was equally indebted to the artists of his day as to the artists of the past. One example is a vase of flowers in his Luteplayer, capturing a Dutch influence, popular at that particular time (Hibbard 37). Perhaps Caravaggios most surprising inspiration was Carracci, a rival to Caravaggio, very much stylistically opposed. Caravaggios The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew draws upon Carraccis Paris and Mercury, in the placement and form of the angel, once again notably a figure not able to be modeled. While Caravaggio was in many ways revolutionary, it is also important to recognize that in his role as a transitional figure, he drew upon the traditions of art and artists before him. Caravaggios singularly most defining trait and influential contribution to the development of art was his constant striving for naturalistic depictions in his work. Caravaggios attention to detail, subject matter, and treatment of color and light all played a part in his approach to naturalism. Even Caravaggios early works, such as The Boy with the Fruit Basket or Bacchus display this tendency. These early works are almost more still-lifes than portraits, despite containing human figures. As Caravaggio had not yet established himself as an artist and

could not use models, he had to rely on the use of mirrors and the result was awkward human figures (Varriano 12). However Caravaggios attention to detail in the fruit of these pictures is astounding. Painted slightly later, Caravaggios genre pieces such as The Cardsharps or The Luteplayer, innovative at the time, though soon imitated to a clich, show another side to Caravaggios naturalism in selecting everyday subjects to present as works of art (Hibbard 27). Caravaggios dedication to naturalism is also seen in his use of models, rather than drawings, as many other painters would have used. Bellori said, in reference to Caravaggios The Repentant Magdalene, When he came upon someone in town who pleased him he made no attempt to improve upon the creation of nature. Bellori goes on to describe the painting concluding We have described this figure in detail in order to show his naturalistic style and the way in which he imitates truthful coloration by only using a few hues. Caravaggio saw no need, as many artists of his day did, to change or alter his depiction of reality to create an artwork. Caravaggios inability or unwillingness to paint in idealized style often caused his patrons to be unsatisfied with his work. One example of this is the painting of Saint Matthew done for the altar of a church in Rome. Caravaggios first version depicted Matthew with a bald head, bare dusty feet, awkwardly gripping the huge volume, anxiously wrinkling his brow (Haidon 31). The church found the depiction disrespectful and ordered a revised, more conservative painting to be done. While controversial at the time, Caravaggios unrelenting realism would become the greatly adopted and admired in later years. Caravaggios characteristic use of chiaroscuro redefined the use of lighting and color within artwork. The figures emerge from gloom by the fall of unnatural light; not natural light and diffused sunlight, but a forced and abstract deluge of illumination from no known source (Hill 9). Known as Tenebrism, this extreme form of chiaroscuro often uses a black or near black

background with characters jumping forth in rich color from the shadows. The lack of a background or setting can result in an intense focus of the characters and action within a scene. One need not look hard to find examples of this in Caravaggios work. His The Incredulity of Saint Thomas, Saint Jerome Writing, and The Taking of Christ, all display this quality readily, as well as a large number of other works within his oeuvre. Often devoid of natural or ambient lighting, Caravaggios works often feature intense rays of light, slashing from above lighting the subjects of the painting in intense, rich color (Hill 8). While such lighting can detract from the absolute naturalism that Caravaggio sought to embody, it does serve to heighten the drama immensely. An early legal document from a housing rental states the complaint A ceiling in my house he has broken (Varriano 8). It can be speculated that Caravaggio may have caused this damage in attempting to model the light source that he would often depict in his paintings. As painters of the renaissance developed perspective, revolutionizing and defining their art, so Caravaggios developments in color and lighting revolutionized and defined the baroque. Caravaggios influence on painting was astounding. Soon after his rise to fame, schools practicing in his style, known as Caravaggisti began to form (Warwick 17). Joachim von Sandart said Henceforth his style was imitated by almost all Italian painters, and it is now imitated in southern and northern Germany. Different schools of Caravaggisti arose all over Europe. The Roman Caravaggisti consisted of artists such as Gentileschi, whose Luteplayer drew heavily upon Caravaggios Luteplayer, and Manfredi, who originally began forging pieces by Caravaggio before moving onto original creations (Hill 11). The Utrecht Caravaggisti, made up of artists such as Bruggen, Honthorst, and Babruben, notably lightened Caravaggios style, resulting in a brighter, less sober product (Artble). The French Caravaggisti included Valentin de Boulogne, whose art focused mainly on genre pieces in the style of Caravaggios early paintings

(Hill 11). More indirectly Caravaggios work influenced masters such as Velasquez, Rembrandt, and Coubert, among others, who became familiar with Caravaggios style primarily through imitators (Haidon 405, 427, 511). What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting Andre Berne-Joffroy. Caravaggio was a figure intrinsic to the transition from late Renaissance to the Early Baroque. Caravaggios distinct departure from Mannerism, choosing truthful depictions over idealizations, was a driving force in the transition. His developments in lighting and color produced some of the most richly beautiful works of the 17th century. His dramatic and controversial life contributed almost as much to the conception of the artist persona as his paintings did. Finally the lasting impact he would have, in artists that directly and indirectly assumed his style, brought about a new era in the history of Art. Caravaggio, both innovative and retrospective, changed the face of art through his naturalism, in technique and aesthetic, and remains one of the most important figures in art history.