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Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks EXECUTIVE EDITORS Marlin O. Thurston Department of Electrical Engineering The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio William Middendorf Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, Ohio

EDITORIAL BOARD Maurice Bellanger Tlcommunications, Radiolectriques, et Tlphoniques (TRT) Le Plessis-Robinson, France Norman B. Fuqua Reliability Analysis Center Griffiss Air Force Base, New York Pradeep Khosla Carnegie-Mellon University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania J. Lewis Blackburn Bothell,Washington Naim A. Kheir Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering Oakland University Rochester, Michigan Glenn Zelniker Z-Systems, Inc. Gainesville, Florida

1. Rational Fault Analysis, edited by Richard Saeks and S. R. Liberty 2. Nonparametric Methods in Communications, edited by P. Papantoni-Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos 3. Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yi-tzuu Chien 4. Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence E. Murr 5. Electronic, Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials, Klaus Schrder 6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang 7. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications, Samuel Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas 9. One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen 10. Interconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard Saeks Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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11. Modern Digital Control Systems, Raymond G. Jacquot 12. Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Roydn D. Jones 13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User's Guide to Practice and Specification, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 14. Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices, Richard H. Engelmann 15. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C. Andreas 16. Electromagnetic Compossibility, Heinz M. Schlicke 17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G. Gottling 18. Digital Filter Design Handbook, Fred J. Taylor 19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction, P. K. Sinha 20. Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley, with contributions by Carl A. Edstrom, Jr., Ray D. Greenway, and William P. Kelly 21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, Thomas E. Browne, Jr. 22. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design, K. Kit Sum 23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems, SingTze Bow 24. Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design and Fabrication, Stanley L. Hurst 25. Digital Circuits: Logic and Design, Ronald C. Emery 26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theories and Techniques, Magdi S. Mahmoud, Mohamed F. Hassan, and Mohamed G. Darwish 27. Microprocessor Software Project Management, Eli T. Fathi and Cedric V. W. Armstrong (Sponsored by Ontario Centre for Microelectronics) 28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design, Michael P. Perry 29. Multidimensional Systems: Techniques and Applications, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas 30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications: Analysis and Control, Sakae Yamamura 31. Ceramic Motors for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications, edited by Relva C. Buchanan 32. Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, Arthur L. Dexter 33. End User's Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging, Jay J. Miniet 34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design, Norman B. Fuqua 35. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control, Frank W. Kussy and Jack L. Warren 36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R. Salmon 37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, J. Lewis Blackburn
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38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell 39. Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems, Venkatachari Rajagopalan 41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek 42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl E. Swartzlander, Jr. 43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Bellanger 44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications, edited by Lionel M. Levinson 45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford 46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Naim A. Kheir 47. Rigid-Flex Printed Wiring Design for Production Readiness, Walter S. Rigling 48. Analog Methods for Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis and Diagnosis, edited by Takao Ozawa 49. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 50. Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction, A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos 51. Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H. Chen 52. Electronic Product Design for Automated Manufacturing, H. Richard Stillwell 53. Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney and Erminia Vaccari 54. FET Technology and Application: An Introduction, Edwin S. Oxner 55. Digital Speech Processing, Synthesis, and Recognition, Sadaoki Furui 56. VLSI RISC Architecture and Organization, Stephen B. Furber 57. Surface Mount and Related Technologies, Gerald Ginsberg 58. Uninterruptible Power Supplies: Power Conditioners for Critical Equipment, David C. Griffith 59. Polyphase Induction Motors: Analysis, Design, and Application, Paul L. Cochran 60. Battery Technology Handbook, edited by H. A. Kiehne 61. Network Modeling, Simulation, and Analysis, edited by Ricardo F. Garzia and Mario R. Garzia 62. Linear Circuits, Systems, and Signal Processing: Advanced Theory and Applications, edited by Nobuo Nagai 63. High-Voltage Engineering: Theory and Practice, edited by M. Khalifa 64. Large-Scale Systems Control and Decision Making, edited by Hiroyuki Tamura and Tsuneo Yoshikawa 65. Industrial Power Distribution and Illuminating Systems, Kao Chen 66. Distributed Computer Control for Industrial Automation, Dobrivoje Popovic and Vijay P. Bhatkar 67. Computer-Aided Analysis of Active Circuits, Adrian loinovici 68. Designing with Analog Switches, Steve Moore 69. Contamination Effects on Electronic Products, Carl J. Tautscher
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70. Computer-Operated Systems Control, Magdi S. Mahmoud 71. Integrated Microwave Circuits, edited by Yoshihiro Konishi Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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72. Ceramic Materials for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Relva C. Buchanan 73. Electromagnetic Compatibility: Principles and Applications, David A. Weston 74. Intelligent Robotic Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas 75. Switching Phenomena in High-Voltage Circuit Breakers, edited by Kunio Nakanishi 76. Advances in Speech Signal Processing, edited by Sadaoki Furui and M. Mohan Sondhi 77. Pattern Recognition and Image Preprocessing, Sing-Tze Bow 78. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, Second Edition, John C. Andreas 79. Stochastic Large-Scale Engineering Systems, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas and Keigo Watanabe 80. Two-Dimensional Digital Filters, Wu-Sheng Lu and Andreas Antoniou 81. Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Switch-Mode Power Supplies, Yim-Shu Lee 82. Placement and Routing of Electronic Modules, edited by Michael Pecht 83. Applied Control: Current Trends and Modern Methodologies, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas 84. Algorithms for Computer-Aided Design of Multivariable Control Systems, Stanoje Bingulac and Hugh F. VanLandingham 85. Symmetrical Components for Power Systems Engineering, J. Lewis Blackburn 86. Advanced Digital Signal Processing: Theory and Applications, Glenn Zelniker and Fred J. Taylor 87. Neural Networks and Simulation Methods, Jian-Kang Wu 88. Power Distribution Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, James J. Burke 89. Modern Digital Control Systems: Second Edition, Raymond G. Jacquot 90. Adaptive IIR Filtering in Signal Processing and Control, Phillip A. Regalia 91. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Eugene R. Hnatek 92. Handbook of Electric Motors, edited by Richard H. Engelmann and William H. Middendorf 93. Power-Switching Converters, Simon S. Ang 94. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation: Second Edition, Naim A. Kheir 95. EMI Filter Design, Richard Lee Ozenbaugh 96. Power Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Haim Taraseiskey 97. Robust Control System Design: Advanced State Space Techniques, Chia-Chi Tsui 98. Spatial Electric Load Forecasting, H. Lee Willis Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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99. Permanent Magnet Motor Technology: Design and Applications, Jacek F. Gieras and Mitchell Wing 100. High Voltage Circuit Breakers: Design and Applications, Ruben D. Garzon 101. Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design, Thor Hegbom 102. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User's Guide to Practice and Specification, Second Edition, William T. McLyman Additional Volumes in Preparation Statistical Methods in Control and Signal Processing, edited by Tohru Katayama and Sueo Sugimoto Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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Integrating Electrical Heating Elements in Appliance Design Thor Hegbom Hallstahammar, Sweden

Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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ISBN: 0-8247-9840-6 The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address below. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 1997 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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Preface This book starts by describing the standard resistance heating alloys and their properties. A short chapter on other metals and alloys that are also frequently used for heating purposes follows. Then an account of the laws of heat transfer and the basic formulas for calculating heating elements are presented. Because resistance heating wires are often formed in coils, coiling and the properties of coils are dealt with. Ceramic and plastic materials used for making such heating elements are mentioned briefly, as are safety rules that affect the design of both elements and appliances. Chapters on resistance heating elements made of metallic materials follow. They are arranged in three groups according to how the resistance heating wire is mechanically supported and how heat is dissipated from its surface. The Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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three groups of elements are suspended, supported, and embedded. Short chapters on thin and thick film elements as well as PTC elements are presented next. Table A1 in the Appendix compares the resistivity and the surface resistance of the resistance materials mentioned in this book. A survey of the different appliances and heaters for domestic use is given, together with some possible element types. In the Appendix many less known and new formulas are explained and some sample calculations are shown. The formulas are written in a way suitable for Basic programming. The temperature-dependent material constants are expressed as functions of the temperature to enable readers to take temperature into consideration when making calculations. Metric units have been used in the text. In the Appendix readers will find a table of conversions of units from the imperial to the metric system and vice versa. The Appendix also contains tables showing resistance per meter, surface per ohm, and weight per meter for the whole and half B&S wire sizes of the most common standard resistance alloys. Similar tables for B&S ribbon sizes are also given. The final Appendix contains six calculating programs in Basic to show the reader how the equations can be used in simple Basic programming. The book deals only with resistance heating elements for appliances and heaters. Elements for furnaces, which are covered in other publications, are not considered. No other reference book is currently available that deals with electrical heating elements for appliances. There has been a great need for information that covers the basic theory, equations, and underlying principles of designing heaters. Because of the lack of information, most of which comes from resistance alloy manufacturers, the standard practice has been mainly empirical, based on trial-and-error methods. My rationale for writing the book is to bring my more than 30 years of experience to engineers working on electrical heating elements. This book will help those engineers who design heating elements and who have had to rely on disparate information from wire suppliers. It will also give experienced manufacturers some advice and hints to help them choose the correct wire types and dimensions for their needschoices that are of considerable economic importanceand to train young engineers. Finally, the book will guide manufacturers of appliances in the choice of the right elements for their particular needs and will help them to take into account element sizes and properties when they design appliances. Today, the appliance is often designed first, and only afterward is the element manufacturer asked for an element to suit it. This sometimes leads to impossible requirements for elements. The book will be useful to manufacturers of electrical heating elements; designers of domestic appliances equipped with electrical heating Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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elements; producers of all kinds of devices equipped with electrical heating elements; laboratories for R&D, quality assurance, and biotechnology; engineers and designers requiring a source of heat; and technical and university libraries. Within these fields the designers, production people, laboratory engineers, and quality assurance engineers will benefit from reading this book or using it as a reference. This represents a sizable audience. Resistance material manufacturers, for obvious commercial reasons, concentrate their support on volume buyers. This leaves users in almost 190,000 small and medium-sized U.S. laboratories, who usually require just a few devices, completely without resources. This has been a historical problem because design data are not available to this large group of small users. Yet there are hardly any laboratories in which heating devices are not needed or used. With the technical background and practical hints in this book, technicians will be able to design and build heating elements and appliances geared to their needs. The book could also be valuable as a college-level teaching manual. To understand fully all the deductions and equations in the book, a college-level scientific background is required. However, anybody needing electrical heatingregardless of academic backgroundcan benefit from this book. The book is based on knowledge gained during many years and several discussions with representatives from most of the world's leading manufacturers of heating elements and appliances. I would like to thank all the technical people with whom I have talked during these years for interesting and stimulating discussions. In particular, I thank Kanthal AB for all the discussions and all the knowledge I have gained working in their laboratories and after my retirement. I thank the firms that have contributed with photographs. In alphabetical order, they are: Backer Elektro-Vrme AB, Ssdala, Sweden Calesco Foil AB, Kolbck, Sweden Fritz Eichenauer GmbH and Co.KG, Hatzenbiihl, Germany Encon Energy Convertors, Incorporated, Dallas, Pennsylvania Kanthal AB, Hallstahammar, Sweden Trk & Hillinger GmbH, Tuttlingen, Germany Watlow Electric Manufacturing Company, St. Louis, Missouri No liability is assumed for the information in this book or for any damage resulting from the use or misuse of its content. THOR HEGBOM Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

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Contents Preface Symbols 1. Metallic Resistance Heating Wire 1.1 Standard Resistance Heating Alloys 1.2 Metallurgical Background 1.3 Oxidation Resistance and Heater Life 1.4 Influence of the Surroundings: Corrosion 1.5 Mechanical Properties 1.6 Magnetic Properties and Noise 1.7 Electric Resistance 1.8 Other Properties Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation iii xi 1 1 4 6 24 27 31 33 43

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1.9 Wire Surface Load 1.10 Comparison of Different Wire Alloys 1.11 Wire Gauges 1.12 Ribbon and Ribbon Standard Sizes 1.13 Weight of Wire and Ribbon 1.14 Forms of Delivery 1.15 Tolerances 1.16 Checking Resistance Heating Wire References 2. Wires (and Ribbons) Made of Materials Different From Resistance Heating Alloys 2.1 Metals and Alloys for Low Operating Temperatures 2.2 The Halogen Tubular Heater 2.3 Cermet Wire References 3. General Information About Electrical Heating Elements 3.1 Definition of an Electrical Heating Element 3.2 Heat Transfer 3.3 The Straight Wire 3.4 The Coil 3.5 Terminals 3.6 Corrugated Ribbon 3.7 Insulating Materials 3.8 Safety Rules 3.9 Element Calculation 3.10 Element Surface Load and Temperature of Element and Wire 3.11 Requirements for Elements 3.12 Classification of Heating Elements 3.13 Limits for Use of Metal Wires References 4. Suspended Elements 4.1 Elastically Suspended Wire or Ribbon
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49 50 52 54 58 58 59 60 60 63 63 74 75 78 81 81 82 96 100 131 135 137 151 152 162 164 164 166 167 169 169
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4.2 Straight or Corrugated Wire or Ribbon on Fixed Supports 4.3 Suspended Coil 4.4 Zigzag Elements 4.5 Suspended Punched Strip References Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

173 176 181 184 186

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5. Supported Elements 5.1 Wire and Ribbon on Ceramic Fiber 5.2 Coil on Flat Ceramic Plate 5.3 Wire on (Cylindrical) Ceramic 5.4 Open Mica Element 5.5 Tube Heaters 5.6 Porcupine 5.7 Bead-Insulated Coil 5.8 Cigarette Lighter 5.9 Coil in Water References 6. Embedded Elements 6.1 Metal-Sheathed Tubular Element 6.2 Powder-Filled Cartridge Element 6.3 Embedded in Metal Groove 6.4 Embedded in Ceramic 6.5 Cement-Insulated Element 6.6 Sheathed Mica Element 6.7 Foil Element 6.8 Heating Cable and Rope Heater 6.9 Embedded Tube Heaters for Heating of Fluids 6.10 Embedded in Ceramic Fiber References 7. Film Elements 7.1 Thin Film Elements 7.2 Thick Film Elements 7.3 Pressure-Sensitive Elements References 8. PTC Elements 8.1 Survey 8.2 PTC Elements of the Ceramic Type
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187 187 194 195 209 214 225 228 230 231 232 235 236 306 310 314 314 315 319 336 338 339 340 343 344 348 352 352 355 355 356
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8.3 PTC Elements of the Polymer Type References 9. Silicon Carbide and Carbon Elements References 10. Domestic Appliances and Heaters 10.1 Cooking 10.2 Heating of Water and Beverages 10.3 Drying and Ironing Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

369 371 373 375 377 378 379 380

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10.4 Space Heating and Room Comfort 10.5 Hair Care 10.6 Individual Body Comfort 10.7 Tools 10.8 Vehicles 10.9 Miscellaneous Appendix Index Start of Citation[PU]Marcel Dekker, Inc.[/PU][DP]1997[/DP]End of Citation

380 381 381 381 382 382 383 449

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