Core Technology Manual

CORE TECHNOLOGY MANUAL
CONTENTS
Introduction Handling Paper Photocopying Processes Digital Processes Facsimile Processes Process Control Color Processes Digital Duplicators Standard Components
Ricoh CO., LTD., All rights reserved.
Introduction
Purpose and Scope
What is it for?
Purpose and Scope How to use this manual
The Core Technology Manual is a reference source for standard technologies used in Ricoh office products. It has three main intended uses. 1. Support for Service Manuals Instead of repeating a common technical description, a service manual can refer to the description of the process in the Core Technology Manual. Or the service manual can refer the reader to the Core Technology Manual for additional information. Thus service manuals can be made more compact and more focused on the target machine. 2. General Technical Reference Technical staff and field service personnel can use this manual as a standard technical reference about Ricoh office machines. It may be especially useful as a memory refresher concerning the technical aspects of the various products that are often encountered in the field. 3. Source for Training Material This manual can be used as a source of background material when preparing technical training courses.
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Introduction
How to use this manual
Scope
While the Core Technology Manual can be studied, it is intended primarily for use as a reference. It doesnt cover all technical aspects of Ricoh office products. Instead, it concentrates on the common technologies used in many products. Generally, leading edge technology and machine specific technology will not be covered. This manual will be updated from time to time as technology evolves and field needs change.

The Portable Document Format
This manual is a PDF (portable document format) file, and you must use Acrobat Reader or Acrobat Explorer to view it. We assume that you are familiar with the features of Adobe Acrobat. If not, please take a few minutes to familiarize yourself with Acrobats navigation features. To make best use of this and other electronic documents, you need to know how to use the navigation buttons, bookmarks, thumbnails, and searching functions. (Acrobat comes with several reference and tutorial documents that you can use to book up on Acrobat.)
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Introduction
Navigating
This manual has numerous links that allow you to quickly jump to related information. The links are indicated by green italic text. Also, this manual is heavily bookmarked. You can get almost anywhere you need to by drilling down through the bookmarks. In addition the manual is fully indexed; so, you can use Acrobats full text search function to locate items by keyword searches.
Printing this manual

This manual is formatted for screen viewing. The actual formatted size is A5; however, if you print to A5 paper, some of the image may be cut at the margins depending on the capabilities of the printer. If this happens, print to a slightly larger size paper. ISO B5 and JIS B5 work well. As colors are used in this manual you will get better results by using a color printer.
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Handling Paper
Overview Paper Path Paper Feed Registration Paper Transport Duplexing Misfeed Detection Handling Originals Handling Finished Copies/Prints
Overview
For most machines, paper handling can be broken into six main procedures: feed, registration, transport, duplexing, misfeed detection and finishing. Originals are handled in a similar, though separate, fashion. Paper handling begins at the paper sourcethis could be a paper tray, cassette, roll, or a single, hand-fed sheet in the by-pass tray. The paper feed process ensures that the paper is positioned and ready for use. It also feeds the paper into the main unit, and separates sheets of paper so that only one sheet is fed at a time. Registration ensures that each sheet is positioned properly for printing. Registration typically addresses two issues: timing and skew. For timing, it synchronizes the image on the photoconductor with the paper. It ensures that the leading edge of the paper matches the leading edge of the developed image. Meanwhile, skew control ensures that the paper is lined up straight. It compensates for slight rotations to the paper during paper feed.
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Handling Paper
Paper Path
Paper transport is merely moving the paper. Paper is usually transported from paper feed to registration, from paper separation to fusing, and from fusing to the finisher or output tray. Not all machines are capable of double-sided printing; however, those that are must have some type of duplex unit. The duplex process redirects the paper, allowing information to be printed on both sides of a single sheet. For duplexing, paper can be handled either inside the main unit or using external duplex units. Misfeed detection uses a combination of sensors along the paper path to track the progress of each sheet of paper. These sensors help detect paper jams, determining when and where a jam takes place Finally, after they are printed, the sheets can be stacked, sorted, directed to various output trays or bins, stapled, punched, or otherwise processed. Finishing processes can take place inside the main unit itself or can be handled by a finishing unit.
Paper Path
The paper path is, basically, the path that the paper travels from the paper source to the output tray. Most machines have a branching paper paththe paper can come from more than one source, and can be directed to more than one finishing process or output tray. Most paper paths can run through all six processes. There are two basic designs for the paper path. Most machines use a variation of these.
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Handling Paper
Paper Path
Vertical Path
Here, the paper is stored in the lower portion of the machine. Each sheet is fed from the paper source, transported vertically up the machine, then fed to the registration rollers and development section. Sometimes a shorter, straight path runs from the by-pass tray, this can be used to handle paper stocks that cannot run through the main paper path. Duplexing is handled through either an internal, horizontal duplexing unit or an external, vertical duplexing unit. The illustration shows the A265. Paper is stored in paper trays or fed in the by-pass tray. The copier uses an external duplexing unit. Finished sheets can be routed to a variety of output trays or to the finisher. Note: in this machine even the development unit and fusing unit are vertical. The horizontal path across the top of the machine is merely to transport sheets to the finisher. Also, this copier does not provide a straight paper path from the by-pass tray. This layout is used in many new copiers and multifunction products.
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Handling Paper
Paper Path
Horizontal Path
Here the paper travels a generally horizontal path from the paper source to the finisher or output tray. A straight, horizontal paper path reduces the likelihood of paper jams. It may also improve speed, or to allow a wider variety of paper stocksparticularly heavier paper stocks. In some color machines, a development process called tetradrive uses a horizontal path. Four development units are placed in a line. This provides quick, high quality color printing. Unfortunately, the horizontal paper path is not as compact as the vertical path. These machines tend to be larger. The illustration above shows the A294. Paper from the LCT follows a traditional, horizontal paper path. However, paper from the main units trays follows a largely vertical transport path. (Pure horizontal systems have become quite rare.) Also, unlike the A265, the copy processes are aligned horizontally. This machine also includes a finisher and an internal, horizontal duplex unit.
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Feed
Paper feed is the separation of a single sheet of paper from a paper sourceusually a stack of paper in a cassette or trayand moving it into the machine.
Paper Feed Methods

Feed and Reverse Roller (FRR)
The FRR feed mechanism consists of a pick-up roller, a feed roller, and a reverse roller. The pick-up roller [A] is not in contact with the paper stack before it starts feeding paper. Shortly after the start key is pressed, the pick-up roller drops down and feeds the top sheet between the feed roller [B] and the reverse roller [C]. At almost the same time that the papers leading edge arrives at the feed roller, the pickup roller lifts off the paper stack so that it does not interfere with the operation of the feed and reverse rollers. The feed and reverse rollers then take over the paper feed process.
frr1.jpg
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
There is a one-way bearing inside the feed roller so it can turn only in one direction. The reverse roller turns in the opposite direction as the feed roller. A slip clutch (torque limiter clutch) drives the reverse roller, however, allowing it to turn in either direction depending on the friction between the rollers. A spring keeps the reverse roller in contact with the feed roller. The direction that the reverse roller [A] turns depends on the frictional forces acting on it. The slip clutch applies a constant clockwise force (F1). When there is a single sheet of paper being driven between the rollers, the force of friction between the feed roller [B] and the paper (F2) is greater than F1. So, the reverse roller turns counterclockwise. If two or more sheets are fed between the rollers, the forward force on the second sheet (F3), becomes less than F1 because the low coefficient of friction between the two sheets. So, the reverse roller starts turning clockwise and drives the second sheet back to the cassette.
frr2.tif
frr3.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: Model A113
Drive Mechanism
The paper feed unit consists of a pick-up roller [A], feed roller [B], separation roller [C], relay roller [D], pick-up solenoid [E], separation solenoid [F], paper upper limit sensor [G], and paper end sensor [H]. The main motor drives the pick-up, feed, and separation rollers via the timing belt [I] and the paper feed clutch [J]. The main motor also drives the relay roller. However, drive is transmitted to the relay roller via the relay clutch [K] and the timing belt [L]. In stand-by mode, the separation roller is away from the feed roller. 50 ms after pressing the start key, the main motor and the separation solenoid turn on. Then the separation roller comes in contact with the feed roller. 100 ms after the main motor starts to rotate, the pick-up solenoid turns on. The pick-up roller lowers to make contact with the top of the paper stack. The pick-up solenoid stays on for 550 ms.
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frr4.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
200 ms after the main motor starts to rotate, the paper feed clutch and the relay clutch turn on. The feed roller and relay rollers feed the top sheet of the paper stack to the registration rollers. When the leading edge of the paper passes through the upper relay sensor, the paper feed clutch is deenergized.
frr5.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Slip-clutch Mechanism
The separation roller is mounted on a slip clutch. The slip clutch [A] consists of an input hub [B] and an output hub [C], which also acts as the case of the clutch. A magnetic ring [D] and steel spacers [E] are fitted onto the input hub. A ferrite ring [F] is fitted into the output hub. Ferrite powder [G] packed between the magnetic ring and the ferrite ring generates a constant torque due to magnetic force. The input hub and the output hub slip when the rotational force exceeds this constant torque. The constant torque prevents double feeding, because it exceeds the coefficient of friction between sheets of paper. This type of slip clutch does not require lubrication.
frr6.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Friction Pad
The friction pad mechanism has two principle componentsthe paper feed roller [A] and a friction pad [B]. When the paper feed roller rotates, it feeds the top sheet of paper. The second sheet also tries to feed, but because the friction force between the friction pad and the second sheet is greater than that between the first and second sheets, the first sheet of paper is the only one that feeds. The friction coefficient applied to the surface of each sheet of paper is shown below.
[A]
[B]
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1>2>3
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: Model A074 When the paper tray is placed in the copier, it pushes the pressure release lever [A], causing it to turn clockwise. This then causes the friction pad holder [B], holding the friction pad, to press up against the paper feed roller [C]. The friction pad pressure against the paper feed roller is determined by the friction pad pressure spring [D]. This pressure is applied evenly to the paper feed roller because the friction pad holder is mounted on the mounting bracket [E] with a swivel bushing.
fricpad.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Friction roller
The paper separation mechanism for the friction roller uses the same principles as the paper separation method for the friction pad. The two main components are the paper feed roller and the friction roller. When the paper feed roller rotates, the top sheet of paper is fed. The second sheet also tries to feed, but as the friction force between the friction roller and the second sheet is greater than that between the first and second sheets, only the first sheet of paper is fed.
fricroll1.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: Model A133 Duplex The duplex paper feed system consists of three sets of duplex feed rollers and a friction roller [A]. The friction roller has a one-way bearing inside; therefore, it rotates freely during paper stacking and locks during paper feeding. The duplex feed rollers can only feed the top sheet of the stack because the friction roller functions in the same way as a friction pad does.
[A]
a133d587.wmf
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Separation Belt
The separation belt system (also called the friction belt system) primarily feeds sheets from the bottom of a stack. It is commonly employed in automatic document feeders (ADFs) and in duplexing systems. The separation belt feed mechanism is similar to the friction pad and friction roller systems; it exploits the difference in friction resistance to separate a single sheet of paper. However, unlike these two systems, the separation belt does not passively resist the passage of extra sheets of paper; it turns against the movement of the paper to feed back all but the bottom sheet. The mechanism shown to the right is from the DF62. [A] Separation belts [B] Feed rollers [B]
[A]
A610d506.wmf
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: Model A095 Duplex The illustrations to the right show the model A095 duplex paper feed mechanism. The paper on the duplex tray feeds in order from the bottom to the top sheet. After all copies are stacked on the duplex tray, the duplex pressure solenoid [A] turns on to lower the pressure arm [B] causing the pressure arm to press the paper against the pick-up roller [C]. Then, the paper feed clutch [D] turns on to rotate the pick-up roller, separation belts [E] and the feed roller [F]. The separation belts and the feed roller rotate in opposite directions. Only the bottom sheet is fed because the separation belt prevents any other sheets from feeding. [E]
[B]
[E]
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[A] [D] [B]
[C] [F]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Separation Tab
The separation tab separation system is a variation of the separation belt system. It is used in slower feeding ADF units. The illustration shows a document feeder using a separation tab. The pick-up roller [A] and feed roller [B] feed the document into the ADF unit. Only the bottom sheet is fed because the separation tab [C] prevents any other sheets from feeding. The document feed-in roller [D], feeds the document through the ADF unit. [A] [B]
g025d504.wmf
[C]
[D]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Corner Separator
Corner separators provide a simple and reliable method of separating off the top sheet during paper feed. Commonly, they are used along with semicircular feed rollers in low and medium speed copiers. A spring [A] holds the paper stack up against the underside of the corner separators [B]. As the feed rollers [C] start forcing the paper forward, the corner separators retard the movement of the paper causing the top sheet to bow up at the edges and thus separate from the lower sheets. With further feeding, the corners of the top sheet release from the corner separators. The top sheet then feeds into the paper path while the corner separators stop the lower sheets from feeding. [B] [C]
[A]
cor_sep.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: Model A219 This copier has one paper feed station and a bypass feed table. The paper feed station uses a paper tray [A] that can hold 500 sheets. The bypass feed table [B] can hold 80 sheets. The paper tray uses two semicircular feed rollers [C] and corner separators. The semicircular feed rollers make one rotation to drive the top sheet of the paper stack to the relay rollers [D]. The two corner separators allow only one sheet to feed. They also hold the paper stack. When the paper tray is drawn out of the machine, the spring pressure is released, and the tray bottom plate drops. In addition, there is no need to press the bottom plate down when putting the tray back in. The by-pass feed table uses a feed roller and friction pad system to feed the top sheet of paper to the registration rollers.
cor_sep2.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Air Knife
The air knife paper feed process uses jets of air to separate sheets of paper for paper feed. The air knife method (also called air separation method) is suitable for high speed copying and printing systems because it reduces the feed roller marks and paper deformation that can occur in high speed feeding. The duplex paper feed mechanism of model A112 (right) uses a combination of air knife and FRR feed mechanisms. The air knife directs jets of air at the bottom of the paper stack to separate the sheets of paper. A vacuum fan holds the bottom sheet against the transport belt. The separation roller allows only the bottom sheet to feed.
airknife.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Cassette
A paper cassette is a removable paper tray. A cassette is taken out of the machine to load paper and then reinserted in a cassette holder or cassette entrance.
Paper Lift Mechanism

Cassettes all have a moveable bottom plate on which the paper rests. The bottom plate must be raised to place the paper in position to be fed. Generally, this is accomplished by raising a cassette arm under the bottom plate. (Refer to the following examples.)
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cassett2.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example 1: Model A111 This is an example of the cassette arm being raised by a gear. When inserting the cassette [A] into the copier, the cassette pushes down the cassette actuator pin [B]. The paper lift clutch unit [C] moves down and then the paper lift gear [D] engages with the sector gear [E] causing the cassette arm [H] to raise the cassette bottom plate. Simultaneously, the paper size actuator [F] engages with and actuates the paper size switch [G]. The paper lift gear turns the sector gear and the bottom plate raises until the top sheet pushes up the paper lift sensor feeler [I].
Paper end feeler: [J] Paper end sensor: [K]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example 2: Model A006 This is an example of the cassette arm being raised by a spring. When a cassette is inserted into the copier, the curved release guides on the sides of the cassette press against the rollers on the release levers [A] and force the release levers down. The release levers rotate the cassette arm shaft [B], moving the cassette arm down and out of the way. When the cassette is fully seated, the release guides allow the release levers to move back up. The cassette arm [C] levers up the cassette bottom plate [D] until the paper contacts the paper feed roller. To prevent copy paper from multi-feeding or jamming, the spring [E] pressure is adjustable.
cassett4.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Tray
A paper tray is a non-removable drawer or bin that is permanently built into or attached to the machine. The capacity of paper trays varies considerably; smaller trays typically hold 250 to 500 sheets of paper, but large capacity trays hold a paper stock of 1000 or more sheets.
Paper Lift Mechanism

Smaller paper trays resemble paper cassettes and have similar paper lift mechanisms employing springs or a bottom plate lift arm. However, large capacity trays have more complicated mechanisms to raise the bottom plate and place the paper in position to be fed. Generally, this is accomplished using a wire- or belt-lift mechanism. (Refer to the following examples.)
500_sheet_tray.tif
1700_sheet_tray.tif
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example 1: Model A609 (belt lift) [D] [F]
[C]
[B] [A] [C]

a609d501.wmf
[E]
a609d502.wmf
The bottom plate [A] of the LCT is raised and lowered by the LCT motor [B] and the drive belts [C]. When the main switch is on and the LCT cover is closed, the pick-up solenoid [D] activates and the LCT motor [B] rotates clockwise to raise the bottom plate until the top sheet pushes up the pick-up roller [E]. When the lift sensor [F] is de-actuated, the copier CPU de-activates the LCT motor [B] and the pick-up solenoid [D].
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example 2: Model A171 (wire lift) [F] [C] [B] E] [D]

a171d628.pcx a171d620.pcx
[A]
Drive from a reversible motor [A] is transmitted through a worm gear [B] to the drive pulley [C] shaft. The tray wires have metal beads on them. These beads are inserted in the slots at the ends of the tray support bracket [D] of the bottom plate; so, when the wire pulley turns (counterclockwise rear view), the beads on the wires drive the tray support bracket and the tray moves upward. The tray goes up until the top sheet pushing up the pick-up roller [E] actuates the upper limit sensor [F]. To lower the tray, the pulley turns clockwise until the lower limit sensor [G] is actuated by the of the bottom plate [H] actuator.
[H]
[G]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
By-pass Feed Tray

Most copiers and multifunction machines incorporate a fold-out by-pass feed table. By-pass feed is useful for casual copying on odd paper sizes. Also, on most machines, the by-pass feed tray provides a straight paper path that is suitable for stiff feed stock such as post cards or OHP transparencies. Example: A195 The by-pass feed table switch [A] detects when the by-pass feed table is opened. Then the CPU turns on the by-pass feed indicator on the operation panel. The by-pass feed table uses an FRR feed system, using the same rollers as the LCT, and one of the solenoids. Only the by-pass pick-up solenoid [B] is used, because the pick-up roller does not have to drop so far as it does when feeding from the LCT. The user can put up to 40 sheets of paper on the by-pass feed table. Note that the paper can be pushed right into the machine, causing jams. The
a195d602.wmf
[A]
[C]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
user must stop pushing the paper in when the bypass feed indicator goes out. When the Start key is pressed, the by-pass feed clutch [C] and the pick-up solenoid turn on to feed the top sheet of paper. When there is no paper on the by-pass feed table, the paper end feeler [D] drops into the cutout in the lower guide plate and the by-pass feed paper end sensor [E] is deactivated. [E]
[B] [C]
[D]
a195d604.wmf
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Roll
Wide format copiers and machines that use a thermal printing process commonly feed paper from a roll. The illustration to the right shows the main components of a roll feeding systemthe paper feed rollers [A], the paper roll [B], the cutter unit [C], and the paper leading edge sensor [D].
sr740-4.pcx
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Example: A175 This machine has two standard roll feed units (1st [A] and 2nd [B]), one manual feed unit, and one optional roll feed unit (3rd [C]). The cutter unit [D] uses a sliding rotary cutting blade. When the main switch is turned on or when roll paper is replenished, the roll feed motor rotates and the leading edge of the roll paper is fed until the roll lead edge sensor [E] is activated. Then, the leading edge of the roll paper is returned to the paper feed start position (120 mm before the cutter unit). When the original lead edge sensor detects the leading edge of the original, the roll feed motor and the roll feed clutch turn on, and paper feed starts [E]
[A]
[B]
[D]
[C]
a174d507.wmf
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Cutter Operation
The illustration to the right shows the type of roll paper cutter used by wide format copiers. This cutter unit uses a sliding rotary cutting blade [A] that is pulled past a fixed blade by a drive wire. The rotary cutting blade allows the cutter unit to cut paper in both directions. There are home position switches [B] at both ends of the cutter unit. The cutter motor turns off, stopping the cutting action, when the rotary cutting blade knob plate [C] turns off one of these switches. Some smaller products such as thermal fax machines and white-board printers use similar cutters to cut roll thermal paper.
sr740-7.pcx
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Size Detection

For many copy processes, operation timing depends on paper size. Machines can detect paper size in a number of different ways. Here are some common ones. rd NOTE: Sometimes there isnt a paper size detection mechanism. For example, for the 3 tray of model A171, the paper size must be input using the SP mode.
Switch Combination
The illustration to the right shows a paper size detection mechanism commonly used with cassettes and smaller paper trays. A block of five microswitches [A] detects the paper size. The switches are actuated by an actuator plate [B] on the cassette or tray. (Generally, such an actuator is set manually.) Each paper size has its own unique switch combination and the CPU determines the paper size by the combination. [B]
[A]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper Size Dial

Some paper trays use a dial to change paper size. The illustration to the right shows a case where the paper dial changes both the guide posts position and paper size. When the paper size dial [A] is rotated, the cam groove [B] moves the size lever [C], which repositions the guide posts [D]. When the dial reaches a standard paper size, one of the actuator plates [E] enters the paper size sensor array [F]. The combination of sensors activated tells the CPU the paper size.
Paper Size Detection Table Paper Size B4 A4 Sideways A4 Lengthwise B5 Sideways B5 Lengthwise 11" x 81/2 81/2" x 11" 81/2" x 14" 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Sensor 3 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 4 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 5 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
This illustration shows a paper size dial that is used to change only the paper size setting for the CPU. The paper side fences are set manually. There are four microswitches [A] on the front right plate of the machine that detect paper size. The switches are actuated by a paper size actuator [B] on the inside of the paper size dial, which is on the front right of the tray. Each paper size has its own unique combination of notches. To determine paper size, the CPU reads which microswitches the actuator has switched off.
[B]
[A]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Side Fence Detection

Many trays have sensors to detect the side fence position. In the upper example, the paper size detection sensors [A] are mounted under the paper tray bottom plate. When the rear side fence [B] is inserted into one of the paper size positions, it enters a photointerrupter. The signal from this sensor informs the CPU which size paper is in the tray. The lower example is a tray that can be easily adjusted for different paper sizes by moving the guide post brackets [C] and the end post [D]. The guide post brackets and end post have actuator plates mounted on their bottoms. These plates activate sensors [E] (photointerrupters) mounted under the bottom plate. The CPU determines the paper size by reading the combination of sensors activated. [C] [E]
[B]
[A]
a171d539.pcx
[E] [D]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
By-pass Size Detection

By-pass paper size detection has to be able to handle various paper sizes and orientations. Many machines measure paper width with a slide switch [A] located inside the by-pass tray [B]. The side fence is connected to a terminal plate [C]. When the side fences are moved to match the paper width, the terminal plate slides along the wiring patterns on the detection board. The patterns for each paper width on the detection board are unique. Therefore, the machine determines the width of the paper placed in the by-pass tray by the signal output from the board. However, the by-pass tray cannot determine the paper length. A4 paper set sideways is determined to be A3 paper. Generally, the registration sensor or paper feed sensor measures the length of the paper (using pulse count) so the various copy processes cut off at the proper time. [A] [B]
[C] [A]
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[C]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Paper End Detection

No matter what the paper sourcecassette, tray, by-pass, or rollthe machine has to detect when paper runs out. This can be done in many ways. Here we will look at some of the most common.
Paper End Feeler Method

Cassettes generally detect the paper end condition through the use of a feeler which drops through the cassettes bottom plate when paper runs out. The illustration shows a typical mechanism. When paper is loaded in the cassette, the paper holds up the feeler [A] and the actuator stays out of the slot of the paper end sensor [B] (photointerrupter). When the paper runs out, the feeler drops through a cut-out [C] in the bottom plate and the actuator enters the paper end sensor, thus notifying the CPU that paper has run out. Trays also often use paper end feelers. It is necessary to have some mechanism to move the feeler out of the cut-out in the bottom plate when the tray or cassette is pulled out. [A] [B]
[C]
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
The illustration to the right shows a typical paper end detection mechanism for a small paper tray. When the paper tray runs out of paper, the paper end feeler [A] drops into the cutout [B] in the tray bottom plate, and the paper end actuator activates the paper end sensor [C]. The paper end actuator is in contact with a lever [D]. When the tray is drawn out, the lever turns as shown by the arrow and pushes up the actuator. As a result, the feeler rotates upwards. This mechanism prevents the feeler from getting damaged by the paper tray body. Some trays have the paper end detection mechanism under the tray bottom plate. To the right is one possible configuration. (paper end feeler: [E], paper end sensor: [F])
[A
[C]
[B]
[D]
endfeeler2.wmf
endfeeler3.pcx
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Handling Paper
Paper Feed
Roll end detection

Roll paper end is detected by a reflective photosensor. When paper [A] is present, light reflects back to the sensor [B]. When paper runs out the black core [C] doesnt reflect light and paper end is detected.
[B]
[C]
[A]
rollendsensor.wmf
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Handling Paper
Registration
Registration
Overview
There is often some slippage during paper feed. As a result, paper cannot be transported directly to the image transfer or printing position, because the image position on the paper would not be stable. After paper feed starts, its transport timing requires adjustment to match it with the imaging process timing. This alignment is called image registration or just registration. Generally the registration process also removes any skew that the paper may have acquired during paper feed.
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Handling Paper
Registration
Registration Using A Stopper

Some machines use a stopper to delay the paper at the registration rollers. It allows a simplified drive mechanism where the registration rollers are not stopped during feeding. This method is used mainly with low speed machines. Example: Model A226/A227 The registration rollers [A] always rotate while the main motor rotates. Relay rollers (not shown) transport the paper to the registration rollers. There is a paper stopper [B] between the relay rollers and the registration rollers. After the leading edge of the paper reaches the stopper, the paper buckles slightly to remove skew. Then, 2.9 seconds after the paper feed clutch is turned on, the registration solenoid [C] is energized to move the stopper down, releasing the paper. This synchronizes the paper feeding with the image on the drum. After 0.6 seconds, the registration solenoid is de-energized.
[A]
[C]
[B]
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Registration
Registration Using Rollers

Most copiers and printers use registration rollers to match the paper timing to the image and remove skew. Example: Model G020 The registration sensor [A] is positioned just before the registration rollers. When the paper leading edge activates the registration sensor, the registration clutch [B] turns off and the registration rollers [C]s stop turning. However, the relay clutch stays on for a bit longer. This delay allows time for the paper to press against the registration rollers and buckle slightly to correct skew. The registration clutch energizes and the relay clutch re-energizes at the proper time to align the paper with the image on the drum. The registration and relay rollers feed the paper to the image transfer section. [C] [B] [A]
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Paper Transport
Paper Transport
Roller Transport
The illustration to the right shows a typical vertical transport mechanism that is used in several models. Three sets of vertical transport rollers [A], driven by the paper feed motor, and their opposing idle rollers [B] are mounted in vertical guide plates [C]. They transport the paper from each feed unit to the registration rollers. The vertical transport guides can be opened to access jammed paper in the vertical transport area. [C] [A]
[B]
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Paper Transport
Belt + Vacuum Transport

Many photocopiers use a combination of belts and vacuum fans to transport paper from the drum to the fusing unit. The vacuum holds the paper firmly against the transport belts. This method has the advantage of holding the paper secure to prevent vibrations or slippage that might disturb the as yet unfused toner image. The number of transport belts and fans varies depending on the product. A single vacuum fan with multiple transport belts is common. The illustration to the right (from model A166) shows a mechanism employing two belts and two vacuum fans.
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Duplex
Duplex
Duplexing mechanisms can take many forms. However, they have the following things in common. They all have some way of sending copies or prints to the duplex mechanism. This is usually accomplished by a junction gate, which redirects the paper as it exits from the fusing unit. There is a mechanism that turns the paper over (reverses it) so that it is ready to receive an image on the reverse side. This can occur before the paper enters the duplex tray or after it exits the duplex tray. Duplexing systems in most machines also have the following mechanisms. There is a tray to hold the sheets of paper to be duplexed. Usually, it is simply "called the duplex tray. There is a mechanism, usually called a jogger, to align the sheets of paper in the duplex tray. There is a paper feed mechanism employing one of the standard paper separation techniques.
Duplex Tray
A duplex tray holds sheets for multi-copy duplexing. The following example illustrates the basic operation of a commonly used duplex tray system.
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Duplex
Example: Model A195 The junction gate [A] rotates up 1.1 seconds after the registration clutch turns on to direct copies to the duplex tray. Shortly after the fusing exit sensor detects the leading edge of the paper, the entrance rollers [B] and duplex feed roller [C] start to rotate. At the same time, the duplex bottom plate [D] lowers. The copy feeds over the duplex feed roller and into the tray, thus reversing the copy. The jogger fences [E] and end fence [F] move inward to square the copy stack, then they move back 10.5 mm from the paper stack. After the final copy is delivered to the stack area, the jogger and end fences remain against the paper stack. Soon after the final copy is squared, the duplex bottom plate lifts to the paper feed position and the duplex feed roller starts rotating counterclockwise to feed the top copy to the relay rollers [G]. The second side is then copied with the copy following the paper tray feed station paper path. [B] [A]
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[C]
[G]
[F]
[E]
[D]
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Handling Paper
Duplex
Duplex Stacking (Jogger)

When sheets of paper enter a duplex tray they tend to become misaligned. A jogger aligns the sheets of paper before printing on the reverse side starts. Example 1: Model A195 Two motors drive the fencesthe side-fence jogger motor [A], and the end-fence jogger motor [B]. Using two motors for the side and end fences allows the duplex tray to handle all paper sizes from A3/11" x 17" to A5/ 8" x 5" sideways. There are two home position sensors. One is for the jogger fences [C], and the other is for the end fence [D]. When the main switch turns on, the side fence jogger motor and the end fence jogger motor rotate to place the jogger fences and the end fence at their home positions. There are two end fences. One [E] is for A3/11 x 17" size paper. The other [F] is for sizes smaller than B4. They are included as a unit. When A3/11 x 17" size paper is in the duplex tray, the end fence unit moves to the left (as seen from the
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[A]
[C]
[G]
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[D] [B] [F]
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operation side of the machine) and the B4 end fence rotates down as it is pressed against the end fence stopper [G]. When the registration clutch turns on, the side fences move 10.5 mm, and the end fence moves 8.7 mm away from the selected paper size. Then, when the copy paper is delivered to the duplex tray, the jogger fences move inward to square the paper after the duplex turn sensor detects the trailing edge of the copy paper. Shortly after this, the jogger fences move back to their previous positions. After the last copy of the first side copy run enters the duplex tray, the jogger fences remain against the paper stack.
8.7 mm
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10.5 mm
10.5 mm
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Duplex
Example 2: Model A171 As in the previous example, model A171 uses two motors in the duplexing mechanism. The jogger fence drive motor [A] positions the side fences [B] and the end fence drive motor [C] positions the end fence [D]. During the copy cycle, the side fences wait 10 mm away from the selected paper size position. After a sheet enters the duplex tray, the jogger fence drive motor moves the jogger fences in to align the paper stack and then moves them back out to the 10 mm position. The end fence, however, does not have a jogging function. Instead, this model uses a positioning roller [E] to move the paper to the feed position. A pressure plate [F] prevents the paper stack from moving while the sheet enters the duplex tray. After it is released, the positioning roller moves down and drives the sheet to the feed position. (Pressure plate solenoid: [G], positioning roller solenoid: [H]) [H] [G] [C]
[B] [A]
[D]
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[E] [F]
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Duplex
Interleave Duplexing
Overview
Some digital machines have a lot of RAM and a large capacity hard disk that can store many pages. This allows a different method of duplexing called interleave duplexing, in which sheets are not stacked. Instead, in interleave duplexing, sheets are continuously fed through the machine and the correct image is selected from memory or disk depending on which sheet and side is in the imaging section. This type of mechanism allows more than one page to be processed at once, and it increases the productivity of duplex imaging, especially when making multiple duplex copies. Also, in the case of making copies from paper originals, it decreases the cycling of and the wear on originals. Example: Model A229 For paper lengths up to A4/Letter lengthwise, the top duplex speed is possible, with the duplex unit processing three sheets of copy paper at the same time. For paper longer than this, the duplex tray can still process two sheets of copy paper at once. In case of single-set duplex copy job, the duplexing processes only one sheet of copy paper at a time.
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Duplex
Up to A4/Letter lengthwise The duplex unit can process three sheets at of copy paper at once. Example: A 14-page copy. The large numbers in the illustration show the order of pages. The small numbers in circles show the order of sheets of copy paper (if shaded, this indicates the second side).
1
1
6
3
11
6
13
7
10
5
12
6
14
7
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1. The first 3 sheets are fed and printed. 1) 1st sheet printed (1st page) 2) 2nd sheet printed (3rd page) 3) 3rd sheet printed (5th page)
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2. The first 3 sheets go into the duplex unit. 3. The 4th sheet is fed in.
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4. The back of the 1st sheet is printed (2nd page). 5. The 4th sheet is printed (7th page).
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6. 7. 8. 9.
The 1st sheet is fed out (1st and 2nd pages printed). The 4th sheet is directed to the duplex unit. The back of the 2nd sheet is printed (4th page). The 5th sheet is fed.
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10. The 2nd sheet is fed out (3rd and 4th pages printed). 11. The 5th sheet is printed (9th page) and directed to the duplex unit. 12. The back of the 3rd sheet (6th page) is printed. 13. The 6th sheet is fed and printed (11th page).
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14. The 3rd sheet (5th and 6th pages) is fed out 15. The back of the 4th sheet (8th page) is printed. 16. The 7th sheet is fed and printed (13th page).
17. The back of the 5th sheet (10th page) is printed.
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18. The 4th and 5th sheets are fed out (pages 7 to 10). 19. The back of the 6th (12th page) and 7th (14th page) sheets are printed.
20. The 6th and 7th sheets are fed out (pages 11 to 14).
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When copying on A3 or 11 x 17 paper, the process is similar, but only two sheets at a time can be processed. For details, refer to the service manual for model A229. For another example of interleave duplexing, refer to the service manual of the A687 duplex unit.
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Misfeed Detection
Misfeed Detection
Office machines that print images on paper (copiers, fax, laser printers, etc.) have to detect paper misfeeds and jams and take appropriate action. One or more sensors placed along the paper path accomplish misfeed detection. Typically, photointerrupters with feeler actuators are used for misfeed detection because they are unaffected by the reflectivity or transparency of the feed stock. The number of misfeed detectors used depends on the length and complexity of the paper path. The following timing chart, from model A226/A227, is an example of misfeed check timing in a low-end machine. 0
(second) Start Key Main Motor Paper Feed Clutch Registration Sensor Registration Solenoid Exit Sensor
ON Check
1.2
PE
Paper Length Detection
6.7
OFF Check
ON Check
2.9
3.5 6.7 12.4
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Misfeed Detection
This machine uses the registration sensor and the exit sensor to detect misfeeds. The CPU checks each sensor twicefirst it does an ON check to confirm paper arrival and then it performs an OFF check to confirm that the paper has passed the sensor. Larger machines have more complex paper paths and transport paper at higher speeds. The illustration on the following page shows the misfeed sensors along the paper path of model A112. Model A112 uses 20 sensors to detect misfeeds. This is a high-speed machine (101 cpm) and, therefore, paper transport timing is much more critical than in a low-speed machine. For that reason the CPU does not just perform simple ON and OFF checks at points during the copy cycle. Instead, for each sensor, it monitors two critical periods. For both the ON and OFF checks, the sensor may change state within a period that is -93.6 ms and +117 ms from the standard check timing.
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Misfeed Detection
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Handling Originals
Handling Originals
Most office machines that scan or copy paper documents are equipped with a document feeder. These feeders are variously called automatic document feeders (ADF), auto reversing document feeders (ARDF), or automatic document handlers (ADH); however, we will refer to them all as document feeders in this section. While document feeders vary in mechanical and operational details, they generally have to do the following basic tasks: Feed documents one at a time from a stack of documents Detect the document size Transport the documents to the scan position Invert the documents (if reverse side scanning is necessary) Feed out the documents (original exit) A typical document feeder
In this section, we will look at typical ways that these tasks are accomplished, and at specific examples of each.
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Handling Originals
Document Feed
Document feed is a special case of paper feed, which was covered earlier in this chapter. Most document feeders use one of three paper-feed methods. These are: The separation belt system The separation tab system A modified feed and reverse roller system using a feed belt rather than a feed roller
The following pages briefly cover the separation belt and separation tab systems, and cover more in depth the FRR with feed belt system.
Separation Belt
The separation belt system is covered earlier in this chapter. This system is also called the friction belt system. This system is mainly used in document feeders that feed sheets from the bottom of the original stack. The illustration to the right shows the feed system of the DF61/DF64. For details on the feed mechanism of this ADF, refer to the service manuals for the DF61 and DF64 (used with model A133).
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[A] Separation Belt [B] Feed Roller [D] Pick-up Roller [E] Pull-out Roller [F] Registration Sensor
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Separation Tab
The separation tab system is covered earlier in this chapter. This system, which is also called the friction tab system, is used in document feeders when a straight paper feed path is required. The illustration to the right shows the feed system of the document feeder of model A084. For more details, refer to the ARDF section of the service manual for model A084.
[A] Feed Roller [B] Separation Tab [C] Pick-up Roller [D] Relay Rollers
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FRR with Feed Belt

Some document feeders, especially those used with higher throughput machines, use a version of the FRR (feed and reverse roller) system that employs a feed belt rather than a feed roller. A feed-belt type FRR provides more contact area than a roller type. This makes it more reliable for feeding original documents, which can vary over a wide range of types, sizes, and conditions. However, feed-belt type FRR is rarely used for primary paper feed (where feedstock quality can be controlled and throughput is much higher) because it is relatively expensive in terms of parts and maintenance. Example: Model A294 The pick-up roller [A], feed belt [B], and separation roller [C] are driven by the feed-in motor [D]. The feed-in motor [D] and feed-in clutch [E] turn on to supply the drive for the separation process. Basic operation is the same as for standard FRR. When two originals are fed by the pick-up roller, the separation roller will turn opposite the feed belt
[D] [A] [E] [C] [B]
[B] [C]
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Handling Originals
direction and the 2nd sheet will be pushed back into the original tray. When there is only one original between the feed belt and separation roller, the separation roller will then rotate in the same direction as the feed belt and feed the original through to the platen glass. The separation roller contains a torque limiter so that it can rotate in both directions. When the leading edge of the original activates the entrance sensor [A], the feed-in clutch [B] turns off and the drive for the feed belt is released. The original is now fed by the transport rollers [C] to the platen glass. At the same time, the pick-up motor starts again and the pick-up roller [D] is lifted up. When the pick-up roller HP sensor turns on, the pick-up motor stops. [A] [B]
[D]
[C]
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Handling Originals
Original Size Detection

Most Ricoh made document feeders use one of two main methods to detect original size. One method dynamically detects the original size using sensors to detect the width and length of the original on the fly as the DF feeds it in. This method allows the user to copy a stack of mixed size originals. However, the drawback is that it may not be possible to start paper feed until after the original has been fed (in auto paper size selection mode, for example). The other method is a static detection system. It detects the original size prior to feeding. Generally this is done by sensing the position of the side fence to determine the original width and by sensing the original length with reflective photosensors on the original tray. Naturally, only the largest sheet will be detected by this method; so, mixing different size originals isnt recommended. This following pages look at an example of each method. Some document feeders, especially those used with low copy rate machines, do not measure original size. The DF40 is an example. It is the users responsibility to ensure that the paper size matches the original size on such machines.
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Handling Originals
Dynamic Original Size Detection

The original size is sensed on the fly as it feeds in. Example: Model A294 Model A294 (Bellini) detects the original size by combining the readings of the original length sensor [A] and three original width sensors [B] while the original feeds in. The original length sensor generates pulses as a slotted disk [C] rotates. The slotted disk engages with the shaft of the driven transport rollers, so it turns as the paper moves past. The CPU then counts these pulses, starting when the leading edge of the original turns on the registration sensor [D]. Pulse counting continues until the trailing edge of the original passes the entrance sensor [E]. The CPU detects original width by using the three original width sensors. The three small circles shown in the diagram to the right indicate the positions of these sensors.
[E] [D] [A] [C]
[B]
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Handling Originals
Static Original Size Detection

The original size is sensed prior to feeding while the originals are on the document feed table. Example: DF68 DF68 has one sensor [A] to detect the original width and two sensors [B] to detect the original length. The DF detects the original size through the combination of inputs from those sensors. The original width sensor [A] is actually a slide switch with four possible outputs (P1 to P4). The output depends on the position of the sliding contact on the original rear fence. The original length sensors [B] are two reflective photosensors. When using an original of a non-standard size, the user needs to input the original length at the operation panel. [A] [B]
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Handling Originals
Original Transport
This section deals with transporting the document after document feed. Original Transport falls into two major classes based on the document scanning method. One type of document feeder transports the document past fixed optics. In such document feeders the document never stops; transport and feed-out occur as one continuous process. This will be the first mechanism examined in this section. The second type of document feeder positions the document on an exposure glass, where it is scanned by moving optics. Such document feeders usually have several other transport functions. We will look at belt transport, skew correction, document inversion, and feed-out as separate original transport processes in such machines.
Transport Past Fixed Optics

When the optics are fixed, scanning is done by moving the document past the reading mechanism at a constant rate. This is the basic way that fax machines work, but it is also used in some multifunction machines. The basic requirements are that the paper transport speed and the distance from the document to the exposure glass both remain constant. Such document feeders are simple in design and operation. The major drawback is that they cannot easily be designed for duplexing.
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Handling Originals
Example: DF68 When the leading edge of the original reaches the registration sensor [A], the DF transport motors turn off. At the proper registration timing, the DF transport motors turn on again. The original is fed past the DF exposure glass [B], where it is scanned. The original is fed through to the 2nd transport roller [C] and fed out by the exit rollers [D]. The DF transport motor speed, while feeding the original to the registration sensor, is constant. However, when the motor turns on again to feed the original to the exposure glass, the speed depends on the selected reproduction ratio. At 100%, it is 90 mm/s.
[D]
[C] [A] [B]
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Transport Belt
Most document feeders use a roller driven belt to position documents on the exposure glass. Example: Model A294 The transport belt [A] is driven by the transport belt motor [B]. The transport belt motor starts when the copier sends an original feed-in signal. Inside the transport belt are six pressure rollers which maintain the correct pressure between the belt and original. The pressure roller [C] closest to the left original scale is made of rubber for the stronger pressure needed for thick originals. The other rollers are sponge rollers. Normally, originals are manually placed at the left rear corner, so an original [D] fed from the DF must also be at this position. But if the original is fed along the rear scale [E], original skew, jam, or wrinkling may occur. To prevent such problems, the original transfer position is set to 3.5 mm away from the rear scale as shown. The 3.5 mm gap is compensated for by changing the starting position of the main scan.
[B]
[A] [C] [E] [D
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Skew Correction
Skew correction compensates for any misalignment (original skew) that occurs when the original is transported to the exposure glass by the document feeder. The original is pushed against a scale, after transport to the exposure glass, to align it properly. Example: Model A294 The transport belt motor remains energized to carry the original about 7 mm past the left scale [A] (see the middle drawing). Then the motor stops and reverses to feed the original back against the left scale (see the bottom drawing). This forces the original to hit the left scale, which aligns the trailing edge to minimize original skew on the [A] exposure glass. After a two-sided original has been inverted to copy the 2nd side, it is fed in from the inverter against the left scale (see the bottom drawing; the top two drawings do not apply in this mode). If a thin original mode is available (and is selected), skew correction does not occur. This prevents damage to the thin originals.
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Handling Originals
Original Inversion
Document feeders must invert (or turn over) documents to copy the reverse side orwith some designsto return documents to their original order. Document feeders have various mechanisms for inverting originals. Most involve routing the document around a roller (or rollers) using solenoidactuated gates. The example shown below is typical. Example: Model A294 When the DF receives the original invert signal from the copier, the transport belt motor, feed-out motor, exit gate solenoid [A], and inverter gate solenoid [B] turn on and the original is fed back to the exposure glass through the inverter roller [C], exit gate [D], inverter guide roller [E], inverter gate [F], and inverter roller. The transport belt motor turns in reverse shortly after the leading edge of the original turns on the inverter sensor [G], and feeds the original to the left scale. [F] [B] [E] [G] [D] [A]
[C]
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Original Exit
Document feeders switch gates within the exit/inverter section to direct documents to the exit tray. Most document feeders have only one exit tray, which necessitates inverting the documents twice to keep them in proper order. However, the example below has two exit trays one for duplex mode and the other for normal mode; so, throughput can remain high with only a single inversion required in duplex mode. Example: Model A294 Single-sided Original Mode The exit gate solenoid [A] remains off and the original is fed out to the right exit tray. The transport belt motor turns off after the exit sensor [B] turns off. To stack the originals neatly on the exit tray, the feedout motor speed is reduced about 30 mm before the trailing edge of the original turns off the exit sensor.
[A]
[B]
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Double-sided Original Mode The exit gate solenoid [A] turns on and the inverter gate solenoid [B] remains off, and the original is [B] fed out to the upper tray. The transport belt motor turns off when the trailing edge of the original passes through the exit sensor [C]. To stack the originals neatly on the upper tray, the [A] feed-out motor speed is reduced shortly after the trailing edge of the original turns off the inverter sensor [D].
[D]
[C]
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Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Handling finished copies and prints involves sorting and stacking with various tray types (fixed, moving, and shift), as well as stapling and punching. Finished copies and prints are usually handled with a finishing or sorting unit. All finishing and sorting units do not have the same functions, but generally there is some sort of stacking and sorting on all basic units with stapling and punching as added features. This section will discuss sorting and stacking using the various tray types, stapling and punching processes, and the exiting of the finished copy or print. Sorters and finishers can be categorized into three basic types as follows: Those using fixed position trays or bins. These machines move the finished copies to the appropriate bin after it exits the copier. Those using moving bins. These move the trays to the copier exit at the appropriate time to receive the copy as it exits the copier. Those using shift trays.
The following pages cover examples of each type.
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Sorting/Stacking with Fixed Trays

Machines that Sort and Stack with Fixed Trays are usually medium or high speed machines. In fixed-tray sorters, the copies are moved to the trays after exiting the copier by belts or rollers. Fixed trays tend toward Analog machines rather than Digital ones. Example: Model ST23 The general concept of the fixed tray has the print or copy transported individually to an exit tray (usually one of many), which does not move, through a series of rollers. Transportation is usually by a vertical, diagonal [D] and/or horizontal transport unit [E] with a distribution unit [F] that contains distribution rollers, and bin gates operated by bin solenoids.
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The Sorter Mechanism

Example: Model ST23 Copies exiting the copier enter the sorter. They are then delivered to the bins in order. The jogger arm arranges the copies in the bins. The distribution section has the distribution rollers [A], bin gates, and bin solenoids. When a bin gate solenoid [B] is off, the return spring [C] holds the bin gate [D] out of the paper path, allowing the copies to pass to the upper bin. The appropriate bin gate solenoid turns on and opens the bin gate. The other solenoids are off. The copies go to the bin [E] through the gate.
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Sorting/Stacking with Moving Trays

Sorters with Moving Trays tend to be smaller and less expensive. They are used with lower-end models. These machines usually have one of two types of mechanisms for moving trayswheel drive or screw drive (sometimes called a helical wheel).
Wheel Drive
The bin drive mechanism moves the bins up and down to receive copies or prints. This movement is made by a wheel mechanism that is explained in the following example. Example: Model CS130 Basic Operation - Sort Mode In this mode, all copies of the first original are delivered to separate bins starting from the top. The copies of the second original are delivered to the same bins, but starting from the bottom. The copies of the third original start from the top and so on. At 250 milliseconds after the copy has gone through the paper sensor, the bin drive motor turns on to advance the bin one step. - Stack Mode In this mode, all copies of the first original are delivered to the first bin, all copies of the second original are delivered to the second bin, and so on. At 250 milliseconds after the last copy of the original has gone through the paper sensor, the bin drive motor turns on to advance the bin one step.
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Bin Drive Mechanism
[G] Exit Roller [H] Upper Paper Guide [I] Lower Paper Guide
The bin drive mechanism moves the bins up and down to receive copies under the direction of the copier CPU. The main components in this mechanism are the bin drive motor [A], two transfer wheels [B,B], the wheel switch [C], and the bins themselves. Pins on either side of each bin are inserted into slots called bin guides [D,D]. The bins slide up and down in the bin guides. The bins sit on each other with the lower bin resting on the 10th bin (the 10th bin is permanently fixed in position). The upper and lower paper guides pivot up and down depending on the height of the bin to be picked up or released.
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Screw Drive (helical wheel drive)

Screw drive provides a bin drive mechanism that is more robust than the wheel drive method and is suitable for heavier workloads. Example: Model ST10
Basic Operation
When sort mode is selected, the bin drive motor [A] energizes to rotate the helical wheels. The helical wheels [B] rotate twice to move the top bin to the transport roller position, then the first copy is delivered to the top bin. After the first copy of the first original has been fed to the top bin, the bin drive motor moves the bins up one step (the helical wheels rotate once) so that the second copy of the first original will be delivered to the next bin. The jogger plate [C] squares the copies after each copy has been fed to a bin. After the copies of the first original have been delivered to each bin, the sorter stapler maintains its status (the bin drive motor does not rotate). The first copy of the second original is delivered to the final bin that was used for the first original, then the final bin descends one step. The
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[C]
[A] [B]
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bins descend each time a copy of the second original is delivered. The direction of motion of the bins alternates for each page of the original until the copy run is finished. Stack mode is similar to sort mode. However, the bins move upward only. [A]
Bin Drive Mechanism

The bin drive mechanism moves the bins up and down to receive copies. There are four pins on each bin. Two pins fit into the slots [A] in both the front and rear side frames; the pins slide up and down in these slots. The other two pins fit into the slot in the helical wheels; as the helical wheels turn, these pins move up and down, and the other pins move up and down in the slots at the other end of the bin. The bin drive motor [B] drives the helical wheels through four timing belts [C]. When the motor rotates clockwise, the bins lift; when it rotates counterclockwise, the bins lower. There is a wheel sensor actuator [D] on the front helical wheel; the
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[A]
[B] [C] [D]
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actuator has a slot that detects when the helical wheel has rotated once. When the bins are advanced, the helical wheels rotate once for each step. As the pitch of the spiral on the helical wheel is greater when the bins are at the staple and paper exit area than when the bins are elsewhere, the amount of bin shift is greater when the bins are at the staple and paper exit area. This leaves enough space to staple and stack the copies. Also, this reduces the total machine height.
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Handling Paper
Sorting/Stacking with Shift Trays

Machines with Shift trays tend toward medium-sized, middle segment to upper segment machines. Recently, most digital machines are using this type of tray. Shift trays usually have up/down and side-to-side movement. This facilitates the sorting and stacking of copies or prints. The up/down movement allows for a large number of copies to stack in the shift tray. The side-to-side movement separates sets of copies by alternating the position of the shift tray for each set. Example: SR810 Finisher [D] [F] [A] [E]
Up/Down Movement
The shift tray lift motor [A] controls the vertical position of the shift tray [B] through gears and timing belts [C]. When the main switch is turned on, the tray is initialized at the upper position. The tray is moved up until stack height sensor 1 [D] is de-actuated. As paper feeds into the tray the stack height feeler [E] raises; when it actuates stack-height sensor 2 [F] the shift tray lift motor lowers the shift tray. (Exact timing and amount of movement depends on the mode. See the SR810 service manual for more details.) The shift tray rises until stack height sensor 1 is deactuated when the user takes the stack of paper from the shift tray.
[B]
[C]
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Handling Paper
Side-to-Side Movement
In sort/stack mode, the shift tray [A] moves from side to side to separate the sets of copies. The horizontal position of the shift tray is controlled by the shift motor [B] and shift gear disk [C]. After one set of copies is made and delivered to the shift tray, the shift motor turns on, driving the shift gear disk and the shaft [D]. The shaft positions the end fence [E], creating the side-to-side movement. When the shift gear disk has rotated 180 degrees (when the shift tray is fully shifted across), the cut-out in the shift gear disk turns on the shift tray half-turn sensor [F] and the shift motor stops. The next set of copies is then delivered. The motor turns on, repeating the same process and moving the tray back to the previous position. [D] [A]
[F]
[C] [E] [B]
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Handling Paper
Paper pre-stacking
This mechanism improves productivity in staple mode. During stapling, the copier has to wait. This mechanism reduces the wait by holding the first two sheets of a job while the previous job is still being stapled. It only works during the second and subsequent sets of a multi-set copy job. [A]
[B] [E]
[F] The pre-stack junction gate solenoid [A] turns on about 230 ms after the [D] 1st sheet of paper turns on the [C] entrance sensor, and this directs the sheet to the pre-stack tray [B]. (This sheet cannot be fed to the stapler yet, because the first set is still being stapled.) The pre-stack paper stopper solenoid [C] turns on about 680 ms after the 1st sheet turns on the entrance sensor. The pre-stack paper stopper [D] then stops the paper. The pre-stack junction gate solenoid turns off 450 ms after the trailing edge of the 1st sheet passes through the entrance sensor, and the 2nd sheet is sent to the paper guide [E]. The pre-stack paper stopper is released about 50 ms after the 2nd sheet turns on the pre-stack stopper sensor [F], and the two sheets of copy paper are sent to the stapler tray. All sheets after the 2nd sheet go to the stapler tray via the paper guide [E].
Handling Paper
Stapling and Punching

Stapling and punching go through a fairly set process. The copies are collected in a bin, stack correction occurs so that all of the copies are aligned properly for the punch and staple units, and finally the stapler and/or punch moves to one of usually three positions for stapling and/or punching. After stapling/punching is complete, the document is transported to the exit tray. Example: SR810 Finisher Stapler Unit [C] The stapler motor [A] moves the stapler [B] from side to side. After the start key is pressed, the stapler moves from its home position to the stapling position. If two-staple-position mode is selected, the stapler moves to the front stapling position first, then moves to the rear stapling position. However, for the next copy set, it staples in the reverse order (at the rear side first then at the front side). After the job is completed, the stapler moves back to its home position. This is detected by the stapler HP sensor [C].
[A] [B]
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Handling Paper
[D] Punch Unit The punch unit makes 2 or 3 holes (depending on the type of punch unit) at the trailing edge of the paper. The punch unit is driven by the punch motor [A]. The punch motor turns on 78 ms after the trailing edge of the paper passes through the entrance sensor [B], and makes the punch holes. The home position is detected by the punch HP sensor [C]. When the cut-out in the punch shaft gear disk [D] enters the punch HP sensor, the punch motor stops. [C] [A]
[B]
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Photocopying Processes
Overview
Overview Charge Exposure Development Transfer and Separation Cleaning Quenching Fusing
1 1. Scanning An exposure lamp illuminates the original. Light reflected off the original is used to create the image on a drum*. In analog machines, the light is reflected through a series of mirrors, eventually striking the drum directly. For multi-copy runs, the original must be scanned for each copy. In digital machines, the reflected light is passed to a CCD or CIS, where it is converted into an analog data signal. This data is further converted to a digital signal, processed, and stored in memory. To print, the data is retrieved and sent to a laser diode. For multi-copy runs, the original is scanned only once and stored to a hard disk. * In this overview section we refer to the photoconductor as a drum just for simplicity. However, be aware that the photoconductor is often an OPC belt rather than a drum.
Overview
2. Charging A charge is applied to the photoconductor drum. There are a variety of methods for this. Some machines apply a positive charge, others apply a negative. Most use a non-contact corona wirethough some use a contact, charge roller. The drum holds the charge because the photoconductive surface of the drum has a high electrical resistanceunless exposed to light.
2 8
7 4 6
3. Exposure 5 In an analog machine, the light reflected off the original is redirected to the drum. In a digital machine, the processed data from the scanned original is retrieved from memory or from a hard disk and transferred to the drum by one or more laser beams. In both cases, the areas exposed to light lose some or all of their charge. This writes an electrostatic image on the drum.
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Overview
4. Development Toner is attracted to the latent image on the drum. The exact process varies depending on whether the drum holds a positive or negative charge. Most analog machines are Write to Whitethe toner is attracted to unexposed areas on the drum. Most digital machines are Write to Blackthe toner is attracted to exposed areas. 5. Transfer The image is transferred to paper. Some machines transfer the image directly from the drum. Others use an intermediary transfer belt. Transfer belts are particularly common in color machines. The four colors are layered onto the belt, and then the final image is transferred to the paper in one step. 6. Separation The paper can be separated from the drum (or image transfer belt) electrostatically or mechanically. Charge coronas, discharge plates, pick-off pawls and sharply curved paper paths are all used. Often a machine will combine two or more methods. 7. Cleaning The remaining toner is cleaned off the drum. Most machines use a cleaning blade to wipe off the excess toner. Some add a cleaning brush or cleaning roller to improve efficiency. 8. Quenching Light from a lamp neutralizes the remaining charge on the drums surface.
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9. Fusing Heat and pressure are used to melt the toner and attach it to the page. The hot roller [A] is usually heated by one or more halogen lamps. The pressure roller [B] may or may not be heated.
[A]
[B] 9
Charge
Overview
Charge refers to the application of a uniform electrostatic charge to a photoconductor in darkness. At present, two kinds of electrostatic charge methods are widely used in Ricoh products. The most common is the corona electrostatic charge method (non-contact type), which takes advantage of the corona discharge produced when a high voltage is applied to a fine wire. The other is the electrostatic charge roller method (contact type), which provides an electrostatic charge by applying a high voltage to a roller and contacting the roller to the photoconductor.
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Charge
Corona Charge
Corotron MethodPositive charge (Se)
A power pack applies several thousand volts of electricity to a charge wire and a corona discharge is generated from the charge wire. The corona discharge ionizes air particles and the positive ions concentrate around the charge casing and photoconductive surface (Selenium). The photoconductor (insulator in darkness) stops the positive ions. The positive ions induce a negative electrostatic charge in the aluminum base, retaining the electrostatic charge.
050101.pcx
Scorotron MethodNegative charge (OPC)

When several thousand volts of electricity are applied to a charge wire [A], a corona discharge is generated from the charge wire. The corona discharge ionizes air particles and the negative ions concentrate around the charge casing [B] and grid [C]. The negative ions adhere to the photoconductor [D] (insulator in the darkness), causing positive electrostatic charge in the aluminum base [E], retaining the electrostatic charge.
[A]
[B] [C
[D]
[E]
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Charge
Scorotron Grid
The quantity of the current of discharged electricity along the wire length changes as shown by the chart on the right. As this suggests, a negative corona is less uniform than a positive corona. Therefore, the scorotron method uses a grid to even out the electric potential on the photosensitive surface. The grid is located at +1 or +2 millimeters away from the photosensitive surface, and the grid material is either stainless steel or tungsten wire. [A]: Grid [B]: Power pack [C]: Drum [A]
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Corona output Effect of grid
[B] [C]
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Charge
Corona Charge Power Pack

A rated current power pack is used for corona charging. In comparison to a rated voltage power pack, a rated current power pack provides a more stable image quality. It does this by stabilizing the total wire current even when the charge wire deteriorates or the wire resistance increases due to staining caused by dust.
Uneven Charge Prevention

To prevent an uneven build-up of charge on the photoconductor, a flow of air is supplied to the electrostatic charge section. In the machine illustrated (model A184), the exhaust fan [A] causes a flow of air through the charge corona section. Generally, an ozone filter [B] is also installed in the charge section to adsorb ozone (O3) generated by the charge corona.
[A] [B]
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Charge
Charge Roller Method

[C] [B] [A]
mo6.wmf
An electrostatic charge is applied to the photoconductor by applying several thousand volts of electricity to the drum charge roller [A]. The drum charge roller contacts the surface of the OPC drum [B] to give a negative charge The DC power pack [C] for the electrostatic charge is a constant voltage type. This is because, in comparison to constant current power packs commonly used for coronas, the constant voltage type is better able to supply a uniform electrostatic charge on the drum surface when using a roller. The amount of ozone generated during drum charging is much less than the amount made by a corona wire scorotron system. Therefore, there is no need for an ozone filter
Charge
Drum Charge Roller Construction

The charge roller consists of a steel core, surrounded by layers of rubber and other material.
Outer Layer: Hydrin, Fluorine compound, Silica Inner Layer: Epichlorohydrin Rubber
Steel Core
Charge Roller Cleaning

If the charge roller becomes dirty, uneven charge may be applied to the photoconductor. This would decrease drum charge efficiency and cause spots and streaks on the output image. For this reason, the charge roller must be cleaned. The charge roller cleaning may be done periodically (see example 1) or, if space is limited, the cleaning pad may be constantly in contact with the charge roller (example 2).
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Charge
Example 1: Model A193Contact and release This machine has a contact and release mechanism with which it cleans the charge roller periodically. Drum charge roller cleaning is done for 2 seconds after every copy job. After the copy job, the charge roller contact clutch is driven another third of a rotation. The pressure lever presses down more, so that the cleaning pad [A] contacts the charge roller. After charge roller cleaning, the clutch is driven the final third of the rotation (until the charge roller H.P sensor [B] is activated) to release the charge roller from the drum. The pressure lever moves away from the charge roller unit. Then the charge roller unit is released from the drum by the springs [C].
[B]
[A]
[C]
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[A]
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Charge
Example 2: Model A230/A231/A232Constant contact [D] [C] [B]
[A]
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Because the drum charge roller [A] always contacts the drum, it gets dirty easily. So, the cleaning pad [B] also contacts the drum charge roller all the time to clean the surface of the drum charge roller. The pin [C] at the rear of the cleaning pad holder rides on the cam [D] on the inside of the gear. This cam moves the cleaning pad from side to side as the gear turns. This movement improves cleaning efficiency.
Exposure
Exposure
Overview
Exposure refers to a process where light is applied to a photoconductor to create a latent reverse image in the form of a charge pattern on the surface of the photoconductive material. Depending on the brightness of the image, the electric potential on the photoconducutors surface is attenuated; thus, forming an electrostatic latent image Ricoh products use three main exposure methodsflash exposure, strip exposure (sometimes called slit exposure), and laser exposure. The analog methodsflash and strip exposureare covered in this chapter. Strip exposure is further divided into exposure using moving optics and exposure with fixed optics. Laser exposure is covered in the Digital Processes chapter
Strip Exposure With Moving Optics

Strip exposure with moving optics scans a strong light source across a fixed original. The strip of the image illuminated during this scanning, is continuously projected to the photoconductor by an optical assembly (mirrors and lens). This method makes it easy to obtain even illumination distributions and it is well suited to projecting images onto cylindrical drums. Also, it is easy to change magnification by repositioning the optical components. However, it has speed limitations. Due to these characteristics, strip exposure is the most common exposure method used for low and medium speed models.
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Exposure
Example: Models A095/A096/A097 The illustration to the right shows the optics unit of the A095 series. This copier uses six mirrors to fold the optic path and thus make the optics unit smaller and obtain a wide reproduction ratio range (50 ~ 200%). A halogen lamp [A] mounted in the scanner is the light source. The 2nd and 3rd mirror carrier [B] moves at half the speed of the scanner to maintain a constant optical distance between the original and the lens [C] during scanning. The lens and the 4th and 5th mirrors [D] can be repositioned to change the reproduction ratio. A toner shield glass prevents toner and paper dust from leaking through the exposure slit into the optics cavity.
[A]
[B] [C]
[D]
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Exposure
Scanner Drive
Here we will look at a couple of examples of scanner drive mechanisms in analog machines. The illustration to the right shows a typical drive mechanism for an analog process photocopier. (Model A095) A dc servomotor is used as the scanner drive motor [A]. Scanner drive speed during scanning depends on the reproduction ratio. For a 100% copy, the scanning speed is 330mm/s. The scanner drive motor drives the first [B] and second scanners [C] using two scanner drive wires via the timing belt [D] and the scanner drive shaft [E]. The second scanner speed is half of the first scanner speed. The scanner drive wire is not directly wound around the pulley on the scanner drive motor.
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Exposure
The second scanner drive example (model A219) shows scanner drive using belts rather than wires. A stepper motor [A] drives the scanners. The first scanner [B], which consists of the exposure lamp and the first mirror, is connected to the first scanner belt [C]. The second scanner [D], which consists of the second and third mirrors, is connected to the second scanner belt [E]. Both the scanners move along the guide rod [F]. [H] [F] [D] [C] [A]
[G]
[B]
[E]
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Exposure
There are no scanner drive wires, and only one side of the scanner is supported (by a rod and guide rail). The pulley [G] drives both the first and second scanner belts. The 2nd scanner moves at half the speed of the first scanner. This maintains the focal distance between the original and the lens during scanning. The scanner home position is detected by a home position sensor [H]. The scanner return position is determined by counting the scanner motor drive pulses.
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Exposure
Lens Drive
For a copier to make reduced or enlarged copies, the lens must be moved to achieve the proper optical distance between the lens and the drum surface for the selected reproduction ratio. There are many ways this can be done. The illustration (from model A152) shows a typical arrangement. In this case, a stepper motor [A] changes the lens [B] position through the lens drive wire [C]. The rotation of the lens drive pulley moves the lens back and forth in discrete steps. The home position of the lens is detected by the home position sensor [D]. The main board keeps track of the lens position based on the number of pulses sent to the lens motor.
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Exposure
Mirror Positioning
To make reduced or enlarged copies, it isnt enough to just move the lens. To maintain focus, analog copiers must move mirrors also. For the typical 6-mirror exposure system, the 4th/5th mirror assembly is repositioned. (This is sometimes referred to as third scanner drive; however, that actually isnt an accurate name because the mirrors are stationary during scanning.) The illustrations to the right show two examples. In the upper illustration, a stepper motor [A] changes the 4th/5th mirror assembly position through a rack and pinion drive system [B]. The lower illustration shows a system where the mirror assembly is repositioned using a drive belt [C]. [A]
[B]
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[C]
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Exposure
Strip Exposure With Fixed Optics

Strip exposure with fixed optics is a system where the original moves and the optics and light source are fixed. A strip of the original image is illuminated as it moves past the optics, and the optics continuously project this strip image to the photoconductor. While several types of optics could be used for this system, Ricoh uses a SELFOC fiber optic array. The fiber optic array has the advantage of being very compact. For that reason it is used mostly in large format copiers, where lens and mirror optics are impractical, and in small, low speed personal copiers, where compact size is important.
Original document
SELFOC fiber optic array
Exposure image
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Exposure
Example: Model A174 (Whale) The illustration to the right shows the exposure mechanism of the model A174. Light from the exposure lamp [A] reflects off the original and through the fiber optics [B] to the OPC drum [C]. During exposure, the original moves across the exposure glass at the same speed as the drums peripheral velocity. The platen roller [D] presses the original [E] flat against the exposure glass [F] just above the fiber optic array. This ensures that the image is properly focused. (The original must be within 0.2 mm of the exposure glass surface.) The exposure lamp is a fluorescent lamp.
[E] [D]
[B] [A] [F] [C]

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Exposure
Flash Exposure
Flash exposure is an overall exposure method, which projects the document image onto the photoconductor, by exposing the entire document surface at once. As this method does not require a scanning mechanism, it enables high speed copying. However, it requires the photoconductors surface to be flat and it requires an optics cavity that is quite large compared to standard scanner optics. Example: Models A112/A201 (Big Bird) The illustration to the right shows the exposure mechanism of the FT9101/9105. A xenon flash lamp [A] illuminates the entire document in a single flash of light. The flash is of such short duration (170 ms) that the opc belt [B], which moves at 430 mm/s, does not have to stop during exposure. Reflectors [C] provide even light intensity to the original. Even though mirrors [D] are used to fold the light path, most of the interior of the main body of the copier is taken up by the optics cavity. [A]
[C] [D]
[B]
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Exposure
Exposure Lamp Control

Fluorescent Lamp
Feedback Control System
Light from a fluorescent lamp tends to fluctuate. For this reason, exposure lamp intensity must be stabilized during the copy cycle to get a constant latent image on the drum. To accomplish this the actual light output by the lamp is fed back to a control circuit. The illustration to the right (from model A171) shows a typical control system. The main PCB [A] monitors the light intensity through a fiber optics cable [B]. based on this input, a lamp power signal (pulse width modulated signal) is sent to the fluorescent lamp regulator [C].
[C] [B]
[A]
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Exposure
Fluorescent Lamp Regulator

The fluorescent lamp regulator (also called FL stabilizer) converts the power input to a stable, high-frequency ac output to the fluorescent lamp. A fluorescent lamp operates more efficiently with high frequency power input. The percentage of the time that the lamp receives powerthe duty cycleis controlled by a pulse width modulated control signal. In the illustration to the right (from model A163), the lamp regulator [A] receives 24 volts dc at CN401-1 from the PSU [B]. The control signal, which is a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal, is received at CN401-4. The PWM signal has a period (T) of 1 millisecond and a duty ratio of 15% to 100%.
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Exposure
Halogen Lamp
The illustration to the right (from model A110) shows a typical control circuit for a halogen lamp used for exposure. The main board sends lamp trigger pulses to the ac drive board from CN122-7. PC401 activates TRC401, which provides ac power to the exposure lamp, at the trailing edge of each trigger pulse. The voltage applied to the exposure lamp is also provided to the feedback circuit. The feedback circuit steps down (TR401), rectifies (DB401), and smoothes (zener diodes and capacitors) the lamp voltage. The CPU monitors the lowest point of the smoothed wave (feedback signal), which is directly proportional to the actual lamp voltage. The CPU changes the timing of the trigger pulses in response to the feedback voltage. If the lamp voltage is too low, the CPU sends the trigger pulses earlier so that more ac power is applied to the exposure lamp. This feedback control is performed instantly; so, the lamp voltage is always stable even under fluctuating ac power conditions.
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Development
Development
This section covers standard systems for latent image development that are commonly used in Ricoh products. These development systems are divided into the dual-component development method and the mono-component development method.
Dual-Component Development (Magnetic Brush)

Overview
The two-component development process uses developer made of mixed toner [A] and carrier [B]. These two components rub against each other in the development unit and take on opposite charges. When a selenium photoconductor (drum) [C] is used, the toner takes a negative charge and the carrier takes a positive charge. The carrier consists of resin-coated metallic particles, and they align with magnetic lines of force from magnets [D] inside the development roller, [E] forming a magnetic brush. The rotating drum contacts the magnetic brush, and the charged latent image areas of the drum attract the oppositely charged toner particles. [C] [D]
[A] [B]
[E]
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Development
Features
Advantages Achieves high speed development Allows relatively wide scope in terms of accuracy Disadvantages The development section is complex and large Deterioration of developer over time (difficult to achieve maintenance free operations) Requires toner concentration control
Developer Composition
Carrier
Carrier consists of roughly spherical metallic particles ranging in size from 50 to 200 m. The particles have a resin coating with specific characteristics which determine the polarity and strength of the carriers triboelectric charge.
Toner
Several weight percent of toner (weight ratio) is mixed with the carrier. Toner particles have a diameter of 5 to 20 m. Toner particles are made of a thermosetting carbon black resin in which an electrostatic charge agent is mixed. The triboelectric characteristics ensure that the toner always takes on a charge that is opposite to the carrier.
Development
Example 1: Model A153 Model A153 has a typical dual component development unit. The parts shown in the illustrations are standard to most dual component systems. When main motor rotation is transmitted to the development unit, the paddle roller [A], development roller [B], auger [C], and agitator [D] start turning. The paddle roller picks up developer in its paddles and transports it to the development roller. Internal permanent magnets in the development roller attract the developer (the carrier particles are about 70 micrometers in diameter) to the development roller sleeve. The turning sleeve of the development roller then [B] carries the developer past the doctor blade [E]. The doctor blade trims the developer to the desired thickness and creates developer backspill [A] into the cross-mixing mechanism. The development roller continues to turn, carrying the developer to the OPC drum. When the developer brush contacts the drum surface, the negatively
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[C] [E]
[D]
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Development
charged areas of the drum surface attract and hold the positively charged toner. In this way, the latent image is developed. Negative bias is applied to the development roller to prevent toner from being attracted to the nonimage areas on the drum, which may have a residual negative charge.
A toner density sensor [F] directly measures the amount of toner in the developer mixture.
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Development
Example 2: Model A229 Model A229 uses a double roller development system. Each roller has a diameter of 20 mm which is somewhat narrower than single development roller systems. This system differs from single roller development systems in that each development roller develops the image in a narrower area and the image is developed twice. Also, generally, the peripheral velocity of the development rollers relative to the drum is less than with single rollers. The internal parts are basically the same as those of the single roller system. The operation is explained on the next page. [A] [D] [B] [C] [G] [I]
[H] [F]
[E]
Paddle Roller [A] Upper Development Roller [B] Lower Development Roller [C] Toner Density Sensor [D] Developer Agitator [E] Toner Auger [F] Development Filter [G]
Toner Hopper [H] Doctor Blade [I]

Development
The paddle roller [A] picks up developer and transports it to the upper development roller [B]. Internal permanent magnets in the development rollers attract the developer to the development roller sleeve. The upper development roller carries the developer past the doctor blade [C]. The doctor blade trims the developer to the desired thickness and creates backspill to the cross mixing mechanism. In this machine, black areas of the latent image are at a low negative charge (about 150 V) and white areas are at a high negative charge (about 950 V). The development roller is given a negative bias to attract negatively charged toner to the black areas of the latent image on the drum. The development rollers continue to turn, carrying the developer to the drum [D]. When the developer brush contacts the drum surface, the low-negatively charged areas of the drum surface attract and hold the negatively charged toner. In this way, the latent image is developed.
[C]
[B]
[D] [A]
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Development
Mono-Component Development
Overview
The monocomponent development process uses toner only with no carrier. Monocomponent development systems are used mainly in small photocopiers with a low copy rate. Advantages: Development unit structure is simple and compact. Toner density control is unnecessary. Disadvantages: Unsuitable for high speed developing Suitable for low-volume copying only because the development unit parts wear out relatively quickly.
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Development
Basic Process
The illustration to the right (from model A027) shows a typical monocomponent development system. This system does not use a magnetic brush, and as a consequence, there isnt a doctor gap or photoconductor gap. The development roller [A] directly contacts the OPC belt [B] and the toner metering blade [C]. As the development roller turns past the toner metering blade, only a thin coating of positively charged toner particles stays adhered to the development roller. After that, the development roller turns past the OPC belt. The negatively charged latent image on the OPC belt's surface attracts the toner from the development roller, making the image visible on the OPC surface.
[B]
[A] [C]
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Development
Development Roller and Toner Metering Blade

The typical development roller used in the mono- [D] component process has two layers. At the core there is a conductive layer [A] to which the development bias is applied. Around that, there is a magnetic rubber layer [B], which has closely spaced, alternating north and south magnetic poles. The development roller rotates at a high speedtypically greater than 300 rpm. The toner metering blade [C] is made of an iron based material. It is attracted against the development roller by the magnetic field of the magnetic rubber layer. The toner metering blade vibrates because of rapid changes in the magnetic field as the roller turns. The vibration allows toner to pass by and prevents foreign matter from being caught on the edge of the metering blade.
+ + + S + N S + + N S N S N + + + ++ + NS N S NS N S NS
[C]
+ + + + N S + N + S + N + S N S + N + S N + S + N S N S N S
[A]
[B]
A027devroll.wmf
Toner particles [D] receive a positive triboelectric charge as they move past the toner metering blade. This charge is created by the rubbing action of the development roller, toner, and toner metering blade. The monocomponent toner used with this type of roller is composed of resin and ferrite. Attraction between the ferrite and the magnetic rubber layer causes the toner to adhere to the development
Development
roller. (Typically, this kind of toner also has high electrical resistance, which gives it good development and image transfer characteristics, even under high humidity conditions.)
FEED Development Roller

Some monocomponent development units use the FEED development technique. (FEED stands for floating electrode effect development.) This system is similar to that discussed in the previous section; however, the development roller has an insulating layer over the magnetic rubber layer. Floating electrodes [A] are embedded in the insulating layer [B]. (They are called floating electrodes because they float electrically in the insulating layer.) This type of system is suitable for use with toners containing little or no ferrite (for example color toners). The floating electrodes take on a triboelectric charge opposite to that of the toner, and thus, attract the toner to the development roller.
+ + + +
[A]
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
SN S SN SN N + SN S N + N S S N N + S S + N N S S N N + S + N S + N + S N S N S N S + +
[B]
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Development
Double Development Roller Process

The development of the double development roller method for monocomponent development was in two stages. The double development roller process was originally developed as an adaptation of the normal monocomponent process for use with an OPC drum. Since the development roller was a metal roller with magnetic strips, it wasnt suitable for direct contact with a hard OPC surface. Because of this, a rubber roller was placed between the drum and the metal roller. This rubber roller was called the development roller, and the old metal-and-magnet roller was called the toner application roller. This is the type of development system used in model H523. (See example 1 below for details.) In the second stage, the double roller process was modified for use in replaceable cartridges. In such cartridges, the toner application roller is a sponge. It is not magnetic. It just picks up toner and applies it to the development roller. The development roller is similar to the one used in the first stage. The toner-metering blade was moved to the development roller, because the application roller does not apply an even layer to the development roller. Also, the potential difference (bias) between the application roller and development roller was reduced in the second stage. Less potential difference is required because it isnt necessary to overcome the attraction of the magnets. This is the type of development system used for models H545 and G026/G036. (See example 2 below for details.)
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Development
Example 1: Model H523 Toner is attracted to the toner application roller [A] because it has a magnetic layer. A thin coating of negatively charged toner particles adheres to the toner application roller as it turns past the toner metering blade [B]. During image development, a bias voltage of -700 V is applied to the toner application roller and another bias voltage of -400 V is applied to the development roller [C]. This 300 volt difference in electric potential moves the toner from the toner application roller to the development roller. The development roller and OPC drum touch each other with a slight amount of nip and rotate in the same direction. The exposed areas on the drum [D] are at 100 volts. The development roller applies toner to these areas of the latent image as the drum and development roller rotate. The development roller is made of a soft rubber so it does not damage the surface of the drum. The speed ratio (peripheral velocity) between the drum, development roller, and the toner application
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roller is 1 : 1 : 3. The toner application roller rotates three times as fast as the development roller, so it deposits a layer of toner three times as thick on the development roller. This leads to a clearer image. Also, the toner application roller rotates in the opposite direction to the development roller, which helps to keep the toner level on the development roller. Example 2: Models G026/G036 The toner application roller [A] supplies toner to the development roller [B]. The toner application roller is a sponge roller. (Unlike the magnetic metal roller in example 1.) A thin coating of negatively charged toner particles adheres to the development roller as it turns past the toner metering blade [C].
[C] [A]
During printing, a bias voltage of 650 volts is applied to the toner application roller and another bias voltage of -400 volts is applied to the development roller. This 250-volt difference in electric potential moves the toner from the [D] [B] G025D709.wmf toner application roller to the development roller. The exposed area on the drum [D] is at 200 volts. The development roller applies toner to these areas of the latent image as the drum and development roller rotate in contact with each other. Since the development roller carries a thin layer of toner, it has to turn faster than the drum in order to supply sufficient toner. Peripheral velocity is 1.38 times the peripheral velocity of the drum.
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Development
Development Bias
When a photoconductor (photosensitive drum or belt) is exposed, the charge decreases in the sections that receive light, corresponding to the white sections of the document. However, exposure does not eliminate the charge completely, and there is always a small residual charge on the photoconductor. To prevent toner from being attracted to the non-image areas and thus causing toner background on copies, the development roller is charged with a bias voltage greater than the residual voltage on the photoconductor. This bias voltage is opposite in polarity to that of the toner; so, its attraction is greater than that of the residual voltage on the photoconductor. In some machines, the bias voltage is also used to control image density. The higher the development bias voltage is, the less toner is attracted to the drum surface. In the past, the most common copy process used a positively charged selenium drum photoconductor, negatively charged toner, and a positive development bias. However, recent products use a negatively charged organic photoconductor (OPC) and positively charged toner; so, the development bias is negative. NOTE: The calculation of the actual value of the development bias can be quite complex and varies from machine to machine. Various compensating factorsfor example for residual voltage changes, temperature, original background, drum wear, magnification, and many other factorsmay be calculated by the machines CPU depending on the details of the machines process control. (For more details, see the Process Control section or refer to the service manual of the product you are interested in.)
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Development
Example: Model A246 The high voltage control Board [A] applies the negative development bias to both the lower sleeve roller and upper sleeve roller through the receptacles [B] and the sleeve roller shaft [C]. The development bias prevents toner from being attracted to the background of the non-image areas on the OPC drum where there is residual voltage. In addition, the development bias adjusts image density according to the conditions the customer selected.
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[C]
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Development
Crossmixing
[B] [C] [E] [F] [C] [B] [E]
[D] [A] [F] [A] [D]

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The illustrations above show a standard cross-mixing mechanism. Most dual component development systems use a mechanism like this to keep the toner and carrier evenly mixed. This mechanism also helps agitate the developer to prevent developer clumps from forming and helps create the triboelectric charge (an electric charge generated by friction) on the toner and carrier. The developer on the turning development rollers [A] is split into two parts by the doctor blade [B]. The part that stays on the development rollers forms the magnetic brush and develops the latent image on the drum. The part that the doctor blade trims off goes to the backspill plate [C].
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Development
As the developer slides down the backspill plate to the agitator [D], the mixing vanes [E] move it slightly toward the rear of the unit. Part of the developer falls into the auger inlet and the auger [F] transmits it to the front of the unit. The agitator moves the developer slightly to the front as it turns, so the developer remains evenly distributed in the development unit.
Development Seal
Development units have several seals to prevent toner from spilling out into the copier. Usually there are an upper (or inlet) seal, a lower seal, and side seals. In some cases, the upper seal is a brush seal and actually contacts the drum. In other development units, the upper seal is positioned close to the drum to prevent particles from scattering upward. The development unit side seals, are in contact with the drum ends (out of the image area) preventing toner scattering from the ends of the unit. The lower seal is positioned to catch falling particles.
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Development
Toner Supply
In order to keep the toner density (ratio of toner to carrier) constant the development mechanism must have a way of adding toner to the developer. This is called the toner supply mechanism. The toner supply mechanism cannot just dump toner into the development unit. To avoid fluctuations it must add small, measured amounts of toner in response to the toner density control system. (Also seeToner Supply Control in the Color Development section.) There are many ways of designing a toner supply system. Here we will look at a couple of standard mechanisms. Example 1: Model A193 This machine uses a toner bottle that has a spiral groove in it. When the toner supply drive mechanism is activated, the toner bottle rotates and the groove moves toner to the mouth of the bottle, where toner spills into a small hopper. Turning mylar blades move the toner to an opening in the side of the hopper and the toner drops into the development unit. The amount of toner added depends on the length of time that the toner supply mechanism rotates. Toner supply mechanisms similar to this one are used in many machines.
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Example 2: Model A246 The illustration to the right is an example of the most common structure for a toner supply system. The toner hopper, which is larger than the one in the previous example, is mounted on top of the development unit and runs the full length of the development unit. An agitator [A] inside the toner hopper stirs the toner to prevent clumps from forming. The toner supply roller [B] blocks the opening to the development unit. When the toner supply roller rotates, the grooves on the toner supply roller catch the toner. Then, as the grooves turn past the opening, the toner falls into the development unit.
[A]
[B]
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Development
Toner Density Control

The toner density control system senses the density of toner in the developer mixture and activates the toner supply mechanism to add toner when the ratio of toner to carrier becomes too low. Some machines measure the toner density directly, others use an indirect sensing method, and still other machines use a combination of direct and indirect sensing.
Indirect Sensing
The CPU indirectly checks toner density by sensing the image density of a sensor pattern developed on the photoconductor. During image density check cycles, the sensor pattern is exposed prior to exposure of the original. After the sensor pattern is developed, its reflectivity is checked by the image density sensor [A] (which is a photosensor). The CPU notes the strength of reflectivity. If the reflected light is too strong, indicating a too low toner density condition, it adds toner to the development unit. [A]
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Development
Direct Sensing
The illustration to the right is an example of a sensor used to directly measure the amount of toner in developer. (From model A163) The active sensor element is a very small transformer with three coils. When iron ferrite (carrier) is near the sensor element, the inductance of the coils changes, causing the current through the transformer to change. As the amount of toner in the developer increases, the effect of the carrier particles decreases and the voltage applied to CN104-A10 decreases. Toner Density Sensor Conversely, when the toner concentration drops as toner is used up, the effect of the carrier on the sensor coils increases and the Control voltage at CN104-A10 increases. Circuit The CPU monitors the output at CN104-A10 and when the voltage at CN104-A10 reaches a level that indicates toner density is too low, the toner supply mechanism adds an approCoils priate amount of toner to the developer.
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Main Board 2 1 3 4 CN104-A11 CN104-B20 CN104-A10 CN104-B21 [12V] TS Control TS. FB GND
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Development
Toner End Detection

Some machines detect the toner end condition directly using a sensor or mechanical detection mechanism. Others detect toner end indirectly based on the toner density.
Indirect Toner End Detection

Some machines use the output of the image density sensor to determine when it is time to add toner. (Examples are models A166 and A110.) Other machines use the output from the toner density sensor. (An example is model A219.)The details of how the CPU decides when toner has run out depend on the control program and vary from machine to machine. However, there are some overall similarities. Toner end detection proceeds in two steps. First, if toner density stays too low for a certain number of machine cycles, the CPU decides that a toner near end condition exists. In this condition, the CPU generally monitors the toner density more closely and increases the amount of toner supplied to the developer. Copying or printing is possible during the near end condition, but generally an Add Toner indicator blinks. The machine proceeds to the second step if the toner near end condition persists for more than a predetermined number of cyclestypically 50 copies. The CPU then determines (based on the control program) that a true toner end condition exists, and it inhibits copying and lights an Add Toner indicator.
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Development
Example 1: Model A110 (Image density sensor) Toner Near End Condition When (Vsp/Vsg x 100) becomes greater than 22.5, the toner density detection cycle changes from every 10 copies to 5 copies. When this condition is detected three times consecutively, the toner supply ratio becomes two times the amount of toner supply level 4. The resulting toner supply ratio is 60%, and the ID sensor data is 236. Then, when this condition is detected five times consecutively, the CPU determines that it is the near end condition and starts blinking the Add Toner indicators. Toner End Condition After the Add Toner indicator starts blinking (Near Toner End Condition), the operator can make 50 copies. If the toner cartridge is not replaced within 50 copies, copying is inhibited and a toner end condition is determined. In this condition, the Add Toner indicator lights. Example 2: Model A219 (Toner density sensor) Toner Near End Condition If the CPU detects toner supply level 6 (VT VTS + 4S/5) five times consecutively, the toner end indicator blinks and the machine goes to the toner near end condition. In this condition, the toner supply motor is energized for 10 seconds for every copy (this time can be changed using SP35). Also, the toner supply motor stays on continuously between pages of a multicopy job.
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Development
If a toner sensor voltage lower than VTS + 4S/5 is detected twice consecutively while the toner supply motor is on, the machine recovers from the toner near end condition. Also, if this condition is detected during the normal copy cycle, the toner near end is canceled. Toner End Condition If toner supply level 6 is detected, the machine supplies toner between copies and for 10 seconds after the copy job is finished (as explained above). While the toner supply motor is on, if the CPU detects toner supply level 7 (VT VTS +S) three times consecutively, a toner end condition is detected and copier operation is disabled. If the toner sensor voltage stays at level 6 after the toner near end condition is detected, 50 more copies can be made. After 50 copies, the toner end indicator lights and copying is disabled.
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Development
Direct Toner End Detection

Toner end is sensed directly using either a sensor or a mechanical mechanism. Here we will look at one example of each
Toner end sensor

Many machines use a piezoelectric sensor [A] to detect whether or not there is sufficient toner in the toner supply unit. This type of sensor is sensitive to pressure. Pressure from toner in the toner supply unit causes the sensor to output a high signal. When there is not much toner in the unit, the pressure of toner on the toner end sensor becomes low and the sensor outputs a low signal (0V). To prevent false readings, the toner end sensor is cleaned by a spring [B] on the toner agitator shaft. The details of what happens when the sensor outputs a low [B] signal vary depending on the machine; however, there are three major steps. First; the toner bottle turns to add toner to the toner supply unit. Then, if the sensor still has a low output after a specified interval, the machine changes to the toner near-end condition and the Add Toner indicator starts blinking. Finally, if the toner near-end condition persists for a programmed number of machine cycles (generally 50 copies), the machine enters the toner end condition and operation is disabled.
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Mechanical Toner End Detection

Several mid and high volume photocopiers use the mechanism shown to the right to check the amount of toner remaining in the toner tank. The toner near end feeler [A] has a magnet [B] and is installed on the toner mixing vane drive shaft [C]. The toner near end sensor [D] is located underneath the toner tank (outside) and has a sensor actuator [E], which also has a magnet. When the toner tank has enough toner, the toner near end feeler does not lower due to the resistance of toner. When the to amount of toner remaining in the toner tank becomes below approximately 250 grams, the near end feeler lowers and magnetic repulsion pushes down the sensor actuator. This actuates the toner near end sensor. When the main PCB senses the toner near end sensor actuation three times in a row, the toner near end condition is displayed on the CRT screen to let the operator know to replace the toner cartridge. In the toner near end condition, copies can be made until the ID sensor detects toner end.
[C] [D] [B]
[A] [E]
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Image Transfer And Paper Separation

Overview
The transfer and separation process can be broken down into the three areas shown to the right. Area A: Pre-transfer Just before the image transfer process starts, guides direct the paper against the photosensitive surface of the drum (or belt). The mechanism is structured so that the transfer charge does not reach this area, and therefore, the paper can achieve complete contact with the photoconductor before image transfer starts. Area B: Image Transfer This is the area where the image is actually transferred from the photoconductor to the paper. Generally, an electrostatic charge is applied to the back of the paper to pull the oppositely charged toner from the photoconductor to the paper. Area C: Paper Separation The paper separates from the photoconductor after the toner image is transferred. This is usually
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achieved by applying an ac corona to the back of the paper to eliminate the previously applied transfer charge. Pick-off pawls are also used to physically separate paper of low stiffness from the drum.
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Corona Transfer And Separation

Image Transfer
[B]
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In the image transfer process, the toner image on the photosensitive material (drum surface) is moved onto the copy paper. As the paper enters the transfer area, a corona applies a charge to the reverse side of the copy paper [A]. This charge induces an opposite electrostatic charge in the drums substrate [B] (usually aluminum) The resulting electrostatic force holds the paper close against the drum. This helps the transfer process. The charge on the reverse of the paper also attracts the toner because the polarity is opposite
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to the charge on the toner. Since, this attractive force (FA) is designed to be greater than the attractive force holding the toner to the drum (FB), the toner attaches to the paper
Paper Separation
During the separation process, the copy paper with the toner image on it separates from the photoconductor. The paper can be separated either mechanically or electrostatically (or by a combination of both). Recent Ricoh copiers use the electrostatic method. The charge given to the paper during the image transfer process causes the paper to cling to the photosensitive material. This makes it difficult to strip the paper from the drum. Therefore, an AC corona applied by the separation corotron neutralizes the charge on the paper in order to break the attraction between the drum and the copy paper. The paper then separates from the drum because of the rigidity and the weight of the paper.
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The pick-off pawls provide a mechanical backup for the separation process. Normally, they are not needed. However, when the corona separation function is not sufficient for some unknown reason, they force paper separation. The section with the diagonal lines in the illustration on the right shows the areas where the charge on the paper is eliminated by the separation corotron. This requires the use of two wires to create a wide-angle corona.
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Belt Transfer and Separation

Advantages Of The Transfer Belt System
Many models use a transfer belt unit instead of a transfer and separation corona unit. The transfer belt process has the following advantages: Since the copy is held closely against the transfer belt, there is little chance of the paper lifting off of the belt during transport, making it less likely that creases and jams will be produced at the fusing unit inlet, and also reducing image blurring. As the paper adheres to the belt during transport, the transport performance is stable, even with smaller paper sizes, such as postcards. Because the belt and printing paper maintain close contact, an excellent separation performance over a wide range of paper types is ensured. As high voltage charge wires are not used, there is no problem with electrical leaks from charge wires. There is no trailing edge white margin on copies. It improves the printing efficiency and also enhances the printing performance on paper with a higher moisture content. A transport fan is not required.
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Belt Transfer and Paper Separation Mechanism

The following is a discussion of the operation of a typical transfer belt mechanism. This example is based on the Phoenix series (model A156). 1. The registration rollers [A] start feeding the paper [B] to the gap between the OPC drum [C] and the transfer belt [D] at the proper time to align the leading edges of the paper and the image on the drum. The transfer belt does not contact the OPC drum at this moment (the on-off lever [E] pushes down the transfer belt lift lever [F]).
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2. Before the leading edge of the paper reaches the gap between the transfer belt and the OPC drum, the transfer belt contact clutch [G] rotates one third of a complete rotation to release the on-off lever. Then, the transfer belt lift lever pushes up the transfer belt as a result of spring pressure. The contact width [H] is about 4 ~ 5 mm.
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3. Then a negative potential of 1.0 ~ 6.5 kilovolts is applied to the transfer bias roller [I]. The negative charge attracts the positively charged toner [J] from the OPC drum. It also attracts the paper and separates the paper from the OPC drum.
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4. After the image transfer is completed, the charge on the transfer belt holds the paper on the transfer belt. Excess charge on the paper and the transfer belt is discharged during rotation via the grounded idle roller [K]. When the transfer high voltage supply board [L] inside the transfer belt unit provides high voltage to the transfer bias roller, a small current (I2) flows to ground via the transfer belt, the paper, and the OPC drum. It is important that this current stays constant even if the paper, environmental conditions, or the transfer belt surface resistance change. The positive feedback of I1 to the power supply board causes the voltage to increase and decrease with I1 so that (I2) remains constant. (The relationship is I2 = I I1.)
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Drum Transfer
Basic Concept
Some color copiers (models A072, A030) use a drum to transfer the image from the photoconductor to the paper. This is actually a variation of the corona transfer and separation process This process uses a second drum, the transfer drum, which rotates in contact with the OPC drum (photoconductor). The copy paper is held on the surface of the transfer drum, which makes several rotations to transfer the various colored toners. The image is transferred electrostatically using a corona.
Drum Transfer And Paper Separation Mechanism

Example: Model A072 The registration rollers feed the copy paper to the transfer drum, where the leading edge of the paper is secured by a clamp. The transfer corona unit [A] is located inside the transfer drum unit. A high negative charge is applied to the transfer corona wire and the corona wire generates negative ions. The negative ions are applied to the copy paper and the negative charge attracts the positively charged toner away from the drum and onto the paper. At the same time, the copy paper is electrostatically attracted to the transfer sheet.
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The transfer drum motor [D] drives the transfer drum directly. The number of transfer cycles depends on the number of colors being copied and the copier mode. After the necessary number of transfer cycles, the clamp releases the leading edge of the paper and lifts it slightly. The leading edge of the paper catches on the pick-off pawls [B], which separate the paper from the transfer drum. The separation corona wire applies an AC charge to the paper in order to break the attraction between the paper and transfer drum. The cleaning unit [C] for the transfer drum is located at the bottom of the transfer drum. During the copy cycle, the cleaning unit is not in contact with the transfer drum. After the copying sequence is completed, the cleaning unit moves against the transfer drum. This cleaning unit removes toner that gets on the transfer sheet as the result of paper misfeeds. Note: The "transfer sheet" is a thin sheet of polyester film that forms the surface of the transfer drum.
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Pre-Transfer Potential Reduction

Purpose
To improve image transfer efficiency, prevent offset images and improve cleaning efficiency, the electric potential on the photosensitive material surface is reduced, after the development process. There are two commonly used methodsthe pre-transfer lamp method and the pre-transfer corona method.
Pre-Transfer Lamp (PTL)

After the latent image is developed but before the image is transferred to the copy paper, the photoconductor surface is illuminated by a lamp. This illumination functions in much the same way as the exposure process. The light neutralizes some of the charge on the photoconductor, and thus reduces the attraction of the toner to the photoconductor. This prevents the toner particles from being re-attracted to the photoconductor during the paper separation process. It also makes image transfer and paper separation easier.
Pre-Transfer Corona (PTC)

Some copiers use an alternating current corona prior to image transfer. This is referred to as the pretransfer corona unit or PTC. The ac charge decreases the charge on the drum and makes paper separation easier. Ricoh uses the PTC process only in higher speed copiers that require quick image transfer and paper separation.
Example: Models A170/A171 Model A170/A171 (Thunderbird) copiers use both a PTC and a PTL. The pre-transfer corona (PTC) [A] and pretransfer lamp (PTL) [B] are used to prevent incomplete toner transfer and pick-off pawl marks on the copy. To prevent incomplete toner transfer, the PTC reduces drum potential by applying an ac corona. The PTC also applies a dc negative charge at the same time to keep the toner potential negative. The PTL further reduces the drum potential. Since the PTC gave a negative charge not only to the toner but also to the non-image (no toner) areas on the drum, PTL reduces the negative charge on the drum, which may attract copy paper and cause pick-off pawl marks.
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Pick-off Pawls
Purpose
Pick-off pawls are mechanical fingers that forcibly strip copy paper off of the photoconductor. In Ricoh photocopiers they are usually employed as a safety device to prevent paper from wrapping around the drum. Example: Model A053
Touch-and-Release Mechanism
The pick-off solenoid [A] energizes just after the registration rollers turn on. The pick-off lever [B] rotates counterclockwise (rear view) and pushes the pawl shaft pin [C]. The pawl shaft [D] then rotates clockwise and the pick-off pawls [E] touch the drum. The pawl springs [F] hold the pick-off pawls on the shaft and prevent them from touching the drum too strongly. When the leading edge of the paper passes the pick-off area and just before it reaches the fusing unit, the pick-off solenoid turns off. The pick-off shaft spring [G] then rotates the pick-off lever to move the pick-off pawls away from the drum. pickoff1.
Side-to-Side Movement
The pick-off pawls do not always contact the drum in the same place but instead move slightly to the side on each copy cycle. The pick-off pawl shaft [H] and the cam rider [I] are joined by a one-way bearing [J]. Each time the pick-off pawl solenoid turns on, the one-way bearing causes the cam rider to turn together with the pick-off pawl shaft. As the cam rider turns, it and the pawl shaft are forced to move laterally by a cam [K]. When the pawl shaft rotates the pawls away from the drum, however, the cam rider does not turn. Pawl lateral movement is 0.1 to 0.2 millimeter per copy cycle. After moving about 8 millimeters, the cam rider passes the lobe of the cam and the pawl shaft is returned to its start position by the pawl shaft spring [G].
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Curvature Separation
Some machines do not have a paper separation mechanism. In the illustration to the right (model A027), the master (OPC belt) turns at a sharp angle (approximately 90 degrees) just after the transfer point. Due to the papers stiffness, it cannot make this sharp turn and separates without any assistance.
Master
Paper
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Transfer Roller + Discharger

Process Principles
Some machines use a transfer roller rather than a corona or belt to transfer the image to the copy paper. Copy paper is fed between the transfer roller and the surface carrying the toner image (either a drum or a transfer belt). The transfer roller is given a charge opposite to the charge on the toner; so, the toner is attracted to the paper. After image transfer, a discharger removes the charge given to the paper by the transfer roller, and this allows curvature separation to take place. Example 1: Model A193 Instead of using a transfer wire or a transfer belt, this machine uses a transfer roller [A], which touches the drum surface. The high voltage supply board supplies a positive current (approximately +15 mA) to the transfer roller. The roller has a high electrical resistance, so it can hold a high positive electrical potential to attract toner from the drum onto the paper. There is a discharge brush [B] after the transfer roller. The curvature of the drum and the discharge brush help the paper to drop away from the drum.
[A]
[B]
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Example 2: Models A172/A199 The transfer roller [A] contacts the transfer belt [B] and starts rotating at the same speed as the transfer belt. Copy paper is fed to the nip band between the transfer belt and transfer roller aligned with the lead edge of the full color image. A high positive voltage is applied to the transfer roller to attract toner onto the paper. A high ac voltage is applied to the discharge plate [C]. This discharges the remaining electricity on the paper to help the paper separate from the transfer belt. [B]
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Cleaning
Cleaning
Overview
Cleaning refers to the process of removing any toner remaining on the photoconductor (drum or OPC belt) after the imaging process is complete to prepare the photoconductor for the next copy/print cycle. The cleaning step also removes any paper dust on the photoconductor surface. Cleaning is necessary before a new copy cycle or print cycle can start. If the cleaning step were not included in the copy process, the background of images would become progressively darker and dirtier. All cleaning systems use a cleaning blade or a cleaning brush or both. Additionally, all cleaning systems have a mechanism for collecting and storing (or recycling) the toner cleaned from the photoconductor. The most common cleaning systems use blades, and these are further divided into trailing-blade cleaning and counter-blade cleaning systems. Cleaning brushes all rotate in contact with the photoconductor. There are also two types of cleaning brushesfiber brushes and magnetic brushes. Some cleaning systems also use a corona (pre-cleaning corona) to prepare the drum and toner for cleaning. We will look at examples of all of these mechanisms in this section.
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Cleaning
Counter Blade
Counter blade cleaning is the most common method used in modern copiers. In comparison to the trailing blade method, counter blade cleaning causes less wear on the cleaning blade. Also, the blade has less of a tendency to ride over toner particles, significantly improving the cleaning performance. Example: Model A193 The illustrations to the right show a typical counter blade cleaning mechanism. The cleaning blade [A] removes any toner remaining on the drum after the image is transferred to the paper. The cleaning blade scrapes off the toner remaining on the drum and it falls onto the toner collection coil [B]. To remove the toner and other particles that are accumulated at the edge of the cleaning blade, the drum turns in reverse for about 5 mm at the end of every copy job,
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[A]
[B]
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Cleaning
Counter Blade + Brush

Some copiers, especially high-speed models, use a cleaning brush in combination with a counter cleaning blade. This increases the cleaning efficiency compared to systems using only a counter blade. The cleaning brush has a support function. The counter [B] blade is the main cleaning component. Example: Model A171 A cleaning brush [A] supports the cleaning blade [B] to improve cleaning. A looped-type brush is used for better efficiency. The brush removes some of the toner from the drum surface and collects the toner wiped off the drum by the cleaning blade. The flick bar [C] and the flick roller [D] mechanically remove toner on the cleaning brush. Toner is transported to the toner cartridge by the toner collection coil [E]. To remove the accumulated toner at the edge of the cleaning blade, the drum turns in reverse for about 20 mm at the end of every copy job. [C] [E]
[A]
[D]
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Cleaning
Trailing Blade + Brush

Many older copiers use a cleaning brush in combination with a trailing cleaning blade. Typically, in such systems, the brush does most of the cleaning with the cleaning blade as a supporting cleaning mechanism. Electrostatic attraction is an important part of this type of cleaning system. A pre-cleaning corona is used to prepare the toner for removal and a bias is applied to attract the toner. Example: Model A029 The illustration to the right shows the major components in a cleaning unit that uses a brush [A] and a trailing type blade [B] for cleaning. The first step in the drum cleaning process is the application of the pre-cleaning corona [C]. The precleaning corona has both ac and dc components. The ac component makes drum cleaning more efficient by reducing the drums potential and weakening the electrical attraction between toner and the drum. The dc component of the corona gives a uniform negative [G] [A] [C] [E] [F] [D]
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Cleaning
charge to the toner particles. Next, the drum rotates past the cleaning brush. The brush moves in the opposite direction to the drum at the contact point. The brush, which is made of conductive acrylic carbon, receives a positive charge from the bias roller [D]. The brush removes the toner from the drum by both rubbing action and electrostatic attraction. The bias roller has a charge of +300 volts which attracts the negatively charged toner from the brush. The bias roller blade [E] scrapes off the toner from the bias roller. Finally, the cleaning blade scrapes off any toner, paper dust, or other foreign material remaining on the drum. The toner collection coil [F] transports the toner to the rear end of the cleaning unit, From there, a collection mechanism returns the toner to the toner cartridge. Paper dust or toner build up on the blade edge decreases the efficiency of the cleaning blade. To prevent this problem, the blade cleaner [G] (a strip of mylar) cleans the edge of the blade each time pressure is released.
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Cleaning
Magnetic Brush
Magnetic brush cleaning is basically development in reverse. This method uses a magnetic roller and carrier to electrostatically lift the toner off of the photoconductor. Example: Models A030 and A072 The illustrations to the right and on the next page show the cleaning unit used in models A030 and A072. To ensure OPC drum cleaning, the pre-cleaning corona [A] applies an ac voltage with a positive dc bias to the surface of the drum. This gives the residual toner a uniform positive charge and neutralizes the negative charge on the drum. The cleaning roller [B] looks like and operates similarly to a magnetic brush development roller. However, the attractive forces work in reverse. Internal permanent magnets in the cleaning roller attract cleaning carrier to the cleaning roller sleeve. The cleaning roller sleeve turns and carries the cleaning carrier to the OPC drum. The cleaning carrier has a negative triboelectric charge as the result of contact between the carrier and toner particles in the carrier. (New cleaning carrier contains
[D] [C] [B] [E] [A]

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1% toner.) This negative charge attracts the positively charged toner particles from the drum surface. A 150 V DC bias is applied to the cleaning roller to attract more toner particles from the drum. The cleaning bias roller [C] (called a scavenging roller in some machines) is near the cleaning roller. The cleaning bias roller receives a 500 V charge, which is strong enough to separate the toner particles from the cleaner carrier on the cleaning roller and attract them to the cleaning bias roller. The cleaning carrier remains on the cleaning roller for the next cleaning cycle. The bias roller blade [D] scrapes toner off the bias roller. The toner collection coil [E] transports the toner to the rear side of the cleaning unit, where it drops into the toner collection bottle [F].
[C] [D]
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[E]
[B]
[F]
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Used Toner Collection and Recycling

Once toner is cleaned from the photoconductor, something must be done with it. There are two options (1) collect the used toner for later disposal or (2) recycle it. There is a cost versus image quality trade-off between the two options. Recycling has the obvious advantage of reducing toner consumption and thus reducing cost per copy/print. However, even if it is carefully done, recycling to some extent damages the toner and degrades its triboelectric characteristics. Also, recycled toner tends to stick together and form clumps, and paper dust is collected along with the toner. For these reasons, image quality tends to be a problem in machines that recycle toner. This presents a challenge for engineers. On the other hand, simply collecting the used toner prevents fewer design problems and makes it easier to maintain copy quality. However, the copy per cost increases. Also, the used toner container takes up space inside the machine, and some provision must be made for periodic disposal of the used toner.
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Used Toner Collection

The location of the toner collection unit or used toner bottle varies. Smaller machines tend to have simple designs. For example, machines that use allin-one cartridges such as model G026 (shown to the right) have the used toner tank inside the cartridge. Such machines do not have a used toner overflow detection mechanism because the used toner tank [A] is large enough for the lifetime of the toner cassette. Other machines, especially low volume and mid volume products, mount the used toner tank directly on the cleaning unit. An example is model A110, shown to the right. The used toner tank [A] of this machine must be emptied periodically. The tank has a toner overflow detection mechanism [B] that stops copier operation when the used toner tank gets full. When the tank gets full, the pressure of the used toner pushes up a movable plate mounted in the top of the used toner tank. As this plate moves up, it raises the toner overflow actuator. When the actuator moves into the toner overflow sensor. [A]
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[A] [B]
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Larger machines have to transport used toner to a toner collection bottle. Typically, a helical coil does this. For example the toner recover mechanism of model A174 (pictured to the right) has a toner collection coil [A], which moves used toner from the cleaning unit to the toner collection bottle [B]. The toner collection bottle capacity is enough to hold used toner from making 6 km (capacity: 4000 ml) copies. (This is a large format copier.) A toner overflow sensor [C] detects when the used toner tank is full.
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Recycling Used Toner

There are many configurations for toner recycling systems. All of them use helical coils to collect and transport the toner from the cleaning unit. Some of them return the used toner directly to the development unit. Others, mix the old toner with new toner first. We will look at a few examples. Example 1: Model A193 In this model, toner recycling is completely internal to a photoconductor unit (PCU). See the illustrations. The cleaning blade removes any toner remaining on the drum after the image is transferred to the paper. This model uses a counter blade system. The toner removed by the cleaning blade falls onto the toner collection coil [A]. The toner collection coil transports the recycled toner to the transport belt [B] at the front of the PCU. The transport belt carries the toner to mixing auger 2. The two mixing augers [C] combine the recycled toner with the developer and new toner from the toner bottle. [B] [A] [C]
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[A]
[C]
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Example 2: Models A230/A231/A232 The cleaning blade removes any toner remaining on the drum after the image is transferred to the paper. This model like the previous example uses a counter blade system. The toner is transferred to the toner collection coil [A] by the toner collection plate [B]. The toner collection coil transports the used toner to the opening [C] in the bottom of the PCU. Then, this toner falls into the development unit with new toner coming from the toner bottle and it is all mixed into the developer by the paddle roller [D].
[B]
[A] [C]
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[A]
[C] [D]
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Example 3: Models A246/A247/A248 The toner recycling system of this model has a couple of unusual features. First, it recycles not only the toner cleaned from the drum but also toner cleaned from the transfer belt. Second, it filters the recycled toner. Toner collection coils in the drum cleaning unit [A] and in the transfer belt cleaning unit [B] transport used toner to the toner transport coil [C]. To ensure good toner flow, a fin [D] breaks up the toner that drops from the tube of the drum-cleaning unit. The toner transport coil moves the toner through a tube to the filtering unit [E]. The filtering unit separates useable toner from toner that has adhered together into clumps. The useable toner is returned to the development unit, and the waste toner goes to a used toner bottle.
[A]
[D] [B] [C] [E]

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Quenching
Quenching
Overview
Quenching is the process that eliminates any residual electric charge remaining on the photoconductor after the cleaning process. Quenching prepares the photoconductor for the charge step of the next copy or print cycle. Several different methods are used to quench the photoconductor. The most common method is photo quenching using a lamp. Some machines use a combination of a dc corona and photo quenching. A few machines use an ac corona for quenching. The choice of quenching method depends on the type of photoconductor used and the details of the other steps of the copy process.
Photo Quenching
As the name implies, photo quenching uses the application of light to reduce the resistance of the photoconductor and thus eliminate the electrical charge. Photo quenching also stabilizes the drum sensitivity from the first cycle by pre-illuminating the drum. Various types of lamp have been used for quenching lamps. LED arrays are the most common; however, cold cathode tubes, neon tubes, and fluorescent lamps have also been used. LEDs are inexpensive and compact, and it is easy to match the wavelength of the light to the spectral sensitivity of the
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photoconductor. However, LEDs output a relatively weak light. The cold cathode lamp has the characteristics of low power consumption and low heat output combined with strong, even light output covering a broad spectrum. However, it is more expensive (special power supply) than LEDs. The neon tube is cost effective; however, there is significant unevenness in the amount of light output. Fluorescent lamps output a strong, wide spectrum light, but they are the most expensive. Fluorescent lamps are used for quenching only in very high-speed photocopiers.
Various types of filters may be used depending on the copy process and photoconductor characteristics. For example when using a cold cathode lamp and an OPC drum, a yellow filter is usually used to reduce ultraviolet light which would cause light fatigue on the OPC drum.
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DC Corona and Photo Quenching

This type of quenching involves two steps. First, the pre-quenching corona (PQC) applies a positive charge to the drum. This neutralizes any negative charge remaining on the drum from the pre-cleaning corona. Then, the quenching lamp neutralizes the positive charge. Two steps are required because the quenching lamp is less effective against negative charges than positive charges. The quenching lamp also stabilizes the drum sensitivity from the first cycle by preilluminating (pre-fatiguing) the drum. The machine illustrated (model A029) uses a cold cathode lamp as the quenching lamp. The cold cathode lamp has characteristics of low power consumption and low heat output combined with strong light output. In some machines (for example model A053), the PQC and quenching lamp are applied simultaneously.
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Fusing
Fusing
Overview
After the image transfer and paper separation steps, the image must be bound or fixed to the paper. Modern photocopiers and other machines (fax, printer) that use photocopier imaging processes, use resin based toners. To form a stable permanent image, the toner is heated to cause it to melt and soften. Simultaneously, pressure is applied to cause the toner to fuse with the fibers of the paper.
Heat-Roll Method
The heat-roll method is the most common way that Ricoh products use to fuse the toner image to paper. It is used in all types of machines from the lowest speed to high speed. In the heat-roll fusing method, paper with dry toner particles on it moves between two rollers, the hot roller and the pressure roller. A quartz halogen lamp heats the hot roller from inside. When the paper comes in contact with the hot roller, the heat of the roller melts the toner. The pressure between the two rollers forces the melted toner into the fibers of the paper.
Hot roller Fusing Lamp Oil application Thermistor Copy paper Stripper pawls
Pressure roller
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The Hot Roller

The hot roller is a hard-surfaced, hollow, metal tube with a halogen lamp at its axis. Toner tends to stick to the hot roller as well as the paper. To minimize this tendency, the hot roller is coated with non-stick Teflon. Even with the non-stick coating, a small amount of toner still sticks to the hot roller. This toner contamination must be removed or it will be applied to subsequent copies, giving an offset image or dirty copies. This is usually done with a cleaning pad or with a cleaning roller. In many machines silicone oil is applied to the hot roller. The silicone oil acts as a lubricant and helps to prevent toner from sticking. (Refer to Oil Supply and Cleaning below.)
The Pressure Roller

The pressure roller is a relatively soft roller made of silicone rubber. Silicone rubber is used because it is not easily damaged by the heat of the hot roller. Sometimes the roller surface is coated with Teflon. Since the pressure roller is soft, the pressure between the two rollers causes the pressure roller to deform slightly and creates a zone of contact called the nip band. The nip band extends the time that the rollers are in contact with the paper and helps to force the melted toner into the copy paper. If the pressure roller were a hard roller, the paper would contact the hot roller at only one point and the toner would not completely bond with the paper. The hot roller and pressure roller are very slightly concave (spindle shaped) so that the pressure between them is a little greater near the ends than in the middle. This tends to pull the paper outward slightly at the edges and helps to prevent creasing of the paper.
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Fusing Belt Method

The fusing belt method is similar to the heat roll method in that it uses heat and pressure to fuse the toner image to the paper. Although somewhat more costly than the heat-roll method, the fusing belt method is often used in color copiers and printers as it has less of a tendency to disturb or smear the layers of colored toner on the copy or print. Compared to the heat-roll method it has the following characteristics: The fusing belt [A] heats up quicker than a Teflon roller because it is heated by an aluminum heating roller [B]. (Fast-heating aluminum can be used because it does not touch the paper.) [C] During a multi-page print job, the belt does not cool as quickly as a Teflon roller. The belt applies less pressure to the paper than a [F] heat-roll system, so there is less chance of toner [A] smearing on the copy or print. Example: Model G071 The illustration to the right shows the fusing unit of model G071. The key components are the heating roller, hot roller [C], pressure roller [D], and fusing belt. The heating and pressure rollers each have a fusing lamp. (770W and 350W respectively) However, the hot roller has no fusing lamp; instead, it is heated by the belt. Thermistors [E] control the
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temperature of the rollers. A small idle roller [F] increases the nip width between the belt and the pressure roller, so more of the paper is heated at any one time. At the start of the fusing nip (area of contact between the pressure roller and the fusing belt), toner begins melting. When the paper comes between the hot and pressure rollers, the toner has already melted, and at that point it is pressed into the fibers of the paper.
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Fusing Pressure Mechanism

The pressure mechanism is a critical part of the fusing unit. The fusing pressure must be sufficient to form a proper nip band (see previous page). The pressure must also be even so that the paper feeds smoothly between the rollers without creasing or wrinkling. The most common method of applying fusing pressure is with a spring. The illustration to the right (model A219) is a typical example. The fusing pressure can be adjusted by changing the point where the spring is attached. In this case fusing pressure is applied constantly. Some copiers, especially higher-speed models, use screws to apply fusing pressure. The mechanism shown in the lower picture (model A171) allows precise pressure adjustment using adjustment screws [A]. This model allows the user to release fusing pressure to help clear paper jams. This is done by the upper pressure lever [B] and lower pressure lever [C] which are lifted up by the fusing unit release lever [D] via the pressure cam [E].
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[B] [D] [A]
[C] [E]
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Oil Supply
Silicone oil is applied to the hot roller to help prevent toner and paper from sticking to the hot roller, to reduce paper curl, improve hot roller durability, and to help in roller cleaning. With such benefits you would expect that all photocopiers would have an oil supply system. This used to be the case. However, advances in design and composition of fusing rollers and toner have made oil application less important. Recently, many products do not have an oil supply mechanism. But, oil supply systems are generally used in products that have a critical fusing functiontypically high-speed or color machines.
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Example: Models A166/A187/A189 The A166 series (Azalea) has a rather complex oil supply system. A small pump with a one-way valve moves the oil from the oil tank [A] to the oil supply pad [B]. The oil pump lever [C] alternately presses and releases the rubber tube [D] between two one-way valves [E] as the oil cam [F] turns. To keep oil use to at a minimum, two oil supply rollers are used. One is in contact with the oil supply pad and the other contacts the hot roller. The oil supply pad applies oil to the first oil supply roller [G]. If there is not enough oil on the hot roller, friction between the second oil supply roller [H] and hot roller increases, and the oil supply roller turns. As it turns the second oil supply roller supplies oil to the hot roller and picks up more oil from the first oil supply roller. Excess oil flows out through the hole [I] in the bottom of the oil sump and returns to the oil tank. [G]
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[B] [D] [E] [C] [I]

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[F]
[A]
[H]
[B]
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Cleaning
The hot roller has a non-stick coating and toner is formulated to help prevent it from sticking to the hot roller; but even with that, a small amount of toner still sticks to the hot roller. This toner is removed by a cleaning pad or a cleaning roller. In many machines silicone oil is applied to the hot roller. The silicone oil acts as a lubricant and helps to prevent toner from sticking. (See the preceding section.) [A]
Cleaning Pad
Fusing roller cleaning pads are not as common now as in the past, but they are still commonly used in low speed copiers and fax machines. The upper illustration shows the position of the cleaning pad [A] in the fusing unit of model G026. The chief advantages of a cleaning pad are low cost and simple design. The major drawback of the cleaning pad is that it must be replaced periodically. To reduce service cost, recently machines have been designed with user replaceable cleaning pads. The illustration to the right shows replacement of the fusing cleaning pad in model H523.
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[B]
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Cleaning Roller
The cleaning roller is the most common way of removing toner and paper dust from the fusing rollers. The principle of operation is simple. Any toner that sticks to the hot roller preferentially transfers to the pressure roller. The pressure roller may also pick up some toner from the reverse side of the paper (from duplex copies). The toner and paper dust transfer to the cleaning roller due to adhesion. The toner preferentially sticks to the cleaning roller because it is made of metal. Example: Model A133 The cleaning roller [A] is always in contact with the pressure roller [B]. It collects toner and paper dust adhering to the surface of the pressure roller. This is because the cleaning roller is made of metal and collects any adhering matter more easily than the pressure roller (which has a Teflon coating). [A]
[B]
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Fusing Temperature Control

The CPU uses a thermistor to sense the temperature of the hot roller surface. Based on the input from the thermistor, it turns the fusing lamp on and off to keep the hot roller surface at the target temperature. Due to differences in copy rate, toner composition, and fusing unit construction, the target temperature varies from machine to machine but is generally in the 180C to 200C range. The target temperature may also change depending on the machine condition. For example temperature is controlled in model A219 as shown in the following diagram.
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The following table explains the conditions shown by the above diagram. Machine Condition Ready Fusing Lamp ON/OFF Threshold 165C: 120 V machines 172C: 230 V machines 190C Remarks
After the main switch is turned on, until one minute has passed after the hot roller temperature reaches the Ready condition. After the above time period, the copier enters the energy saver mode.
After the fusing temperature reaches the ready temperature the fusing lamp is kept on until it reaches 190C. When the Print key is pressed, the red indicator blinks and copying starts after the fusing temperature reaches the Ready condition.
120C: 120 V machines 130C: 230 V machines 190C
During copying
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Fusing
Fusing Lamp Control Circuit

The diagram (model A219) is a typical fusing lamp control circuit. While circuit details vary depending on power requirements and machine design, certain features are common to most machines. First, all machines monitor the fusing temperature using a thermistor. The thermistor is either in contact with the hot roller or positioned very close to it. Also, a zero cross signal generated from the ac power supply is used to generate the trigger pulse and control the applied power accurately.
CN113-1 CN113-2 5V CN101-3 24 V Trigger Pulse 24 V 0V CN207-7 PC2 C20 CN101-4 CN207-6 T205 L4 RY1 T206 T207 T208 Fusing Thermistor
TF
Fusing Lamp
Main Board
Main Switch Interlock Switch
T204
T203 FU1 T202 T201
AC Drive/DC Power Supply Board
AC Power Source
230 V machines only
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Since the fusing lamp is a high temperature heat source, safety is an important consideration. Interlock switches cut power to the fusing circuit whenever a cover is opened. Also, all machines have an overheat protection circuit which automatically cuts off the fusing power and stops machine operation if the temperature detected by the thermistor gets too high. Backup overheat protection is
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provided by a thermofuse (TF). Even if the thermistor overheat protection fails, the thermofuse opens if the heat gets excessive, removing power from the fusing lamp.
On/Off Control
When the main switch is turned on, the main board starts to output a trigger pulse, which has the same timing as the zero cross signal, to the ac power supply circuit. This trigger pulse allows maximum ac power to be applied to the fusing lamp. When the operating temperature is reached, the CPU stops outputting the trigger pulse (the trigger stays HIGH) and the fusing lamp turns off.
Phase Control
Normally, the voltage applied to the lamp is the full duty cycle of the ac waveform. However, many machines have an alternate method of fusing power control called phase control. Generally, phase control is used only if the customer has a problem with electrical noise or interference on the power line. Phase control is selected using a service program.
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Example: Model A219 The main board sends the fusing lamp trigger pulse (LOW active) to the ac drive/dc power supply board, which provides ac power to the fusing lamp at the falling edge of each trigger pulse. The trigger pulse goes HIGH when the main board receives the zero cross signal. The amount of time that power is applied to the fusing lamp depends on the temperature of the hot roller. The trigger pulse (LOW part) is wider [C1] and power is supplied for longer [D1] when the hot roller temperature is lower. It is narrower [C2] and power is supplied for a shorter time [D2] when the hot roller is near the operating temperature.
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Basic concepts
Analog Machines
Example: Model A219
Digital Scanning Image Processing Printer Engines Printer Interface Basics
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An exposure lamp illuminates the original. Mirrors reflect light from the original directly onto the photoconductor. This light writes a latent image on the photoconductor. This image is then developed with toner and transferred to the copy paper.
Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Digital Machines
Example: Model A193
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The big difference with scanners in digital machines is that the light reflected from the original does not pass directly to the photoconductor. The light is reflected onto a light-sensitive element, such as a CCD (Charge Coupled Device). This device converts the light into an analog electrical signal. Circuits inside the machine convert this signal into a digital signal. This signal then passes to a laser diode, which emits a laser beam to write a latent image on the photoconductor. So, in a digital machine, there is a lot of electronics between the light reflected off the original and the light arriving at the photoconductor.
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Digital Signals
Digital signals consist of binary code. When scanning an original, binary code is used to represent the brightness of each pixel of the image. In the most simple of systems, there are only two values for each pixel: 0 and 1, for black and white. However, most machines use 4 or 8 bits. In a four-bit system, there are 16 possible values for each pixel. This allows black, white, and 14 shades of grey in between. Similarly, in an eight-bit system, there are 256 possible values for each pixel. This allows black, white, and 254 shades of grey in between (see the diagram).
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Digital Images
Overview
Analog machines transfer an optical image of the original directly onto the photoconductor. Digital machines break the image up into small dots, known as picture elements, or pixels for short. The example shows the image that the machine builds up of a fax machine test chart. This may seem to be a rather inaccurate representation. However, digital signals can be manipulated to enhance the image and create special effects. Also, digital images can be used immediately, or stored for later use (see Image Files). The size of the pixels (smaller pixels yield greater resolution) depends on several factors related to the scanner and printer hardware. (The software may also be set up to alter the resolution in various ways, but we shall look at hardware in this section.)
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Scanner Resolution
There are two points to consider: the image detector (typically a CCD) and the scanner motor
CCD
The CCD (charge-coupled device) is a line of photosensitive elements. The output of the CCD represents one line across the page. Each element of the CCD generates one picture element of the line. So the CCD resolution is the resolution of the scanner across the page (this is also known as the main scan). The more elements there are per unit length, the finer the resolution. Typical CCDs have 200 or 400 elements per inch (or, for Group 3 fax machines operating in metric units, 8 or 16 elements per mm).
CCD
Elements
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Scanner or ADF Motor

Example: Model A229, ADF mode The scanner or ADF motor is normally a stepper motor. The distance fed by each step of the motor determines the resolution of the scan down the page (also known as the sub scan direction). Typical resolutions are 200, 300, or 400 lines per inch (or for Group 3 fax machines, 3.85, 7.7, or 15.4 lines per mm). To scan an image, the CCD scans a line. Then the scanner motor feeds the page one line, and the CCD scans another line. This is repeated until the entire page has been scanned.
Main scan Sub scan
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Scanner Output
Each element of the CCD generates a voltage which represents the intensity of the light reflected onto it from the document. The signals from all the elements are output in sequence, to generate an analog signal that represents the line that is currently being scanned. The upper diagram on the right shows an example of output from a line on a page which is all white except for a black shape on the left of the page. After the line has been scanned, the scanner moves the document forward one scan line width to move the next scan line into position. Then, the CCD reads the next scan line. The bottom diagram shows the next line being scanned.
scanlin1
CCD Output W hite Black
CCD
SCAN LINE
W hite CCD Output Black
CCD
SCAN LINE
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
The signals from each consecutive scan line are strung together end to end, and sent out as an analog signal. The diagram opposite shows what the video signal would be like for the two consecutive scan lines shown in the previous two diagrams. The output is then processed as described in Image Processing.
VIDEO SIGNAL One scan line White Black One scan line
Etc
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The next few pages show the basics about how the processed data is printed.
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Printer Resolution
The output from the scanner is converted to a laser diode drive signal. The laser beam then writes a latent image of the original on the photoconductor. There are two points to consider: the laser beam as it arrives on the photoconductor, and the speed of the photoconductor. Example: Model H006, using a master belt Exposure of the photoconductor to the laser beam creates the latent image. To make the main scan, the laser beam moves across the photoconductor. The resolution depends on the speed of the laser beams motion across the photoconductor and on the frequency of the laser beam on/off switching clock. To make the sub scan, the photoconductor rotates. The resolution depends on the speed that the photoconductor rotates. In multifunctional machines, laser engines have to be able to print at a range of resolutions: 400 dpi for copying and Group 4 fax, 600 dpi for printing, and 16 x 15.4 dots per mm (391.2 x 406.4 dpi) for Group 3 fax.
Sub Scan (Photoconductor Rotation)
Main Scan (Laser Beam Motion)
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For full details of the laser optic system, see the Laser Printing section.
Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
The cross section of the beam on the master (i.e., the size of each printed dot) varies from model to model; it is roughly circular. In the example shown, from a Group 3 fax machine, the diameter is about 80 m. This means that the printed dots overlap each other slightly, as shown in the diagram. 80 m is about 12 dots per mm, and 90 m is about 11 dots per mm.
laserdot.wmf
However, the printer resolution is 16 x 15.4 dots per mm for a Group 3 fax machine. The dots are larger than this resolution, so they overlap. This results in a better image than if there were no overlap. Generally, the laser beam switches off between pixels, even between black pixels. Note that, unlike the scanner/ADF motors, the motor that drives the photoconductor is normally a dc motor, not a stepper motor. Therefore, in theory, the main scan lines written across the photoconductor will be sloping very slightly. For more details, see the Laser Printing section.
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Digital Processes
Digital Scanning
Printer Output
During the copy cycle, the photoconductor is charged to about 900 V (see Photocopying Processes Charge). The laser beam writes a latent image on the photoconductor. The charge on irradiated areas drops significantly, typically to between 0 and -100 V. (Voltage values differ from model to model.) The area of the photoconductor that is irradiated depends on whether the write to white or write to black method is being used.
ORIGINAL WRITE TO WHITE WRITE TO BLACK
Irradiated Areas
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Digital Processes
Image Processing
Image Processing
Introduction
This section describes how digital machines convert the image from a scanned original into digital data. This section also describes techniques for processing the digital data, so that the printout is as close to the original as possible. For example, techniques used to process a business letter will be different from those used to process an original containing photographs. Each model implements these techniques in different ways, and some models do not implement all the techniques. In addition, the order of steps may be slightly different from that presented here. This section will provide a general description, with examples from various models. The techniques used by black-and-white machines and color machines are different. Also, blackand-white machines can use two different types of image sensor in the scanner. As a result, this section will be divided into three sub-sections, as follows. Black and White Machines - CCD Systems This section describes black-and-white models that use a CCD (Charge Coupled Device). This is the standard method for mainstream digital machines. Black and White Machines - CIS Systems This section describes black-and-white models that use a CIS (Contact Image Sensor). This type of system is often used in lower-priced models. Color Machines This section describes image processing for color machines. These use a CCD of a different type, to generate data for the three primary colors.
Digital Processes
Image Processing
Black and White CCD Systems

Overview
CCD
SBU
Memory Control ICs
GA1 LD Driver Drum LD Driver

LD Controller (GAVD)
HDD
IPU GA2
LDDR
SBICU
a229d578 wmf
The diagram shows a typical example of an image processing circuit. An exposure lamp illuminates the original. Light reflected from the original is reflected through a lens to the CCD.
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Digital Processes
Image Processing
The CCD generates an analog signal from the light. The voltage of the signal varies with the intensity of the light. The CCD is mounted on a board called the SBU (Sensor Board Unit). The analog output from the CCD must be converted to a digital signal. In the above example, the analog-to-digital conversion circuits are on the SBU board. The digital signal is then processed, using large-scale integrated circuits, like the IPU (Image Processing Unit) in the above example. Some of the processes require enough working memory to store a page of image data. The data may then be stored temporarily on a hard disk until it is time for printing. The data then passes to the laser diode controller and laser diode driver. After data processing, each pixel scanned from the original is represented by a number of bits (eight is a typical number), or only one bit (0: White, 1: Black), depending on the type of digital processing used. Also, the image may be enlarged or reduced. In this case, pixels will be deleted or artificially created to make the new image.
Scanner Lamps and the Shading Plate

Fluorescent lamp: The ends of the lamp are not so bright as the center. To compensate for this, the light reflected from the original goes through a shading plate before it reaches the CCD. The shading plate allows more light to pass through from the ends of the lamp than from the center. Xenon lamp: If a xenon lamp is used, the difference in brightness is smaller than with a conventional fluorescent lamp, but this problem still exists. LED array: This is a strip of photodiodes. As all the diodes are equally bright, a shading plate is not needed.
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CCD
A CCD converts the light reflected from the original into an analog signal. The CCD (Charge Coupled Device) consists of a row of photosensitive elements. The circuit of each element in the CCD is shown at the right. Light hitting the photodiode charges up a capacitor. The brighter the light, the more charge goes into the capacitor. There is more about CCDs in the Standard Components chapter. The CCD has between 2,500 and 5,000 of these elements, depending on the maximum scanning width and number of pixels per unit length (i.e., the resolution across the page). A typical CCD in a high-end digital copier has 5,000 elements, at a resolution of 400 dpi (15.7 dots/mm).
c222d580.wmf
A CCD in a G3 fax machine may have a resolution of 8 or 16 pixels/mm, to match ITU-T standards. However, as many machines are now multi-functional, such machines often employ a dpi-based CCD and convert the signal to mm format when sending a Group 3 fax. The voltage from each element depends on the intensity of the light reflected from the original onto the element; the intensity of the light depends on the darkness of the area of the document it was reflected from. These charges are output from the CCD one after another, to make an analog video signal. Then the scanner moves to the next line of the original, and the CCD scans the next line. The CCD scans the original one line at a time, and outputs an analog signal for each line.
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Analog Signal Processing

Overview
Zeroing
Even
Signal Combining
Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
Z/C CCD Z/C

Odd
Black Level Analog Signal Input Z/C
Feedback Feedback
Feedback Peak Hold
A/D Converter 1 Ref 0 Ref Feedback
Digital Signal Output To Digital Processing Circuits
Black Level White Level
Auto Shading Circuits
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This section describes: How the raw CCD output is prepared for conversion to digital data How the corrected CCD output is converted to digital data The previous illustration shows the various steps and processes involved in preparing and converting the analog signal. The following table quickly summarizes each step. CCD output Auto shading Zeroing Signal combining Automatic gain control Black level Auto image density Peak hold A/D conversion How the raw data is output from the CCD. A key part of analog signal processing. It affects most of the other steps and processes. Black level correction prior to signal combination. Merging of the odd and even picture elements. Signal amplification and white level correction. Black level correction after automatic gain control. Removes background from the scanned image Holds the peak white value for A/D conversion. Conversion of the analog signal to a digital signal.
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CCD Output
This diagram shows the CCD and its data output lines as a simplified block diagram. There are two outputs from the CCD. One is for oddnumbered pixels, and the other is for even-numbered pixels. A clock switches the output for each pixel onto the odd or even output line alternately. Having two outputs speeds up the image processing. CCDs in older models (mainly fax machines) only had one output line. The two outputs are amplified before entering the analog signal processing circuits. Details about the amplification of the raw CCD output signal are given in section 8 (Components).
Photoelectric conversion CCD Reflected light
Even
Amplifier
ODD
Switching clock
Signal amplification
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Variations in the White Level
Image Processing
Auto Shading
Variations in the Black Level
a229d645.wmf
Auto shading corrects errors caused by variations in the signal level for each pixel. Both the black level and the white level are corrected.
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1) White Level Correction The video signal information for each pixel obtained during image scanning is corrected by the image processing circuits. The data has to be corrected for variations in white level across the page. These variations are caused by the following factors. Loss of brightness at the ends of the exposure lamp with age or temperature (noticeable with fluorescent lamps and xenon lamps), or any bright and dull spots on the lamp Less brightness at the edges of the lens Variations in response among the CCD elements Distortions in the light path, such as differences in reflectivity across the scanner mirrors. To correct for this, the machine scans a white plate before scanning each original. (This white plate is normally under the scanner cover or under the left scale of the exposure glass.) The white plate is uniform in color and in reflection. The output from each element of the CCD is converted to digital and passed to a memory in the auto shading circuit. The waveform of the white platen cover from the CCD is not uniform, because of the factors mentioned above.
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In some models, there is a protection circuit which limits the white peak voltage. This is to prevent dark printouts resulting from an abnormally high reference voltage caused by strong light intruding into the scanner. In models that have a built in ADF, continuous scanning of large originals can cause the scanner to heat up, which affects the CCDs response. Also, continuous exposure to light affects the CCD. Therefore, the white plate is scanned every 30 s to recalibrate the white level (it is done between originals; scanning is not interrupted). After auto shading, the machine scans the page. The machine then uses the white waveform stored in the auto shading memory to correct the data. This is known as Automatic Gain Control (AGC). It is described later.
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2) Black Level Correction Method 1: Dummy Pixels This zeroes the black level for each scanned line of data while scanning the original. To get the current black level, the CPU reads the dummy data elements at one end of the CCD signal (some pixels at the end are blacked off), and takes an average of the voltages read from these elements. Then, the CPU deletes the black level value from each image pixel.
Output (V) Video Signal Before Correction Output (V) Video Signal After Correction
0 1 line
0 1 line
blk-lvl.wmf
This corrects the video signal for changes in response to the dummy black pixels as time passes. The black level is stored in the auto shading circuits (as a charge inside a capacitor, for example). Method 2: Black Level Waveform In some older models, the black level is done for every original, by shutting off the exposure lamp and reading a black level waveform across the page. This is stored in memory in the auto shading circuits in a similar way to that described earlier for the white level. Method 3: Fixed Reference Voltage Some models correct the black level using a standard reference voltage for the black reference (about 1.5 Volts)
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Zeroing
Even
Image Processing
Signal Combining
Z/C CCD Z/C

Odd
Black Level Z/C Straight Through Analog Signal Input
Straight Through
Straight Through
Fixed Voltage Example: 2.5 V
A/D Converter 1 Ref 0 Ref
Digital Signal Output
Every line
From white plate, before each page Auto Shading Circuits
shadcct .wmf
When the machine scans the white plate before scanning the original, the odd and even pixel signals are combined. The resulting signal is converted to digital in the A/D converter, and stored in the memory in the auto shading circuits. The auto shading circuits are normally inside the digital processing circuits, and signals from this feed back into the analog circuits when needed. The black level goes to the auto shading circuit every line during scanning.
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Peak white can be detected every scan line too - this is Auto Image Density mode (also known as ADS mode). This is described later in this section. In the above diagram, the high level reference is arbitrarily fixed at 2.5 V and the low level reference at ground. In some cases, analog to digital (A/D) conversion is done using the peak value of the signal for the high reference, and half of the peak value for the low reference. Example: Model C211 The potential difference between the output of each pixel and the 53% level of the peak hold is converted by an A/D converter into 4bit data.
VPH Memory 100% 53% VT2100/2130/2150: 1.7V VT2300/2500: 1.4V 4 bits
5,000 pixels
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Zeroing
A zero clamp (Z/C) on each output adjusts the black level reference. The black level for the even pixels is adjusted to match the black level from the odd pixels. Feedback of the black level from the auto shading circuit is used.
Zeroing
Even
Signal Combining
Z/C CCD Z/C

Odd
Black Level Z/C
Feedback Feedback
Feedback
Signal Combining
A multiplexer merges the analog signals for odd and even pixels from the CCD. In very high speed digital machines, the signals are not combined until the digital processing circuits. These machines have separate analog processing circuits for odd and even pixels.
ana-ads.wmf
4995 4997
4999
4998 4999
5000
4996 4998
5000
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The analog signal is amplified by operational amplifiers in the AGC circuit. When the original is scanned, the white level waveform is read back in from the auto shading memory. The AGC circuit uses the white level signal to correct the video data signal. In effect, each element of the scan line is amplified by an amount that depends on the voltage of the same element in the white level signal. An example is shown on the next page
CCD Z/C
Odd
Zeroing
Even
Signal Combining
Z/C
Black Level Z/C
Feedback Feedback
Feedback
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Element 500
For shading correction, the peak of the scan from the white plate is set to 1. Let us take an example, in which the level of the 500th element of the white waveform is 0.8 (i.e., not perfectly white). Then, at a point during scanning, say that element 500 in the video signal has a value of 0.6; it would be higher if there were no scanner irregularities. So, element 500 in the video signal is corrected as follows: 0.6/0.8 = 0.75. Each element in each video signal scan line is corrected in this way.
1 0.8 500 0 White W aveform Scan Line 0.6
500
0 Video Image Scan Line shadcorr.wmf
Also, if the platen cover is dirty, the values will be lower due to reduced reflection from the platen cover. This means that the image data will be overcorrected, causing pale bands in the image.
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Black Level
Before the data enters the A/D (analog-to-digital) converter, a zero clamp circuit again fixes the absolute value of the black level using feedback from the auto shading circuit.
Signal Combining
Feedback
Feedback Peak Hold
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Auto Image Density In some machines, this feature is called Original Background Correction. Auto Image Density (ADS) mode corrects for variation in background density down the page, to prevent the background of an original from appearing on copies.
ADS mode detects the background level for the original, also known as the peak white level, and removes this from the image, to make a white background. The machine must ensure that it detects white level from areas of the original that are free from image data. There are two methods, which are explained on the next page. When an original with a grey background is scanned, the density of the grey area becomes the peak white level density for that original. Therefore, the grey background will not appear on copies. Also, in machines where peak level data is taken for each scan line, ADS corrects for any changes in background density down the page. Unlike with analog copiers, the user can select a manual image density when in auto image density mode, and the machine will use both the manual and auto settings when processing the original. This is useful when making copies of an original that has light image density with background; AD removes the background, and if the user selected a dark manual image density setting, the image will be brought out more clearly in the copy.
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0.5mm
Method 1: Scanned from a narrow strip near the rear scale (Example: Model A229) The copier scans the auto image density detection area [A]. This corresponds to a narrow strip at one end of the main scan line, as shown in the diagram. As the scanner scans down the page, the machine detects the peak white level for each scan line, within this narrow strip only. Method 2: Scanned from a narrow strip at the center of the leading edge (Example: C211 series)
[A]
15mm 75mm
Sub scan direction
a229d581.wmf In this machine, the original is placed at the center of the original feed path, and not at one side like in the A229. Therefore, the peak level is read from the central 64 mm at the leading edge of the original.
One problem with this method is that, since scanning starts before the light intensity from the fluorescent lamp stabilizes, the light intensity tends to increase for a little while. The voltage from the CCD increases until the light intensity stabilizes. As a result, lighter image densities may not appear on prints after the light stabilizes. To prevent this, the peak voltage is changed when a higher (whiter) image signal is detected. If the peak voltage changes regardless of the output value, like in the A229, there is a chance of mistaking grey areas in the center of the image for peak white.
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The peak hold circuit holds the peak white level. From this peak white level, the machine determines the white reference value for A/D conversion. The white level from auto shading is fed back to the ADS circuit to correct for fluctuations in the white level across the page.
Signal Combining
Feedback
Feedback Peak Hold
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A/D Conversion
The A/D converter converts the analog signal to digital. In a typical machine, the resulting digital signal has eight bits. This means that each pixel can have one of 256 values. However, before this can be done, the A/D converter must be supplied with reference voltages that determine the black and white limits. To do this, the A/D converter is supplied with a black reference voltage (0 Ref). For example, the input could be held to ground. This fixes the lowest of the 256 levels any pixel with the same voltage as the black level will become black. Also, the highest of the 256 values is fixed with a white reference voltage (1 Ref). When the analog signal is digitised, 0 Ref and 1 Ref will serve as references for black and white, and the 256 levels of the grey scale will be distributed between these two levels. If ADS is not being used, the white reference (1 ref in the diagram) is held to a fixed voltage.
Analog Signal Input
Fixed Voltage Example: 2.5 V
A/D Converter 1 Ref 0 Ref
Digital Signal Output To Digital Processing Circuits
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If ADS is being used, the white reference voltage depends on the output of the peak hold circuit.
Signal Combining
Feedback
Feedback Peak Hold
ana-ads.wmf
The A/D converter divides the range between the black and white reference voltage into 256 levels and digitizes the analog signal based on these levels. These 256 levels are known as grayscales. The low reference voltage terminal stays constant. Only the high reference terminal voltage varies.
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Analog 2.9 V 256 Digital ........................... 00000000 White
Example: Model A099 In this example, the signal has been inverted so that digital 0 is white and 1 (0 Volts) is black. The white level varies between 1.7 and 2.9 V, depending on the feedback from the peak hold circuit for ADS. (If ADS was not being used, the white level would remain fixed.) The A/D converter divides up the range from black to the current white level into 256 levels. The grey scale is based on the peak white level. The right side of the diagram shows how the range is divided up if the white level is 1.7 V. If the white level was 2.9 V, the spacing would be wider.
0Ref Range
1.7 V 256 255
............................ 00000000 ............................ 00000001 256 levels calculated as follows: 256 0Ref (D is the Digital data) D= Vin x
4 3 2 1 0V
............................ 11111100 ............................ 11111101 ............................ 11111110 ............................ 11111111
Black adcon.wmf
If the voltage for a pixel is between level 2 and level 3, this is converted into a digital value of 11111101. Pure black (above level 255) becomes 00000000. Pure white (below level 1) becomes 11111111.
Digital Processes
Image Processing
Digital Signal Processing

Overview This section explains how the raw digital data from the A/D converter is processed to produce a faithful image of the original. Digital fax machines, scanners, printers, and copiers use a wide range of digital image processing tools. The processes used are different in every machine, and so is the order in which they are done. Because of this, a comprehensive description is impossible. However, representative examples will be given. Many of the processes are proprietary, and in these cases, details cannot be given.
Digital processes can be broadly classified into the following types. ! Preliminary Image Enhancement: These processes prepare the data for processing by correcting the data for scanner characteristics, and removing unwanted data such as dots in the background. Scanner Gamma Correction Background Erase Independent Dot Erase Text/Image Separation
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! Filtering: These processes enhance the data to suit the original mode (text or photo) selected by the user. MTF (Modulation Transfer Function) Photo mode Smoothing
! Magnification and Reduction: This enlarges and reduces the data, depending on the reproduction ratio selected by the user, or the paper size in the receiving fax terminal. ! Gradation Processing: The gradation processing methods used generally depend on the original type setting (text, photo, etc) selected by the user. Grayscale Processing Binary Picture Processing Dithering Error Diffusion
! Editing and Merging Using a memory work area, digital data can be manipulated to produce various effects, such as combining several images onto one copy. Also, multiple originals can be scanned into memory and several copies can be printed, already sorted, onto a single output tray. This is sometimes called electronic sorting. This feature allows low-volume sorted output without needing all the extra hardware.
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Another benefit of digital processing with memory storage is faster duplex copying throughput, using a feature known as 'interleaving'. This feature uses a duplex tray with a one-page capacity, stores multiple originals in memory, and outputs the data in the order that is suitable for the fastest printing. This order is not necessarily the order in which the pages were scanned. This is covered more fully in the Paper Handling section (Interleave Duplexing). The main benefits for most users are that a job with multiple originals can be scanned just once and stored in memory, then printed many times from memory without having to scan again. Also, printer jams can be recovered without having to scan the original again. Merging Make-up Mode Image Rotation Combining Images Erasure of Irregular Dots Line Width Correction Edge Detection Sub-scan Resolution Conversion Inch-mm Conversion
! Final Image Enhancement
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Scanner Gamma Correction

Scanner gamma correction corrects the data to account for the characteristics of the scanner (e.g., CCD response, scanner optics). This ensures that the various shades in the grey scale from black to white on the copy match those on the original . The relationship between original image density and analog circuit output should be linear as shown in the upper diagram. However, in reality, it is more like that shown in the lower diagram. Gamma correction corrects the data for this deviation, as shown by the arrows in the lower diagram.
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In some machines, the gamma curve can be changed with a service mode. Also, some machines automatically adjust the gamma curve depending on the image density setting selected by the user. Example 1: Model C222
Dark image setting
Normal image setting
C222D588.wmf
If the user selects dark mode, the dark image gamma curve is used and the output is darker.
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Example 2: Model C210 In this machine, there are four different image density settings, as shown (Darker 2, Darker 1, Normal, Lighter), There is an additional adjustment for tone. Using these, the user can emphasize better reproduction of pale or dark tones. For example, if the user selects dark tone mode (solid lines), the gamma curves change so that the output changes rapidly for small changes in input at the dark end of the scale. (The dotted lines show the curves for normal tone.) This causes shades of grey at the dark end of the scale to be reproduced. There is also a printer gamma correction, to adjust the data for printer characteristics. This is discussed in the Laser Exposure section.
Output
Dark Tone Mode
Darker 2
Darker 1 Normal
Lighter
Normal Tone
Input
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Background Erase
Usually, dirty background is erased using Auto Image Density (ADS). However, sometimes, dirty background areas will still appear. These can be erased by Background Erase. If any low image density data which is lower than a threshold level remains after auto shading, this data will be treated as '0', which is equal to 'White'. By adjusting the threshold to a larger value, darker backgrounds can be eliminated. Example: Model A229 If there is a sudden cutoff at the threshold, sudden changes in the data around the threshold level area can cause errors during the MTF process. So, in the example shown, the image density does not cut off at the threshold [A], but gets paler more rapidly than usual, until at a certain point [B] it becomes white.
Output
255
0 [B] [A]
255
Input
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Independent Dot Erase

This feature removes isolated black pixels from the image. It is normally not used in photo mode, to avoid deleting details from images. Example: Models A230/A231/A232 The software compares each pixel (C in the diagram above left) with the pixels around the edges of the surrounding 3 x 5 area. If the sum of the pixels at the edges is smaller than the threshold value, the object pixel is changed to 0 (white) or reduced in density to an average of the pixels around the edge, depending on an SP mode setting. The threshold can also be adjusted. In the example shown to the right, if the pixel is below the threshold value, it is either erased, or reduced to 3 (the average of the pixels around the edge, which is 37 divided by 12).
A1 A6 A8 A2 A3 C A4 A5 A7 0 0 0 0 0 30 90 0 0 7 0 0 0
Original image
A9 A10 A11 A12
3 x 5 area
Image data
A231D528.WMF
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Text/Image Separation
When the user selects Text/Photo mode, the machine processes text areas and image areas differently. Some machines have only a simple text/image separation as part of the error diffusion process (described later), whereas others have a more sophisticated algorithm (described in this section). Note that for some machines, Letter mode is used to refer to originals containing text. "Letter" refers to a type of image data, not Letter size paper or "correspondence". It means text and/or line art. Method 1: Edge and dot screen area detection Generally, text areas have strong contrast between the image and the background. In photo areas (dot screen areas), there is a less extreme range of contrast, and mid-range grey areas are common. By using these characteristics and the following separation methods, the original image is separated into text and photo areas. 1. Edge detection
Text/Photo Separation
Edge Determination Final Evaluation
Dot Screen Determination
a229d625.wmf
Edges of letters and parts of images are detected by checking for strong contrast, continuity of black pixels, and continuity of white pixels around the black pixels.
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2. Photo area (dot screen) detection Each pixel is tested to see if it is in a dot screen area by comparing with nearby pixels. Example: Model A229 The page is divided into 4 x 4 blocks of pixels. Each block is placed at the center of a 5 x 3 array of these blocks, and becomes either text or photo, depending on the other blocks in the 5 x 3 area .
Dot Screen Dot Dot Screen Screen Dot Dot Dot Screen Screen Screen Dot Screen
If the number of dot screen blocks in the 5 x 3 area exceeds a threshold, the central Determined to be Photo block is determined to be an image area. (The threshold is 2: if two or more of the blocks in the 5 x 3 area are dot screen, areas then all the pixels in the central block are determined to be in an image area.)
Determined to be Text
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Final Evaluation The machine decides whether each pixel is in a text or image area by looking at the results of the edge and dot screen detection processes. Example: Model A229
Dot Screen No No Yes Yes Edge No Yes No Yes Final Evaluation Photo Text Photo Photo
GA3 Filter
MTF Correction Selector Switch Smoothing
Text and image areas can then be processed differently. Example: Model A133 The image data is treated by MTF and by smoothing simultaneously. However, the result of the final evaluation controls a selector switch. For a text area pixel, the output from the MTF selector is selected. For an image area pixel, the output from the smoothing circuit is selected.
Auto Text/Photo
Edge Detection Final Evaluation Dot Screen Detection
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Method 2: Comparison of adjacent pixels Example: Model C226 In the Letter/Photo mode, the machine checks each pixel of the original to see if the pixel is in a line area or in a photo area. To recognize a line area in a photo original, the CPU does the following calculation on the 6-bit pixel data. x = | (c + f + i) - (a + d + g) | y = | (g + h + i) - (a + b + c) | If x or y is greater than 10, the machine recognizes that pixel e is in a letter area. If the calculated number is 10 or less, the pixel is in a photo area. In larger digital machines, this is a part of the error diffusion process, in addition to the main text/image separation process described earlier.
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MTF (Modulation Transfer Function)

When the CCD converts the original image to electrical signals, the contrast is reduced. This is because neighboring black and white parts of the image influence each other as a result of lens characteristics. This symptom is typical when the width and spacing between black and white areas are narrow. MTF correction counters this symptom and emphasizes image detail. Because of this, MTF is necessary for reproduction of details such as thin lines, points, and complex characters. Without MTF, such details may be lost, or only partly reproduced. Small dots and thin lines may be split up over more than one pixel. If the dot or line is small enough, the pixel output may fall below the threshold required to register a black pixel, and it would not be printed. Because MTF sharpens the image, it is normally not used with photo mode. However, MTF can be useful in photo mode when putting more weight on improving the resolution when copying from continuous tone originals. Also, in text/photo or photo mode, MTF can be combined with error diffusion, which reduces differences in contrast. The MTF algorithm generates a new value for the density of the element, using an algorithm that uses the density values of neighboring pixels in the image.
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Example: Model C223 Consider a small black point on a original as shown in the illustration (a) and (b). The 6-bit image data (range 0 to 63) for this section of the original is shown in (c). If the threshold level is 32, all the pixels in this area will become singlebit white data and the image will not be reproduced (d). The MTF correction prevents this image loss by modifying the value of each pixel in the following manner
a) Section of original
b) Enlarged view of dot
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
12 4
30 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
d) Print without MTF correction (threshold level: 32)
c) Image data after A/D conversion
The value of the target pixel is multiplied by 3. Then, 3/8 of the values of the pixels to the left and right, 1/8 of the values of the pixels two steps to the left and right, and 1/2 of the values of the pixels above and below are subtracted from the new value of the target pixel. (If the result is less than zero, then the pixel value is set to zero.)
C223d667.wmf
-1/2 -1/8 -3/8 3 -3/8 -1/8 -1/2

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0 0 0 0
After the MTF correction is applied, the image data of the example is as shown in (e) and (f). The small black point is reproduced on the print.
0 19.5 1.5 0 0 0 0
63 22.7 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
f) Printout after MTF correction
e) Image data after MTF correction
c223d624.wmf
The MTF algorithm can be strengthened by using higher values in the calculation. See the example on the right. In some machines, the MTF algorithm can be strengthened in either the main scan direction, sub scan direction, or both at once. For example, if the original has a lot of thin horizontal lines, MTF can be strengthened in the sub scan direction to preserve these lines, without applying an excessive MTF in the main scan direction.
-1/8 -3/8
-2 6 -2
-3/8 -1/8
C223d625.wmf
A stronger MTF filter sharpens the image and leads to better reproduction of low image density areas, but may lead to the occurrence of moir in the image. Also, stains, scratches, and other blemishes in the light path will appear on prints more easily.
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Photo mode smoothing

There are some different processes that use the name 'smoothing'. This section describes the image enhancement process that is used in photo mode to make a softer image. The other types of smoothing act on the final data to remove jagged edges from the image. They will be described later. Smoothing acts in a directly opposite way to MTF. It smoothes the contrast between adjacent pixels, giving better reproduction for photos. Because of this, it will not normally be used in text mode.
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Example: Model A099 The smoothing algorithm is: the values of the 24 pixels surrounding the object pixel and the object pixel are multiplied by the values in a 5x5 filter matrix. Then the new values are added together. The result is then divided by 64 and rounded off to yield the new value of the pixel. If this procedure is applied to the example, the value of the pixel shown in the figure changes from 18 to 17. This algorithm is applied to all pixels. If the pixel is on the edge of the image area, the missing data is assumed to be "0".
5
14 14 14 14 18 14 14 14 18 19
14 14 18 18 19 14 18 19 20 21 18 18 19 20 21
Image
: Object Pixel
1 2 2 2 1
2 4 4 4 2
2 4 4 4 2
2 4 4 4 2
1 2 2 Filter 2 1 (1/64)
17
Result
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The filter can be changed using a service program to suit the type of original. Example: Model A099 again High-contrast originals
1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 8 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
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Normal originals
Low-contrast originals
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Magnification and Reduction

Overview If the user selects a magnification or reduction ratio at the operation panel before copying, the image data must be enlarged or reduced. Also, fax machines have to reduce the data if the paper in the machine at the other end is not wide enough to print the message. The machine determines whether reduction is necessary by comparing the received protocol signal with the document width sensor readings. Sub Scan Direction Method 1: Original transport speed Example: Model A229 Reduction and enlargement in the sub scan direction are done by changing the scanner or ADF motor speed.
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Method 2: Deleting scan lines The cpu does sub-scan reduction by cutting out the 3rd and 7th scan lines in every 7 scan lines (for A3 [11.7" x 16.5"] to A4 [8.3" x 11.7"]), or the 6th and 13th scan lines in every 13 scan lines (for A3 [11.7" x 16.5"] to B4 [10.1" x 14.3"] and B4 [10.1" x 14.3"] to A4 [8.3" x 11.7"]). This is only done by older fax machines. Recent models change the scanner motor speed. Example: A3 to A4 reduction Main Scan Direction Reduction and enlargement in the main scan direction are handled by digital image processing circuits. Method 1: Calculation of Imaginary Pixels
faxsubrd wmf
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Example: Model A229
Scanning and laser writing are done at a fixed pitch (the CCD elements cannot be squeezed or expanded). So, to reduce or enlarge an image, imaginary points are calculated that would correspond to a physical enlargement or reduction of the image. The correct image density is then calculated for each of the imaginary points based on the image data of the nearest four true points. The calculated image data then becomes the new (reduced or enlarged) image data.
Digital Processes
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80 % Reduction For example, data for 10 pixels in a main scan line are scanned by the CCD. Those data are compressed into data for 8 pixels by the magnification processor. As a result, the image is reduced to 80 %. 140 % Enlargement Data for 10 pixels of a main scan line are expanded into data for 14 pixels. As a result the image is enlarged with a 140 % magnification ratio. The calculation method is described below in more detail.
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To reduce or enlarge an image, imaginary points are calculated that would correspond to a physical enlargement or reduction of the image. The image density is then calculated for each of the imaginary points based on the image data of the nearest four true points. The calculated image data then becomes the new (reduced or enlarged) image data. Here is an example of how the calculation is done.
2 Scanned Data Point 2' Calculated Data Point
3'
4'
1-r
1+r
2-r
Mainscan.wmf
In the example on the right, the density at point 3 (3) is calculated from the densities at points 2, 3, 4, and 5 (2, 3, 4, and 5) as follows: (3') = 2 x h(1+r) + 3 x h(r) + 4 x h(1-r) + 5 x h(2-r) h(1+r) + h(r) + h(1-r) + h(2-r) The values of the weighting factors h(1+r), h(r), h(1-r), and h(2-r) depend on the value of r, as shown in the table on the right. The set for the nearest value of r is used. r 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 h(1+r) 0 - 0.25 - 0.25 - 0.25 h(r) h(1-r) 1 0 1 0.375 0.75 0.75 0.375 1
h(2-r) 0 - 0.125 - 0.25 - 0.25
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Method 2: Adding and Deleting Pixels Another way to expand or shorten the main scan line is to add or delete pixels at regular intervals. However, this method is not so flexible as method 1, because it does not allow the user to increase or decrease the magnification in 1% steps (the zoom feature). Example: Model C226 Reduction Mode 100% 93% 82% (A4 version) 75% (LT version) 71% (A4 version) 64% (LT version) Discarded Pixels 0 Pixels 1/14 Pixels 3/11 Pixels 1/4 Pixels 2/7 Pixels 5/14 Pixels Remaining Pixels All Pixels 13/14 Pixels (0.929) 9/11 Pixels (0.818) 3/4 Pixels (0.75) 5/7 Pixels (0.714) 9/14 Pixels (0.642)
71% reduction: 5 out of 7 pixels are used, 2 pixels are discarded (see the diagram). 82% reduction: 9 out of 11 pixels are used, 2 pixels are discarded. 93% reduction mode: 13 out of 14 pixels are used, 1 pixel is discarded.
71red.wmf
In some machines, there is one exception to this rule. If the

Digital Processes
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pixel scheduled for deletion is darker than the pixel immediately to the right, the latter pixel is deleted instead. Enlarge Mode 115% (LT/A4 Version) 122% (A4 Version) 127% (LT Version) 141% (LT/A4 Version) Added Pixels 2 Pixels 3 Pixels 3 Pixels 9 Pixels Pixel Ratio 15/13 Pixels (1.154) 17/14 Pixels (1.214) 14/11 Pixels (1.273) 31/22 Pixels (1.409)
115% enlargement mode: Every 7th pixel and 13th pixel are doubled to produce 15 pixels from every 13 pixels in the original (see the drawing). 122% enlargement mode: Every 5th, 10th, and 14th pixels are doubled to produce 17 pixels from every 14 pixels in the original. 127% enlargement mode: Every 4th, 8th and 11th pixels are doubled to produce 14 pixels from every 11 pixels in the original. 141% enlargement mode: Every 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 13th, 15th, 18th, 20th, and 22nd pixels are doubled to produce 31 pixels from every 22 pixels in the original.
115enl.wmf
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Some digital processes can cause moir when used in conjunction with reduction or enlargement at certain reproduction ratios. Because of this, the order of some processes depends on the reproduction ratio. Example: Model A229 64% reduction or less: Main Scan Reduction then Filtering (MTF or Smoothing) 65% reduction or higher: Filtering (MTF or Smoothing) then Main Scan Magnification/Reduction
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Method 3: Laser Diode Pixel Width Example: Model H523 The CPU controls the magnification ratio by changing the interval between pulses in the laser clock signals. So, for example, the clock signal pulse interval for 200% enlargement is twice as long as the interval for normal (100%) image reproduction. This makes each image pixel for 200% enlargement become twice as long as each pixel for normal image reproduction.
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When using the ADF, the magnification circuit has to create a mirror image. This is because the main scan starts is at the other end of the scan line in ADF mode (as compared with platen mode). In platen mode, the original is placed face down on the exposure glass, and the corner at [A] is at the start of the main scan. The scanner moves down the page. In ADF mode, the ADF feeds the leading edge of the original to the DF exposure glass, and the opposite top corner of the original is at the main scan start position. To create the mirror image, the CPU stores the main scan line data in a LIFO (Last In First Out) memory from the last pixel. When loading the main scan line data from the LIFO memory, the CPU loads the first pixel of the main scan line.
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Moir
When one pattern is imposed over another sometimes they interfere with each other and form a third pattern called a moir pattern. In our products, MTF processing is a major cause of moir patterns.
CCD Original Image Data for one CCD element CCD Output The illustration shows one of the moir Waveform Data mechanisms. In this case, the pixel density 1.7 V of the CCD is the same as the density of the regular lines on the original. However, C223d635.wmf the regular lines are slightly out of step with the CCD pixels. As a result, each CCD pixel has a different value (as shown in the figure). Since the length of a CCD pixel is very short, the waveform from the CCD output looks like the cross lines in the figure. The moir pattern appears when prints are made from this signal. The moir pattern typically appears when the CCD pixel density is a multiple of the density of the regular lines on the original.
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Grayscale Processing
Grayscale processing uses many shades of grey to reproduce continuous tone originals, such as those containing photographs. A black and white photograph contains an unlimited number of shades of grey, but digital copiers and printers can normally only output a few shades, normally 64 or 256. If grayscale processing is used, the digital image processing circuit outputs, to the memory or laser diode driver, the result of all the previous enhancement and filtering processes, without any error diffusion or dithering. The result is a multi-bit per pixel stream of digital data. For example, if there are 256 shades of grey, there are eight bits per pixel. Note that grayscale processing needs a lot of memory. At eight bits per pixel (256 shades of grey), an A4 or LT page needs about 14 megabytes, without compression.
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Binary Picture Processing

In binary picture processing, the output data is one-bit only. There are no shades of grey. the output is black or white only. The multi-bit per pixel data stream has to be reduced to single-bit data. To do this, a threshold level is used. If a pixel has a value that is brighter than the threshold, it becomes a white pixel. If it is darker than the threshold, it becomes a black pixel. The threshold can usually be adjusted, and it often varies depending on modes selected at the operation panel. The example on the right shows how the threshold level affects the output. If binary picture processing is used with dithering or error diffusion, then the threshold level for each pixel will be different, as described in later sections.
Output 60 36 24 20 Output 60
20 16 8
Density Original Original
Density
Print
Print
Threshold Level: 24
Threshold Level: 16 thresh.wmf
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Dithering
This is used to reproduce originals with continuous tones, such as photographs on machines that cannot output true grayscales. Dithering produces different shades of gray by making different patterns of black and white dots. There are no gray dots at all. Dithering is sometimes called halftoning, and the various shades of gray are called halftones.
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Example: Model C211

Main Scan
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 14 9 11 7 0 5 4 1 2 4 8 3 6 14 9 7 0 4 1 2 8 3 6
Sub Scan
11 5
5 5 5 5 5 5
12 13 10 10 12 14 14 13 8 7 4 4 8 14 14 7 1 3 3 9 0 0 1 9 6 11 5 2 2 6 11 5 12 10 14 13 10 12 14 13
Image Data 4-bit data All pixels at 5
Dither Matrix
Result
dith1.wmf
The diagram shows how a dither matrix is used. In this machine, a 4 x 4 dither matrix is used, repeated many times so that it becomes the same size as the data for the scanned original. The dither matrix contains threshold levels. Each pixel of the scanned image is compared with the threshold level at the same location in the dither matrix. Then, each pixel changes to either black or white depending on whether the image data is greater or less than the threshold level. This procedure is repeated for the whole of the original. In the example, the original is a single tone of grey, and the repeated pattern output from the dither matrix appears grey to the human eye.
Digital Processes
Image Processing
The thresholds in the dither matrix are designed so that half-tones can be reproduced on prints using only black and white pixels, by changing the ratio of black pixels to white pixels. The matrixes can be adjusted in many machines to increase or decrease the detail on the copy. Also, the greater the number of lines in the matrix, the better the image quality in photo mode. Example: Coarse and Fine Screen Mode in Model C223 In this model a 12 x 12 dither matrix is used to convert 8-bit image data into single-bit data. The dither matrix for fine screen mode is different from the one for coarse screen mode. The diagram shows what happens to an original with a constant grey tone of grade 55 (out of the possible 256).
1/400 inch
dith2.wmf
Fine Screen
Coarse Screen
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Error Diffusion
The error diffusion process reduces the difference in contrast between light and dark areas of a halftone image. Each pixel is corrected using the difference between it and the surrounding pixels. The corrected pixels are then compared with an error diffusion matrix. Compared with dithering, error diffusion gives a better resolution, and is more suitable for continuous toned originals. On the other hand, dithering is more suitable for screen printed originals. Error diffusion is often used in text/photo mode. Dithering reproduces text areas poorly, and with just a simple thresholding or grayscale process, photo areas do not come out well. Error diffusion is a good compromise because it reduces the contrast between light and dark areas of halftone images, while having no effect on letter areas. Example: Model C226 Before a 6-bit image signal is converted into a single-bit signal based on the threshold level, there is a difference between the image signal value and the complete black value (63 for a 6-bit signal) or white value (0). With the Error Diffusion process, the difference is distributed among the surrounding pixels. (The MTF process simply erases these differences.) When considering Error Diffusion in one dimension only (across the page), the 6-bit data shown in the example below produces white and black data output as shown below. In practice, this onedimensional Error Diffusion is done in all directions on each pixel (across the page, down the page, etc.).
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In each dimension, the difference between the pixel value and the nearest extreme (0 or 63) is transferred to the next pixel. The 1st pixel in the row becomes either black or white, whichever is closest. Then, for the 1st pixel above, the difference between 7 and 0 is added to the 2nd pixel. The value of the 2nd pixel, which is now 18, is then added to the 3rd pixel. The 4th pixel becomes 52, which is closer to 63 than 0. In such cases, the difference is subtracted (not added) to get the next pixel value. In this example, the difference is 63-52=11, and the next pixel value (30-11) becomes 19. These values will then be treated by an error diffusion matrix.
na2erdif.wmf
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In Text/Photo Mode, the error diffusion matrix that is used may depend on the image area type (text or photo). Therefore, before error diffusion, a simple text/photo separation process is performed. This was described in Text/Image Separation - Method 2: Comparison of adjacent pixels. If error diffusion is used with binary picture processing, the output image signal level has just 2 levels (white and black). If it is used with grayscale processing, the output image signal level has a number of levels (from white to black). For example, in a machine with 256 grayscale output, the output from error diffusion may use a small selection of these values, which are selected to give a good print quality. Example: Model A229 (256 grey scales) Photo mode 17 levels per pixel Text areas in text/photo mode 9 levels per pixel Photo areas in text /photo mode 17 levels per pixel
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Merging
Digital processing allows the user to combine other forms of data with the original before printing. Common examples include printing the date and time, printing a message (such as 'Confidential'), or printing a background pattern.
Make-up Mode
In make-up mode, the user scans command sheets before the original. Each command sheet specifies an area of the original. Before making the copy, the user then specifies which effects to use for the designated areas of the original. Typical effects include original type (text, photo, etc), use of various colored inks, reversed image, and background patterns. This is a common feature in Priport machines. Color copiers achieve something similar using an editor touch screen on the operation panel.
Image Rotation
If the machine has paper of the same size as the original but different orientation, the image will be rotated by 90 degrees in memory before printing. The machine must have enough working memory to do this. The amount of memory required for a certain paper size depends on the image resolution and the number of bits per pixel. In the A229, 12 MB of DRAM is enough to hold two A4 images. This allows users to scan one original into the RAM while still copying from another. This only works for originals up to A4.
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Combining Images
Using the memory, digital machines can print reduced images up to eight pages on one sheet of copy paper, or 16 pages using duplex mode. If the locations of the printed images are arranged suitably, the user can make a small booklet out of up to 16 originals, using duplex mode, then folding and cutting the copy. Example: Model A133
comb1 wmf
comb2.wmf
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Erasure of Irregular Dots

After the binary picture processing stage, some fax machines use pattern recognition to remove irregular dots. Example: Model H515 If an element after being converted to white or black by binary picture processing is irregular against the surrounding pixels, it is output in the opposite color. The central pixel is compared with the surrounding eight pixels to determine whether this process is necessary. There are ten cases, as shown above, in which conversion is done. This results in a cleaner image.
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Line Width Correction

This is normally only used when the user selects Copied Original mode (making a copy of a photocopy). This mode is known as Generation Copy mode in some machines. Some copiers cause lines to bulge in the main scan direction as a result of the development system. So, pixels on edges between black and white areas are compared with adjacent pixels, and if the pixel is on a line, the line thickness will be reduced. For example, if the line on the original is one pixel in width, the pixel on the copy may be slightly larger than one pixel width (as shown in the bottom diagram) due to the shape of the dot made by the laser beam and the amount of toner attracted to the pixel. If this copy is used as an original, image processing may then generate additional black pixels at the edges of the line, so the resulting printout will have slightly thicker vertical lines in places. Line width correction attempts to correct for this effect.
Original Copy
Original
Copy
Lwc.wmf
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Edge Detection
In some fax machines, this process preserves the sharpness of image outlines. Each element is tested to determine whether it is on a boundary of two areas of sharp contrast (such as the edge of a character on a white background). If the element is on a boundary, it goes straight to the cpu as a black (1) element. (Halftone processing on this element could lead to a fuzzy outline.) Edge detection uses a threshold, which can be adjusted by RAM address in some models if edges of characters appear fuzzy.
Sub-scan Resolution Conversion

Fax machines have to consider the resolution of the printer at the other end of the telephone line. The sending terminal learns the capabilities of the printer at the other end through exchanges of protocol signals. If the printer cannot print at the same resolution as the scanned data, the sending terminal must modify the data. Two methods can be used: Line Skipping, and Or Processing. Line Skipping Example: Model H516 If the user selects Fine resolution, the machine scans the document at a resolution of 15.4 lines/mm down the page. However, if the other terminal can only receive at Detail resolution (7.7 lines/mm; half the resolution in Fine mode), alternate lines are deleted before transmission.
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Or Processing Or Processing combines two consecutive scan lines using a logical OR operation. An example is shown on the right. In this way, only one line is sent in place of the two lines of scanned data. OR processing ensures that the resulting single line accurately reflects the two consecutive lines that it is replacing, in that no black pixels are deleted. Example: Model H521 The scanner always scans at 15.4 lines/mm, so the sub scan resolution has to be converted when transmitting to a terminal which is not capable of higher resolutions. Standard (3.85 lines/mm): The first and third lines in each four-line group are OR processed for transmission. Other lines are deleted.
Feed
1st Line 2nd Line 3rd Line 4th Line 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm OR Processing
Orpro1.wmf
Transmit 3.85 l/mm
Cut
Cut H521D513.wmf
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Detail (7.7 lines/mm): Pairs of lines are OR processed for transmission.

1st Line 2nd Line 3rd Line 4th Line
Feed
15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm OR Processing OR Processing
Transmit
7.7 l/mm
7.7 l/mm
H521D514.wmf
Fine: All the scanned lines are transmitted.

1st Line 2nd Line 3rd Line 4th Line
Feed
15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm
Transmit
15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm 15.4 l/mm
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Inch-mm Conversion
Multifunctional digital machines are usually designed to print in dot-per-inch format, to conform to international standards for office computer equipment. However, in Group 3 fax standards, the data is transmitted in dot per mm format. If the scanner scans in dots per inch, the data must be converted to dot per mm format before transmission. The scanner hardware and image processing circuits can work together to get the right format. Example: Models A639/A804 Main Scan Direction The base copier's scanner always scans at 400 dpi in the main scan direction. Then, the image processor processes the scanned data to get the required resolution and data width. This is the same process as Reduction in copy mode. dpi: dots per inch, dpm: dots per mm Reduction 400 dpi 200 dpi 16 dpm 8 dpm No reduction 100.0% 50.0% 101.5% 51.0% A3 to B4 86.5% 43.0% 88.0% 44.0% A3 to A4 70.5% 35.0% 71.5% 36.0% B4 to A4 81.5% 41.0% 83.0% 41.5%
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Sub Scan Direction The base machine's scanner changes the motor speed to get the required resolution. However, if the reduction rate requires a faster speed than the scanner motor's maximum (37% reduction rate when using the ADF), the scanner and the image processor work together to get the required resolution as shown in the second table below. lpi: lines per inch, lpm: lines per mm Reduction 400 lpi 200 lpi 100 lpm 15.4 lpm 7.7 lpm 3.85 lpm No reduction 100.0% 50.0% 97.8% 48.9% 25.0%2 24.5%7 A3 to B4 86.5% 43.2% 84.6% 42.3% 21.6%3 21.2%8 1 4 6 A3 to A4 70.5% 69.0% 35.2% 34.5% 17.6% 17.3%9 B4 to A4 81.5% 40.8% 79.7% 39.8% 20.4%5 19.9%10 Numbers in superscript Scanner and image processor both work together; refer to the following table
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Case Case 1 (35.2%) Case 2 (25.0%) Case 3 (21.6%) Case 4 (17.6%) Case 5 (20.4%) Case 6 (34.5%) Case 7 (24.5%) Case 8 (21.2%) Case 9 (17.3%) Case 10 (19.9%)
Mode ADF Book
ADF Book
Reduction by Scanner 52.8% 50.0% 25.0% 43.2% 52.8% 40.8% 51.9% 48.9% 36.8% 42.4% 51.9% 39.8%
Reduction by BiCU 66.7% 50.0% 50.0% 33.3% 50.0% 66.7% 50.0% 66.7% 50.0% 33.3% 50.0%
Inch - mm conversion causes a slight enlargement in the main scan direction and a slight reduction in the sub scan direction. This can be seen from the above tables. For example, changing 400 x 400 dpi to 16 x 15.4 l/mm requires enlargement of 101.5% in the main scan direction and a reduction of 97.8 in the sub scan direction.
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Similarly, if a dot-per-inch based machine receives Group 3 fax data, it has to convert it to dot-permm format. It can also change the polygon mirror speed. Example: Model A120 13132.44 rpm (dot-per-mm mode), 13385.83 rpm (dpi mode) We will mention this again in the Laser Exposure section.
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Image Rotation Before Transmission

In copiers with fax boards, it is possible to place an A4 or Letter size original sideways on the exposure glass. In this case, the original will be treated as an A3 (DLT) width original, and reduced to A4 before transmission. Also, if an A5 (half-letter) original is placed lengthwise on the exposure glass, the image will be sent as A4 (LT) with a lot of blank space at one edge.
1st Pixel 1st Line
Sub Scan (< 210mm/8.5")
Main Scan (297mm/11")
Original
Scanned Image
90
Transmitted Image
a693d503.wmf
However, the Image Rotation Before Transmission feature prevents these things from happening, by rotating the image before sending it out.
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Black and White CIS Systems

Contact Image Sensors
Some low-price compact fax machines and Priports use a contact image sensor (CIS) instead of a CCD. A CIS consists of a strip of photodiodes to illuminate the document, and a strip of phototransistors covered by a row of self-focusing lenses. If a CIS is used, a long light path is not needed, because the CIS contacts the document directly, so the size of the scanner can be greatly reduced (no mirrors, lenses, or shading plates are needed). When using a fluorescent lamp/lens/CCD arrangement, the light path is about 300 to 500 mm. However, a CIS is positioned less than 0.1 mm above the surface of the paper. However, the built-in analog processing circuits in CIS assemblies are inferior to the video processors of CCD models. Originally, using a contact image sensor instead of a CCD removed the necessity of the complicated adjustments needed for a CCD scanner. However, CCD assemblies need no adjustments in the field nowadays, so they are used now only for cost and space reduction.
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The diagram shows a typical CIS scanner. The scanner consists of a shading plate [A] and a contact image sensor (CIS) assembly [B]. Inside the CIS are an exposure glass [C], a self-focusing lens array [D], an image sensor [E], and an LED array [F]. The image sensor is a row of 1728 photosensitive elements (A4 width, 8 dots/mm). The LED array illuminates the original. The self-focusing lens array focuses light reflected from the original onto the image sensor. [D] [E] [C]
[A]
[F]
H505D522.wmf
[B]
Because of the short optical path inside the CIS, the focal depth is much shorter than for a CCD type scanner. Because of this, a spring pushes the shading plate against the document so that the document surface always touches the exposure glass at the scan line, and the distance between the CIS and the original is constant. However in book scanning mode, if the original is out of the CIS focal range, the scanned image may get darker.
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Auto shading and other processes already described for the CCD are also used in CIS scanners. The only new ones are as follows.
Zeroing the Signal and Correcting the Amplification Ratio

Example: Model H516
LED OFF LED ON VGCOM = Low
Peak Level
The image sensor generates a certain voltage even if the scanner lamp is not turned on. To correct for this, the machine automatically adjusts the ground level of the sensor output, if the peak voltage of the analog video signal exceeds 234 mV when the lamp is off.
VOFFCNT = Low
Peak Level
GND
GND
H516D565.wmf
Then, the machine adjusts the signal's amplification ratio if the peak output level of the analog video signal while the scanner lamp is on is lower than 1.72V. The machine will execute the above adjustments automatically, just before scanning the first page. Refer to the waveforms in the diagram to see how these adjustments work.
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Sampling Clock Selection

The image sensor output is a sawtooth waveform. So the sensor output level depends on the sampling clock selected as shown in the above diagram. The clock is adjusted at the factory. But for some models, the clock should be reset using a service function whenever the image sensor is replaced. Example: Model H521
Scanner Lamp ON
Scanner Lamp OFF
Clock 0 Clock 1 Clock 2 Clock 3 Clock 4 Clock 5 Clock 6 Clock 7
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All the features discussed for the CCD apply here also. There is another one that appears in Priports that use a CIS.
Paste Shadow Erase Mode

Due to the characteristics of the contact image sensor, shadows tend to appear on copies of pasteup originals. To counter this, pressing a key on the operation panel allows use of paste shadow erase mode. When this mode is selected, the black or white threshold level (used in binary picture processing) is slightly lowered. At the same time, the strength of the MTF process in the sub-scan direction is weakened to make the shadows inconspicuous.
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Color Systems
Overview
This section will explain image processing in color copiers.
Color CCD
The color CCD converts light reflected from the original into three analog signals, one for each of the three basic colors Red, Green, and Blue. The signals are called the R, G, and B signals. Each of the four scans (for toner colors YMCK) uses all three signals (RGB). The CCD consists of three lines of 5000 elements at a resolution of 400 dpi (15.7 dots/mm). To make the R, G, and B signals, each line has a color separation filter (R, G, or B). The lines are spaced 8 pixels apart for full size magnification. To correct for these spacings, the R, G, and B signals must be synchronized. This is done using a memory work area in the image processing circuits.
A166D540.wmf
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A filter removes infra-red; this is particularly important for glossy photos containing black areas, which can appear reddish in copies. Most color copiers do not have enough memory for the scanned RGB data to be processed and converted to KCMY data all at once. Therefore, one scan is needed for each toner color that will be used in the copy. For example, for a full color copy, the original is scanned four times, as follows: First scan: The video processing circuits make K data from the scanned RGB data. Second scan: The circuits make C data from the RGB data. Third scan: The circuits make M data from the RGB data. Fourth scan: The circuits make Y data from the RGB data.

These are similar to the processes for black-and-white copiers, except for the following.
Auto Shading
This is done before the black scan.
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Image Processing

Scan Line Correction
The three CCD lines providing the RGB signals are several scan lines apart (typically 8 scan lines apart) when full size magnification is used. To compensate for this discrepancy, the line correction circuits synchronise the output timing of the RGB signals to the digital processing circuits by storing the data for each line in memory. The discrepancy between RGB video signals depends on the reproduction ratio, and this is taken into account in the correction. Example: Model A166 B: Standard (No correction) G: (8 lines) x (Reproduction ratio) R: (16 lines) x (Reproduction ratio) If this calculation does not result in an integer (for example if the reproduction ratio is 90%), the correction factor is set to the closest integer, but further correction is needed (refer to Picture Element Correction).
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Picture Element Correction

The target areas for this correction are shown in the diagram. The Picture Element Correction circuit does two things. 1. Completion of the Scan Line Correction process This is done if the scan line correction process did not result in an integer. 2. Correction if the CCD is not perpendicular to the light If the CCD board is not perpendicular to the light axis, the position of each pixel is different from the original image position. This difference becomes larger towards the ends. Under this condition, vertical black lines (in the sub-scan direction) at the left and right edges of the original are colored because the Y, M, and C toner dots are not properly positioned. (An example of this is the vertical lines at the right and left edges of the C4 color chart.)
A166D509.wmf
For this second stage, the green CCD line is taken as a standard, and the ends of the red and blue lines are corrected.
Digital Processes
Image Processing
Scanner Gamma Correction

The RGB video signals detected by the CCD are converted to 8-bit digital signals. These signals are proportional to the light intensity reflected from the original image (see the first diagram). However, the image processor converts the signal levels as shown in the second diagram by using a gamma correction table. This table reverses the output of the video signal for each color, and this improves the accuracy of RGB to CMY color conversion, which is done later in the image process. The same table is used for R, G, and B signals.
A166D507.wmf
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The scanner correction converts the video signal levels as follows: Dark (Black) Light (White) Scanner Input (RGB) 0 255 255 0 After Correction (RGB) Color Conversion Printer Output (CMYK) 255 0 The reversal is not linear. Dark areas need finer gradations for better copy quality.
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ACS (Auto Color Selection)

Auto color selection mode determines if an original is black/white or color. Then black copy mode or full color mode is automatically selected to match the original. To recognize if the original has a colored area or not, the RGB video signals are compared. If the maximum difference among RGB signal levels (MAX-MIN in the above diagram) is within a certain range, the original is considered black and white. Increasing the value of MAX-MIN makes it more likely that an original will be treated as a black-andwhite original.
A166D510.wmf
During the 1st scanning cycle, the latent image is developed with the amount of black toner as specified by the gamma-corrected RGB video signals. If the original does not have any color areas, the 2nd scanning is aborted and the developed image is transferred from the transfer belt to the copy paper. Then the black and white copy comes out. If the original has a colored area, copying resumes in the full color copy mode (4 scans). Users can maximize the quality of their output by selecting priority for Black or Full color original when using ACS mode. This will be discussed in more detail later in the section on Under Color Removal (UCR)
Digital Processes
Image Processing
Auto Text/Image Separation

This is similar to the method already described for black-and-white systems. However, there is an extra step for determining which parts of text areas are black and which are colored. Black pixels and color pixels in text areas are identified by determining the differences between the maximums of the RGB signals and by evaluating the output levels of the RGB video signals.
A166d513.wmf
The edge separation and dot screen detection steps are similar to those described for black-andwhite systems, but they are done using the green data signal only. Auto letter/photo separation is mostly effective only for small letters or thin line diagram elements. If there are big letters or solid line drawing elements in the original, only the edges of these are processed using text mode; the inner regions are processed using photo mode.
RGB Filtering
The appropriate filters are applied to the R/B/G video signals, depending on the selected image modes (text/image) or the result of Auto Text/Image separation.
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Smoothing Filter
Before After
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The smoothing filter improves the image by smoothing the gradient between pixels in half-tone areas.
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Edge Emphasis Filter (High Contrast Filter)
Before
After
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The high contrast filter improves letters by making the edges of text and line art elements stand out more clearly. These two types of filter are applied again in some models after conversion from RGB to CMYK. (In the drawing, it is shown being used on CMYK data after color conversion.) The user can adjust the strengths of these filters to make the image sharper or softer.
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Auto Image Density Control

This prevents the background of an original from appearing on copies. Example: Model A166
Image Density Image Density
Threshold 0 Main Scan Line

A166D522.wmf
0 Main Scan Line

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If the user does not select ADS mode, the machine removes low ID image signals (background) that are less than a certain threshold. The threshold that is applied depends on the color mode (single color or full color). If the threshold is too high, colored backgrounds could be erased.
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If the user selects ADS mode, the machine calculates the threshold, guided by input from the user (there are 4 settings for black-and-white, and 4 for full color). In full color mode, after the first scanning (Bk) the machine calculates the threshold for removing background by referring to the RGB data taken from the whole of the original. In black and white mode, the machine calculates the threshold for each pixel by referring to neighboring pixels.
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Color Conversion
The transparency of each color toner is not ideal, as shown in the diagram. Color conversion compensates for the difference between ideal and actual characteristics. RGB video signals from each scanning cycle are converted to YMCK video signals using a matrix. Example: Model A166
A166D516.wmf
Toner Y M C Bk
Bk 1 1 1 1
R 1 1 0 0
Y 1 0 0 0
Original Color G C 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
B 0 1 1 0
M 0 1 0 0
W 0 0 0 0
Some user and SP modes can change the contents of the matrix. Examples: To change the color balance of the output, to allow three types of photo mode (Printed Photo, Glossy Photo, and Copied Photo).
Digital Processes
Image Processing
Positive/Negative Reverse
Posneg1.wmf Posneg2.wmf
In the positive/negative image mode, colors are changed to their complements, as shown below: Red Cyan Green Magenta Blue Yellow Yellow Blue Magenta Green Cyan Red Black White White Black
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UCR (Under Color Removal) Principle
A166D525.wmf
Getting the right colors using YMC toner addition does not always work perfectly. For example, equal amounts of Y, M, and C toner should give Black. However, the result is a dark blue. UCR compensates for this by removing equal amounts of each color toner and replacing them with black toner. The UCR ratio is the percentage of the common ID value for YMC that is subtracted and converted to Black. In the above example, where the UCR ratio is 100%; the entire common ID value is subtracted from Y, M, and C, and converted to Bk. In actual use, the UCR ratio depends on the color mode and the image density. For example, when the UCR ratio is 95%, 95% of the entire common ID value is subtracted from Y, M, and C, and converted to Bk.
Digital Processes
Image Processing
In the following examples, the UCR ratio is 70%. For a Black Image When a black image is copied, the ID values for all colors are equal (diagram on the left). For each color, the ID value is reduced by the UCR ratio (70% in this example). A black ID value equal to the 70% reduction is added to compensate for the color ID reduction (diagram on the right). For a Color Image When a color image is copied, the color ID values are different from one another. It is treated in three steps.
ID Value Y M C
Ucr2.wmf
Result after 70% UCR

ID Value 30% Y M C 70% Y M C K
Ucr1.wmf
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1. The ID value for this image is broken down into two parts: a set of values equal to the lowest color ID value, and the remainders of the two higher values.
Black component ID Value Y M C Y M C
Color component C Ucr3.wmf
2. The part with the equal values is treated as a black image (see For a Black Image on the previous page), using the 70% UCR ratio.
ID Value
30% Y M C 70% Y M K C Ucr1.wmf
3. The resulting amounts are then added to the remainders from step 1. The final result gives us the ID value for each color and for black.
Black component after 70% UCR

ID Value Y M C K
Color component unchanged
RESULT
C K Ucr4.wmf
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Changes in UCR Ratio with Image Density and Copy Mode Example: Model A166
A166D510.wmf
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Also, the user can select either B/W Priority or Color Priority, to reproduce the B/W areas or Color areas well, when the ACS mode is selected. - Letter Areas The UCR ratio in letter areas is always 100%. The UCR ratio is set to 100% to reproduce the letter areas well. Black toner is always used if MIN (RGB Common Data) is greater than zero, and the value of MIN determines how much black toner is used.
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- Photo Areas, with ACS Priority set to Bk In photo areas, Bk toner is not used until MIN reaches a certain value. When the user sets the ACS priority to Bk, UCR begins to replace color toner with Bk toner at low image densities (when MIN is about 13 see the diagram on the previous page). This is to prevent the UCR process from reducing the image density too much in low image density areas. At this point, the UCR ratio is zero. As shown in the graph above right (on the previous page), it gradually rises with image density, and the UCR ratio is about 100% when MIN is 255. The UCR ratio changes with image density. The steeper the gradient in the above graph, the faster the UCR ratio increases with image density (as MIN increases). - Photo Areas, with ACS Priority set to Full Color When the user sets the ACS priority to Full Color, the UCR process does not begin to replace color toner with Bk toner until a low-medium image density (when MIN is about 102 see the diagram). At this point, the UCR ratio is zero. It gradually rises with image density, and the UCR ratio is about 95% when MIN is 255.
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Determining the UCR Ratio To get the UCR ratio for any MIN value, draw a line up from the MIN value on the x axis until it reaches the line corresponding to Letter mode. Measure this length (LT), and measure the length (MODE) up to where this vertical line crosses the line for the copy mode being used. Because the UCR ratio for letter mode is always 100%, the UCR ratio for this MIN value with this copy mode is (MODE/LT) x 100%.
UCR = 100%
LT
MODE
A UCR Ratio at A = Mode LT X 100%
255
Ucrcalc.wmf
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Bk Conversion Data
When the user uses the UCR Adjustment User Tool, the UCR ratio for each image density will change, so the gradient and intercept of the line for color mode will change. Example: Model A172 The diagram shows an example.
255 8
: Letter areas : Photo areas 6 UCR ratio: 100% 4 UCR 2 setting 1 3 9 5 7
255 RGB Common Data

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UCA (Under Color Addition) Using only UCR processing, the copy lacks depth. So, a specified ratio of toner is added for each color (YMC only). The amount of additional toner is proportional to the density of that color on the copy. UCA is only done in text and line-art areas. In these areas, UCR is 100%, so some color may need to be added back. In photo areas, the UCR ratio changes with image density, so UCA is not needed. Increase the UCA level if dark colors are appearing black on the copy. Decrease the value if pure black on the original is not pure black on the copy.
Y M C K
UCA
K Uca.wmf
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Printer Gamma Correction and Auto Color Calibration

KCMY Gamma
A166D528.wmf
A166D529.wmf
A gamma curve describes the relation between the image density of the original and that of the copy. The relationship is not linear: doubling the ID of an original does not double the ID of the copy. The printer characteristics are much more variable than the scanner. Therefore, the printer gamma needs recalibration and adjustment from time to time. Ideally, the gamma curves for Yellow, Magenta, Cyan, and Black should be identical, as shown in in the diagram above left. However, they are not, because electrical components always vary slightly, resulting in varying gamma curves, as shown in the diagram above right.
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To compensate for this discrepancy, the Auto Color Calibration (ACC) procedure can be done if color reproduction is becoming unsatisfactory. ACC makes new gamma curves for each color in each mode (letter, photo, black letter, glossy photo). After ACC, the gamma curve for each color can be adjusted with service programs. Using these programs, each gamma curve can be adjusted using 4 different modes: ID max., High ID, Middle ID, and Low ID, as shown on the following page. (ID = Image Density) Example: Model A109 - ID max. This mode is used to adjust the total image density level.
Copy ID ID MAX Darker 10 H 10
Lighter 0 If the value is incremented by 1, the ID is increased by 5% L L Original ID H
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High ID The High ID mode should be used to adjust the image density between Level 6 and Level 9 of the color gradation scale on the C-4 test chart.
H 20 0 High ID Copy ID Darker 20
Lighter 0 L L Original ID H
Prtgam3.wmf
Middle ID The Middle ID mode should be used to adjust the image density between Level 3 and Level 7 of the color gradation scale on the C-4 test chart.
Copy ID 30 0 Middle ID Darker 30
Lighter 0 L L Original ID H
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H
Low ID The Low ID mode should be used to adjust the image density between Level 2 and Level 5 of the color gradation scale on the C-4 test chart.
Copy ID Low ID Darker 20 20 0 L Original ID H
Lighter 0
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H 1 5 Copy ID 9
Image Density This shows how the gamma curve can be adjusted to change the image density.
L L Original ID H
Prtgam6.wmf
Contrast This shows how the gamma curve can be adjusted to change the contrast between light parts and dark parts of the image. The slope of the line in the graph changes, but stays centered around point "A".
Strong
Copy ID
W eak
W eak
A Strong
L L
Original ID
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Pastel Mode This shows how the gamma curves can be adjusted to produce pastel mode images. Another way to do this is by changing the parameters of the color conversion matrix.
H Copy ID 9 steps
L L Original ID H
Prtgam8.wmf
Color Balance The balance between the four colors CMYK can be changed by altering the gamma curves. Another way to do this is by changing the parameters of the color conversion matrix.
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Auto Color Calibration (ACC) Example: Model A172 This machine automatically calibrates the printer gamma curve when the user selects ACC. A test pattern, including the patterns for Letter mode and Photo mode, will be printed first. The user then scans the test pattern. and the machine corrects the printer gamma by comparing the ideal settings with the current image density. The test pattern consists of eight lines, one for each color (KCMY) in letter mode, and one for each color in photo mode. There are adjustment tables for L, M, H, and ID MAX values stored in the machine. The machine applies these to approximate the actual curve to the target curve as closely as possible. If needed, the printer gamma curve can be adjusted further manually using a procedure called Color Balance Adjustment.
Target Actual
A172D534.wmf
Image Density
H
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Printer Engines
Laser Printing
Outline
This section of the manual explains the optical and video data processing components of the laser printing system. It also explains how the printout data signal is generated from the received image data. The machine uses a laser diode to produce electrostatic latent images on the photoconductor. This gives high print quality and enables high-speed writing. The laser diode unit converts received image data into laser pulses, and the optical components direct these pulses to the photoconductor, where the laser beam forms a latent image. Notes 1. Every model has safety features to stop the laser if the photoconductor is not present or if certain covers are open. Interlock switches are normally used to ensure these safety conditions. 2. Always observe the following cautions when servicing a laser printer: Never remove the laser unit cover while the main switch is on. Never remove any components of the laser circuit when the main switch is on. Never touch the surface of the optical components.
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The Latent Image

Exposure of the photoconductor to the laser beam creates the latent image. A rotating mirror moves the laser beam across the photoconductor to make the main scan while photoconductor rotation controls the sub-scan. In this example, the photoconductor is charged to about -780 V. The charge on irradiated areas drops significantly, typically to between 0 and -100 V. (Voltage values differ from model to model.) The area that is irradiated depends on whether the 'write to white 'or 'write to black' method is being used. Most machines use the 'write to black' method. (See Digital Processes Digital Images Printer Output.)
Main Scan (Laser Beam Movement)
Sub-scan (Photoconductor Rotation)
Laseropt.wmf
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Optical Path
The diagram shows the typical optical components of a laser printer. Example: Model A133 The laser diode emits a thin pencil-like laser beam. This beam is reflected by a rapidly spinning polygonal mirror (a 5, 6, or 8-sided mirror is normally used). Each face of the mirror scans the laser beam across one main scan line on the photoconductor. The photoconductor then moves down one line, and the beam from the next face of the mirror writes the next main scan line. The beam then passes to the photoconductor through the various optical components. At the start of each main scan, the laser hits the laser synchronization detector. This detector then synchronizes the electronics for the start of a new scan line. This machine has two detectors; the reason for that will be explained later in this section.
[G]
[H] [A] [B] [C] [D] [E]
[J] [F]
[I]
A: Laser Diode Unit B: F Lenses C: BTL (Barrel Toroidal Lens) D: Drum Mirror I: OPC Drum
A133d613.wmf E: Laser Synchronization Detector Board-2 F: Laser Synchronization Detector Board-1 G: Polygon Mirror Motor H: Cylindrical Lens J: Toner Shield Glass
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Optical Components
The components of the optical path are described in the following pages. The actual components used and their names may differ from model to model.
Laser Diode Unit

This consists of the laser diode, collimating lens, aperture, and laser diode drive board. The laser diode (sometimes called LD for short) radiates laser beams of a wavelength of 780 nm, which is in the far red to near infra-red range of the spectrum.
Laser Diode Drive Board Collimating Lens
Laser Beam Aperture
The power of the laser beam depends on Laser Diode Lsrcmp1.wmf the type of photoconductor used, and on the paper feed speed (a faster engine needs a stronger laser, if the photoconductor type is the same). A typical example is 0.6 mW for the A193. The collimating lens forms the radiating beams into a parallel flux, which passes to the cylindrical lens. The cross section of the beam at the aperture is an ellipse about 2.6 mm long by 0.5 mm wide. Some models have two laser diodes. This is explained in Dual Laser Beam Printing.
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Cylindrical Lens
The cylindrical lens focuses the beam and sends it to the rotating polygonal mirror.
Laser Diode Unit
Cylindrical Lens
Polygonal Mirror
The faces of the mirror are precision-ground for high reflectivity, and to prevent pixel misalignments in the main and sub-scan directions.
Beam Cross-section
Lsrcmp2.wmf
The mirror rotates at a constant speed, which varies from model to model. As the mirror reflects the laser beam, its rotation scans the beam across the photoconductor, via lenses and mirrors. The beam reflected from one face of the polygonal mirror makes one main scan across the photoconductor. This is illustrated below.
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Mirror
Drive Board Motor

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(2) (1)
The relation between mirror face orientation and scanning is as follows. 1. Laser synchronization (main scan start) detector position 2. Main scan start position 3. Main scan intermediate position 4. Main scan end position (1) to (4) are repeated for each line. One scan line on the photoconductor is scanned by one face of the mirror. The above set of diagrams illustrates the main scan. When the beam hits the main scan start detector mirror (1), the CPU recognizes that a new line is about to be scanned. As the mirror rotates, the beam scans across the photoconductor [(2) - (3) - (4)]. Normally, there is no main scan end sensor at (4) because, as the mirror rotates and the beam hits the next face, the beam is instantly deflected to the vicinity of (1) and a new main scan begins. However, some machines have a sensor at the end of the main scan, and this will be explained later.
Laser Beam
(3)
(4)
Lsrcmp4.wmf
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F Lenses
The angles between picture element beams are equal. However, the diameters of each element beam projected onto the photoconductor are different, being thicker at both ends of the main scan than in the center, as shown in the upper diagram. The F (F-theta) lenses correct for this. The F lenses correct the laser beam so that it passes over the photoconductor at a constant speed. The lenses deflect the beam slightly inward to ensure that the diameters of all picture elements are equal.
Thick Polygonal Mirror
Thin
Lsrcmp5.wmf
Lsrcmp6.wmf
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Second Mirror
Second Mirror
The second mirror reflects the corrected laser beam to the focusing lens. There may be more than one mirror in this position, if the optical path is not straight.
Polygonal Mirror F Lenses
Focusing Lens
Focusing Lens
This lens corrects the beam for face irregularities on the polygonal mirror and second mirror, and focuses the beam onto the photoconductor.
Photoconductor
Lsrcmp7.wmf
F Lenses
Second Mirror Accurately reflected beam Focusing Lens Photoconductor Lsrcmp8.wmf
Mirror In printers where the photoconductor is close to the lens, a cylindrical lens is often used in this Beams reflected inaccurately because of position. However, if the photoconductor is not mirror face irregularities close to the lens, a cylindrical lens would leave the left and right edges of the image blurred. In these models, a focusing lens (sometimes called a barrel toroidal lens) is used; this lens operates similarly to an F lens. The barrel toroidal lens is also used when plastic F lenses are used to reduce costs. With plastic lenses, it is difficult to get the required beam deflection with F lenses only.
Polygonal
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The cross section of the beam on the photoconductor (i.e., the size of each printed dot) varies from model to model; it is roughly circular, with a diameter in the region of 80 mm. This means that the printed dots overlap each other slightly, as seen below in a typical example. Example: Model H006 80 mm is about 12 dots per mm, and 90 mm is about 11 dots per mm. However, the printer resolution is 16 x 15.4 dots per mm. The dots are larger than this resolution, so they overlap. This results in a better image than if there were no overlap.
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Laser Synchronization Detector

Single-detector System
Mechanism Example: Model H006 The laser synchronization detector (sometimes known as the main scan start detector) synchronizes the main scan start timing of the laser beam across the photoconductor. Each face of the polygonal mirror scans the laser beam across the photoconductor for one main scan. Just before the laser beam starts scanning across the photoconductor, it hits the laser synchronization detector. The signal from the detector informs the cpu that a new main scan is about to start. The cpu then synchronizes the electronics for the start of the new scan line.
Fibre Optic Cable
F Lenses Polygonal Mirror
Second Mirror
Lsrcmp10.wmf
The laser synchronization detector is a phototransistor. In some models, it is connected with a fibre optic cable.
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Circuit Example: Model H006 Just before the laser beam starts scanning across the photoconductor, it hits the main scan start detector. An optic fiber or a mirror routes the laser beam to the detector. The detector output passes to a comparator. The comparator output [A] goes high when activated by the laser beam. It remains high for a few microseconds. The signal passes to the Laser Interface (LIF). An oscillator sends a clock signal to the clock generator. The clock generator generates eight clock signals (CK0 to CK7) from this clock. Each of these has the same frequency as the original clock signal, but there is a fixed phase difference of 30 to 40 nanoseconds (depending on the model) between each of the eight output signals. (A thousand million nanoseconds make one second.) The LIF selects one of these eight signals to time data output for the main scan line that is about to start. The selection process is shown below.
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+5V Detector +5V + _ Laser Diode Drive Board Comparator [A]
Oscillator Clock Clock Generator CK0-7 +5VD
LIF
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As shown in the timing chart, the eight clock signals CK0 to CK7 have the same frequency but are out of phase with each other. The signal chosen is the one that has the nearest rising edge immediately after the signal from the main scan start detector goes high. Here, CK2 is selected. The process is repeated at the start of each scan line. In some models, the signal with the nearest rising edge before the main scan start signal is chosen; CK1 would be selected in the above example.
CK0 CK1 CK2 CK3 CK4 CK5 CK6 CK7 SYNC
Lsrcmp12.wmf
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Double-detector System
Example: Model A133 Some of the optical components are made of plastic, and may expand and contract with changes of temperature. If this happens, the number of pulses in the laser main scan across the photoconductor will vary. To counteract the effects of this, the machine adjusts the frequency of the laser pulses to keep the number of laser pulses in each main scan constant. To do this, the machine has two laser synchronizing detector boards [A] and [B], one at each end of the main scan line. They measure the number of clock pulses between the start and end of each main scan. (These clock pulses are from the base clock, which is at a much higher frequency than the laser frequency.) If the number of pulses is not correct, the machine adjusts the frequency of the laser to keep the number of laser pulses in each main scan constant. The laser synchronizing detector board-1 [B] synchronizes the main scan start timing. At the other side, the laser synchronizing detector board-2 [A] counts the number of clock pulses since detector board-1 was activated.
[A]
[B]
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Digital Processes
Printer Engines
Dual Laser Beam Printing System

Overview
Example: Model A230 This LD unit has two laser diodes, [A] and [B]. This means that each face of the six-sided polygon mirror writes two main scan lines, and twelve main scans are produced when the mirror rotates once. This mechanism: Reduces the mirror motor rotation speed Reduces the noise generated by the polygon mirror motor Reduces the image data clock frequency, to allow high speed printing without costlier high-speed components Two laser beams go to the polygon mirror [C] through collimating lens [D] and prism [E]. They arrive on the drum surface about 2 mm away from each other in the main scan direction and about 0.06 mm (at 400 dpi) in the sub scan direction.
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[A] [D] [B] [E] [C]
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2 mm
The reason for the two-mm difference in the main scan direction is so that the machine can detect a laser synchronization signal for each beam.
P1
P2
Laser Beam Pitch Change Mechanism

Example: Model A230 When this machine receives data from a printer, it must print at 600 dpi. The machine changes the resolution between 400 and 600 dpi by rotating the LD unit.
P1: 400 dpi P2: 600 dpi
When the LD positioning motor [A] turns, the metal block [B] (which contacts the LD unit housing [C]) moves up and down. This changes the position of the L2 laser beam (L1 does not move). Both LD unit positions are at fixed distances from the LD home position sensor [D] (measured by motor pulses). Usually, the LD unit moves directly to the proper position. However, when the number of times that the resolution has changed reaches a certain value, the LD unit moves to the home position (the home position sensor activates), then it moves to the proper position. This recalibrates the LD unit positioning mechanism.
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[D] [B]
[C]
[A]
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Laser Diode Power Control

Even if a constant electric current is applied to the laser diode, the intensity of the output light changes with the temperature. The intensity of the output decreases as the temperature increases. In order to keep the output level constant, the output light intensity is monitored through a photodiode enclosed in the laser diode. The photodiode passes an electrical current that is proportional to the light intensity. The output is not affected by temperature, so it faithfully reflects the changes in the LD output, without adding anything itself. Example: Model A133 Just after the main switch is turned on, and every pixel during printing, IC2 on the LD drive board excites the laser diode at full power and stores the output of the photodiode (PD) as a reference. IC2 monitors the current passing through the photodiode. Then it increases or decreases the current to the laser diode as necessary, comparing the output with the reference level. The laser power level is adjusted on the production line. Do not touch the variable resistors on the LD unit in the field.
LD5 V LD +5 V LD Drive Board PD
VIDEO
IC1
IC2 LVL1
LEVEL LD OFF
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Laser Signal Profile

The cpu does not send a continuous stream of video data to the laser diode. If it did that, the start of each line of data would not be properly synchronized. The transfer of data to the laser diode is made line by line, using the signal from the main scan start detector to synchronize the signal. The following timing chart shows how each main scan line of data is sent to the laser diode. One page of data will consist of many repetitions of this basic signal profile. When the CPU detects the main scan start synchronization signal, it turns off the laser beam.
On Off
f a b c d e g h
Synchronization Signal Detected
4799 dots
Synchronization Signal Detected
Lasersig.wmf
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Main scan start synchronization signal detected Dummy bits ("a" and "b" on the diagram) One main scan line of data ("c" on the diagram) Dummy bits ("d" and "e" on the diagram) Dummy bits ("f" on the diagram) Dummy bits ("g" on the diagram) Laser on, ready to activate sensor ("h" on the diagram)
After a short while, it turns back on. The amount of white dummy bits marked "b" on the diagram depend on the paper width; the number of bits "a" are fixed. The main scan line data follows ("c" on the diagram), then more dummy bits (the amount of the dummy bits marked "d" depends on paper width; the bits marked "e", "f", and "g" on the diagram are fixed). During "c", the signal will switch between high and low in accordance with the data signal. It also switches on and off between pixels. At point 7 on the timing chart, the laser beam turns back on so that it can activate the main scan start detector.
Digital Processes
Printer Engines
The signal profile on the previous page is for a "write to black" printing process. In a "write to white" process, the signal profile is similar, except that dummy bits "b" and "d" are high instead of low. Also, the polarity of the data signal during "c" is the reverse. The duration of one cycle depends on the rotation speed of the polygon mirror. Example: Models A229 at 400 dpi Six-sided mirror, rotation speed: 25984 rpm Duration: 60/(25984 x 6) s = About 0.38 ms
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Image Processing
Printer Gamma Correction
Printer gamma correction corrects the data output from the image processing circuits to the laser diode to account for the characteristics of the printer (e.g., the characteristics of the drum, laser diode, and lenses). Printer gamma correction is done after image processing, before the data goes to the laser diode.
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Gradation Processing
This section explains how a laser printer reproduces grayscales. To make the latent image, the laser beam illuminates the image area of the drum surface. The longer the laser is on and the brighter it is, the darker the developed pixel becomes.
Power Modulation 8 Levels
Greyscale 1
Greyscale 4
Greyscale 8
Greyscale 12
Greyscale 16
Greyscale 34
Greyscale 64
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pulse Width Modulation 8 Levels
Lasgrad1.wmf
Changing the duration (also called the width) of the pulse is known as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). Models with this feature typically have 8 possible pulse width levels.
Digital Processes
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While the laser is on to make a dot, the laser can be made brighter or dimmer. This is known as power modulation (PM). The lasers intensity is controlled by the amount of current sent to the laser diode. Models with this feature typically have either 8 or 64 possible power levels. The PWM and PM levels are combined to reproduce the various grades in the grey scale. Examples A193: 8 PWM levels, 8 PM levels, giving 64 possible greyscale levels per pixel A229: 8 PWM levels, 64 PM levels, giving 256 possible greyscale levels per pixel G020: 8 PWM levels, 0 PM levels, giving 8 possible greyscale levels per pixel The power is modulated only on the final part of the laser pulse (example: see Greyscale 12 or 34 in the diagram). For example: Greyscale 34 is made from PWM level 4 and PM level 2
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Some machines having a high number of possible grayscales per pixel do not use them all. Example: Model A229 The 8-bit data from the image processing circuits (enough for 256 grayscales per pixel) are converted to 4-bit data for the laser diode drive board (only enough for 16 grayscales per pixel). However, the machine emulates 256 grayscales by dealing with the output in blocks of 16 pixels (4 x 4), using the 16 grades per pixel in each of the 16 pixels in the block to produce 256 grayscales for blocks of 4 x 4 pixels. The drawing shows an example of the principle. This data is not taken from any machine; it is just a fictitious example. This technique is important for machines like the G020, which has only 8 grayscales per pixel. This machine emulates 256 grayscales in a similar manner.
Greyscale 1 Greyscale 50 Greyscale 100
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4 3 5 3
3 5 4 5
5 4 5 3
3 4 3 5
6 8 6 7
8 7 8 6
6 8 7 8
8 6 7 7
Greyscale 200
Greyscale 256
11 10 14 10
10 14 13 12
14 12 12 14
12 11 11 13
16 16 16 16
16 16 16 16
16 16 16 16
16 16 16 16
Lasgrad2.wmf
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Laser Diode Pulse Positioning

The laser pulse position (at the left side of the pixel, at the center, or at the right side) can also change depending on the location of the image pixel, so that the edges of characters and lines become cleaner. All the examples in the previous section (gradation processing) show the dot being reproduced at the left side of the pixel.
a133d589.wmf
In the example on the right, the machine reproduces a thin diagonal line. At the left edge of the line, the dot is on the right side of the pixel, and vice versa. In general, putting the pixel in the center gives better results for photo mode.
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Edge Smoothing (Copiers and Printers)

When binary picture processing mode is used, there are only two possible grey scales, black and white. With this process, sudden changes from black to white mean that there might be jagged edges in the image. Smoothing attempts to remove these edges. Using laser pulse positioning, dots on the left side of black areas are made with only a portion of the pulse width, and these dots are moved to the right side of the pixel. In a similar way, dots on the right edges are narrower, and at the left side of the pixel.
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Smoothing (Fax Machines)

The resolution for printing depends on the resolution that was used for scanning; this is informed in the set-up protocol. It also depends on whether or not smoothing is switched on. Smoothing is a digital processing technique that improves the resolution of the received message, reducing jagged edges on characters. Smoothing will change some bits from white to black, or vice versa, to round off jagged edges. A simple example is shown in the diagram. If the image from the other end is in standard mode (8 x 3.85 dots/mm) and smoothing is on, the data is smoothed as shown in the diagram to give an effective resolution of 16 x 15.4 dots/mm. If smoothing is off, the same dot is printed twice across the page, and the same line is printed four times down the page. If the message was scanned in detail mode (8 x 7.7 dots/mm), and smoothing is on, the CPU smoothes the data to give an effective resolution of 16 x 15.4 dots/mm. If smoothing is off, the same dot is printed twice across the page, and the same line is printed twice down the page.
Original T ransmitted Image (e.g., 8 x 3.85)
Received Image (8 x 3.85)
Smoothed Image (16 x 15.4)
Smooth1.wmf
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200 dpi 200 dpi 400 dpi 400 dpi
Fax machines that can print large numbers of gray scales can take advantage of that also. Example: Models A639/A804 When the fax unit prints a received fax image, the fax board converts the data into 400 x 400 dpi, 16 x 15.4 l/mm, or 15.4 x 16 l/mm (image rotation) resolution, and smoothes the image using the 64 gradation levels + 3 laser pulse positions format used by the base copier.
Received Image
Calculated Pattern for pixel "A"
Printed Image (Smoothed)

400 dpi
200 dpi 100 dpi
400 dpi
Received Image
Calculated Pattern for pixel "A"
Printed Image (Smoothed)
A194D504.wmf
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Print Density Adjustment (Fax Machines)

In some fax machines, the laser pulse width depends on the mode (copy or fax) being used, the image density setting, and whether halftone is being used. Example: Model H515 Mode Copy Mode Normal Lighten Darken
Normal 80 % 40 % 160 % Halftone Fax Mode Normal 100 % 40 % 160 % Halftone 20 % 20 % 100 % To change the pulse width, the duty cycle of the laser pulse is changed. For example, to make the print density 40% of normal, the laser is only kept on for 40% of the normal duration for each pixel.
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Toner Saving
In some machines, toner consumption can be reduced by omitting dots, as opposed to the use of a recycling mechanism or by adjusting development bias. In toner saving mode, the image data is filtered through a matrix. The following example shows the principle. 1st line 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 . . . . . 2nd line 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . . . 3rd line 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 . . . . . 4th line 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . . . . . (1: Actual data printed, black or white; 0: Always a white pixel) In toner saving mode, the machine prints a black pixel whenever the data changes from white to black in the main scan direction. In this way, edges of black areas are printed more clearly. This feature is known as Edge Enhancement.
Enlargement (Fax Machines)

Some fax machines enlarge the received image by increasing the duration of each pixel in the laser signal. For example, to enlarge the image by 200%, the duration of each pixel is doubled.
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Thermal Printing
Thermal Head Overview
Thermal printers contain a thermal head. A thermal head consists of a row of heating elements, which are basically just resistors. If a heating element is turned on, it will heat up. The heat from the element will make a dot on thermosensitive printer paper (fax machines), or melt the overcoating and polyester film layers to make a hole in a master (Priports). Whether an element turns on or not depends on the image signal for each pixel Fax machines have either 8 or 16 heating elements for each mm across the thermal head. Priport printers generally have 400 elements per inch. The diagram shows a 64-element assembly. A typical thermal head, having 4608 elements (see Thermal Head Specifications), would have 72 of these assemblies.
VHD 1 2 3 62 63 64
Vcc
ENR Vcc LA TCH
Vcc
DA A T Vcc CLK
Thead-1.wmf
Digital Processes
Printer Engines
Basically, the cpu clocks a line of data into a shift register in the thermal head. When the line is complete, the cpu sends a latch signal, then prints the line. Then the paper is fed forward one line, and the next line is printed in the same way. There is normally an independent power supply for the thermal head, which applies power to the thermal heating elements. For more details on how a thermal head works, refer to the chapter on standard components.
Typical Thermal Head Specifications

Example: Model C210 Maximum Printing Width: 292.6 mm Number of Thermal Heating Elements: 4608 Density of Thermal Heating Elements: 400 dots/inch Size of Thermal Heating Element: 45 x 60 m Average Resistance of Thermal Heating Elements: 1520 to 2300 W Power Source: 15.1 to 18.6 V
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Thermal Head Energy

Overview
Voltage to the thermal head is applied in 16 V pulses. The energy applied to the thermal head is changed by changing the duration of the pulses. The duration of the pulses depends on the thermal head temperature and resistance.
Long
Pulse Duration
Thermal Head Resistance

The resistance of each thermal head is different. Therefore, after installing a new thermal head, always recalibrate the power supply unit according to the ratings on the thermal head cover.
Short High Low
Thermal Head Temperature
Thead-2.wmf
Thermal Head Temperature

The thermal head contains a thermistor, which detects the thermal head temperature.
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Maintaining Constant Element Temperature

A thermal heating element may get too hot when there are consecutive black pixels in the subscanning direction. Conversely, a thermal heating element may not get hot enough to make a black dot or burn a hole in a master when there are consecutive white pixels in the sub-scanning direction. To remedy this, each thermal element receives data twice for one line. The data depends on the state of each pixel for the previous line. If the pixel at a certain position in the previous line was white, the first data for that pixel on the current line is black, to warm the element up. Then the actual black data is sent to the element. If the pixel at a certain position in the previous line was black, the first data is white, to cool the element down to prevent overheating.
Main Scan Direction
Previous Line Current Line 1st Output 2nd Output

C222d599.wmf
Overheat Prevention
The thermistor on the thermal head provides thermal head protection, preventing the thermal head from overheating when processing a solid image.
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Handling
Pay careful attention to the following remarks when servicing:
Do not touch the surface with bare hands. If this occurs, clean the surface with alcohol. Do not damage the heating elements. Master Platen Roller Remove any foreign materials from the platen roller. Remove foreign materials. Do not touch the master film surface with bare hands. There are some ICs inside the metal cover. Do not push the cover down. Do not touch the connector terminals with bare hands, to prevent damage from static electricity. MPU Thermal Head Connector
Connect and disconnect the connectors carefully. Keep them horizontal and firmly reconnect them. Adjust the voltage supplied to match the specified value for the thermal head.
PSU
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- Other Remarks Avoid using the machine under humid conditions. Moisture tends to condense on the thermal head, damaging the elements.
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Image Processing
Smoothing (Fax Reception)
The principle behind smoothing is the same as for laser fax machines, except that incoming messages are smoothed to 8 x 7.7 or 8 x 15.4 dots per mm. If the message was sent in standard mode (3.85 lines/mm) and smoothing is switched on, the cpu smoothes the data to give an effective resolution of 7.7 lines/mm. This smoothing is shown in the diagram. If smoothing is disabled, the same line is printed twice, and the image may appear jagged. If the message was sent in detail mode (7.7 lines/mm), the data is printed unaltered.
Original T ransmitted Image (e.g., 8 x 3.85)
Received Image (8 x 3.85)
Smoothed Image (8 x 7.7)
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Printing at Different Resolutions (Fax Machines)

The printing density is 8 dots/mm across the page and 15.4 dots/mm down the page. To print in standard resolution (3.85 dots/mm down the page), each line of data is printed four times (the second of each pair of lines may be treated with smoothing - see the previous section). To print in detail resolution (7.7 dots/mm down the page), each line is printed twice. To print in fine resolution (15.4 dots/mm down the page), each line is printed once. However, as printing is slow, the thermal head energy may have to be increased so that the heat of the printing elements does not drop, causing a pale printout.
One Picture Element
1/15.4 mm
Standard A A A A B B B B A A A A B B B B A A A A B B B B A A A A B B B B
1/8 mm
Line 1 Line 1 Line 1 Line 1 Line 2 Line 2 Line 2 Line 2
Detail A A B B A A B B A A B B A A B B Line 1 Line 1 Line 2 Line 2
Fine A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D Line 1 Line 2 Line 3 Line 4

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Reduction (Fax Reception)

Normally, the transmitting terminal does reduction. However, if the receiving terminal can handle more than one roll width, it may reduce the incoming data in the following situation. If the message is received by substitute reception and the user installs a roll which is less wide than the image, the machine will reduce the data after it comes out of the memory. The reduction process is the same as that explained for transmission.
Main-scan Direction Image Position Adjustment (Priports)

To adjust the image position of the original across the printout, the image can be shifted 5 mm in the main-scan direction using SP mode. The image is shifted in the mainscan direction by changing the relationship between the original main scan start timing and the master making main scan start timing.
C222D594.wmf
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Ink Jet Printing

Ink Cartridges
Ink cartridges consist of an ink sponge and a print head. Example: Model H504 Ink Sponge [A]: This contains about 20 grams of ink, which is enough for printing about 550 ITU-T #1 charts. Printer Head [B]: The printer head faceplate contains a row of 64 nozzles [C], spaced at a resolution of 360 dots per inch. Ink passes to these nozzles through a pipe [D], which contains a filter. Printing signals arrive at the printer head at the signal contacts [E]. Color ink cartridges contain a sponge for each color of ink. [D] [C]
Inkcart.wmf
[A]
[B]
[E]
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Print Head
Small heating elements force ink out of the nozzles. Example: Model H505 Ink from the sponge is filtered at [A] to remove dust, and then passes to the nozzles through pipe [B]. When the head drive current flows through a nozzles heater plate [C], the ink at the plate boils. The bubbles formed [D] eventually join into one large bubble [E]. The bubble forces a drop of ink [F] out of the nozzle. Head drive current stops before the bubble is fully formed. The remaining heat of the heat plate completes the bubble. The plate cools by the time the ink drop is ejected, and fresh ink enters the nozzle from the sponge.
[C]
[D]
[E] [F] [B]
[A]
H505D508 wmf
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The nozzles are arranged in a straight line at intervals of 1/360 inch. There are 128 nozzles in the black ink cartridge. The color ink cartridge has a total of 136 nozzles: 24 yellow nozzles, 24 magenta nozzles, 24 cyan nozzles, and 64 black nozzles. The drive circuit is explained in detail in section 8 (Components).
Black Ink Cartridge 1
Colour Ink Cartridge 1
128
Yellow 1~24 Magenta 25~48 Cyan 49~72 Black 73~136
136
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Purge Unit
This unit does the following. Capping puts a cap on the nozzles to prevent drying of the nozzle and ink leakage when the machine is not printing. Cleaning: During cleaning, the wiper unit wipes the face plate to remove paper fiber and ink, and the ink pump in the purge unit sucks old ink from the capped cartridge and fills the nozzles with fresh ink. In addition, the printer regularly ejects ink from all nozzles the cartridge to the purge unit to prevent ink from drying inside the nozzles and blocking them up. This is known as the maintenance jet function. The purge unit must absorb this waste ink. The machine operates the purge unit at certain times automatically (for example, just after switching on, at the start of each page, every 60 s during printing, after a certain number of dots have been printed, or after a certain amount of time that the printer has been inactive).
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Example: H504 Purge Unit Control Gear: This gear [A] drives the purge unit wiper, cap, and pump. Wiper Arm: This contains a rubber wiper [B] and the maintenance jet absorber [C]. The rubber wiper cleans the cartridges face plate from top to bottom every 60 seconds during printing and when it is time for cleaning. The maintenance jet absorber absorbs ink ejected from the nozzles when power is switched on, before the start of printing, and every 12 seconds during printing. The ink absorber removes ink from the rubber wiper and the maintenance jet absorber when the wiper arm goes down. Cap: The cap arm with its rubber cap [D] advances and caps the ink cartridge when the wiper arm goes down. The rubber cap connects to the ink pump. During cleaning, this pump sucks ink from the cartridge and fills the nozzles with fresh ink. The capping mechanism pushes the rubber cap against the face plate of the cartridge, to stop ink at the nozzles from drying up or leaking out. Pump: The pump unit [E] sucks ink from the rubber cap and passes it to the waste ink absorber [F] in the paper feed roller. [F]
[C] [B]
[A]
Purge1.wmf
[D]
[E]
Purge2.wmf
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Carriage Drive Mechanism

A motor drives the print head backwards and forwards across the paper. The carriage position is detected by counting stepper motor pulses, or by using an encoder, as in the following example. Example: Model H905
[A] [E] [B] [D]
[C]
H905d004.wmf H905d005.wmf
The carriage drive motor [A] drives the print head carriage [B] through the belt [C]. The sensor [D], located under the carriage generates a pulse signal while it moves along the encoder [E] , so that the printer engine can detect the horizontal location of the carriage.
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Ink End Detection

Example: Model H505 To determine whether ink is present in the cartridge, the machine prints a black dot (known as the ink end mark) after printing the last line on a page. The ink end sensor reads the white level around the mark, and then it looks for the ink end mark itself. If the sensor cannot detect the mark, the machine determines that the cartridge is empty. Some machines have no ink end sensor. The volume of ink used is monitored during printing by counting the number of dots made. The machine displays a warning when the ink has almost been all used up.
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Printer Interface Basics

USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Introduction
USB was designed to replace the serial and parallel ports, to provide a medium to high-speed port for a wide range of devices (such as mice, printers, speakers, digital cameras, & hard disks). Most computers and operating systems now support USB. There are many similarities between USB and IEEE1394. The computer acts as the host, and a chain of up to 127 devices can be connected to one host. USB has the following advantages over older parallel and SCSI interfaces:
# Installation is very simple (no complex software or driver setup required). Just plug the device into
the USB socket (a small rectangular socket) on the computer. The computer will automatically detect it (plug and play); in some cases, the user may have to install driver software.
# No terminators, device IDs (like SCSI), jumper, DIP switch, or IRQ settings are needed. # Speed is much higher than the parallel port. # Devices can be plugged in and disconnected at any time, without having to switch off the
computer. This is known as hot plugging.
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USB 1.1 vs USB 2.0

USB 2.0 is a successor to the USB 1.1 specification. It uses the same cables, connectors, and software interfaces (USB 1.1 devices can be connected to USB 2.0 ports, and vice versa). USB 2.0 provides a maximum data rate of 480 Mbps (high speed). This is particularly suitable for high-performance peripheral devices such as high-quality video conferencing cameras, highresolution scanners, and high-density storage devices. However, the lower speeds supported by USB 1.1 will be enough to satisfy most printing requirements. Mbps: megabits per second Click here to see a comparative data rate table for various types of interface.
Specifications
Data rates: 1.5 Mbps (low speed), 12 Mbps (full speed), 480 Mbps (high speed)
# Only USB 2.0 supports high-speed mode. The official logo is shown here.
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USB Connectors
USB transmits all data on a single pair of wires. Another pair provides power from the host computer to downstream peripherals. The USB standard specifies two types of connectors, type A connectors for upstream connection towards the host computer, and type B connectors for downstream connection to the USB device.
Type A connector Type B connector
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Printers and printer controllers inside MFP copiers have a type B receptacle.
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 Signal Description Power Data Data + Power GND
2 3
1 4
Computers have a type A receptacle. Pin 4 is at the left, and pin 1 is at the right.
To connect two PCs together, USB requires a special crossover cable.
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Connecting More Than One USB Device to a Computer

Up to 127 devices can be connected to each USB controller inside the computer.
# Additional USB controllers can be installed inside the computer if required, by installing a card
inside the computer.
# Note that many computers have two or more USB ports. In some computers, these are
connected to separate USB controllers (so in theory, 254 devices can be connected if there are two ports). However, in other computers, the USB ports are connected to the same controller, so only 127 devices can be connected in total. to another USB controller inside the same computer do not share the same bandwidth as those devices connected to the first USB controller. If a USB device, such as an audio speaker system, is taking up a lot of bandwidth, it might be a good idea to install another USB controller inside the computer and use it for that device only. Otherwise, other USB devices on the same bus, such as printers, may not work so fast.
# Devices connected to the same USB controller all share the same bandwidth. Devices connected
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The maximum cable length between each device is 5 meters.
# Using USB hubs (see the next page), chains of devices can be connected, as shown in the
following example. However, there cannot be more than six jumps between the PC and a device connected to a USB bus. In the following diagram, for example, there are three jumps between the computer and the video camera.
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USB Hubs
To connect a large number of devices to a computer, you can connect a USB hub to your computers USB connector. Then, typically, you can connect four USB devices to this hub. The diagram shows an example of a hub with four outlets. If you need more USB ports, you can make chains using hubs, but the total number of devices (excluding hubs) must not exceed 127. Also, as shown earlier, there cannot be more than 6 cables (jumps) between the PC and any device on the bus.
Power Supply to USB Devices

The USB cable carries power from the computer. Devices that require a lot of power (such as laser printers) normally have their own power source, such as a mains power connection, and do not need to draw power from the USB connection. Generally, if a device needs to draw more than 500 mA, it has its own power source. Low-power devices such as mice do not have their own power source, so they need to get power from the USB connection. In these cases, the power will come from the computer. If such devices are connected to a USB hub, the hub should have its own power source (the one shown above does not have a power cable). If the devices connected to the hub have their own power source, then the hub does not need a power source.
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Protocol
USB is bi-directional, allowing data, commands, and queries to flow both ways between computer and peripheral. Just after the host computer is switched on, it checks what is connected to the USB controller and assigns an address to each device on the USB bus. New devices can be connected without switching the computer off; whenever a new device is connected to the bus, it is allocated an address immediately. The computer also needs to determine what type of signalling each device will use to transfer data. There are three types:
# Bulk: Printers use this mode. The printer receives the data in packets, which are checked for
errors.
# Isochronous: This mode is used by devices that require data transfer between host and device in
real time, without interruption. An example would be a set of audio speakers. There is no error correction in this mode.
# Interrupt: Used by devices that do not send a lot of data, such as a USB mouse.
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How does the USB controller inside the computer allocate bandwidth? The controller assesses bandwidth demands whenever it checks what is connected to the bus. The available bandwidth is divided into frames of 1-millisecond duration. During each frame, isochronous and interrupt devices get whatever bandwidth they need These devices are allowed to take up to 90% of the total bandwidth that is available. Bulk mode transfers and data flow control protocol requirements use what is left. From this, it can be seen that connecting isochronous devices to the same USB controller as a printer can result in a loss of output speed. This could be a particular problem for USB 1.1. However, with the wide bandwidth available with USB 2.0, printing should still be fast enough for most users.
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Connecting an MFP Product using USB

This section explains how this company implements USB in its printers and MFP products.
Connecting Up
Just connect the printer to the computer using a USB cable, either directly or through a hub (or chain of hubs). There are no settings to make on the computer or the printer.
Note that if either the computer, hub, or printer have only a USB 1.1 card, the maximum data rate will be 12 Mbps. 480 bps (high speed) will not be possible:
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Operating Systems Supported by Ricoh Products # USB 2.0: Windows XP (Home Edition/Professional), Windows 2000 (Professional/Server/Advanced Server)
! This may change depending on future support by Microsoft and Apple for USB 2.0.
# USB 1.1: Windows 98 (Second Edition), Windows Me, Mac OS 9.x, X (Classic Mode)
! Mac OS X (Native Mode) and Mac OS 10.1 are not supported. ! For Macintosh OS, only the built-in standard port is supported. ! 'USB Printer Support' is required for USB printing on Windows 98 (Second Edition) or Windows Me. It is included on the CD-ROM for the printer. Follow the operating instructions.
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Remarks concerning USB # The machine does not print reports specifically for USB.
# Using USB, the printer can only be connected to one computer. # After starting a job using USB, do not switch the printer off until the job has been completed.
When a user cancels a print job and data transmitted to the printer has not been printed at the time of cancellation, the job will continue to print up to the page where the print job was cancelled different device.
# When the printer controller board is replaced, the host computer may recognize the machine as a # When printing from a Macintosh, PDL emulation may not be switched automatically. Please use
the printer user tools to specify the PDL that will be used.
# Bi-directional communication is supported by the RPCS and PCL drivers. The condition of the
paper trays and items in the Accessories tab of the printer driver can be monitored from the computer using a software utility such as SmartNetMonitor.
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Related User Tools and SP Modes

Data Transfer Rate This adjustment has two settings. The Auto setting allows the machine to use either high-speed mode (480 Mbps) or full speed mode (12 Mbps) depending on the USB bus speed. The Full speed setting restricts the machine to full speed (12 Mbps). The 12Mbps-only setting may be used for troubleshooting if data transfer errors commonly occur using the high-speed mode. Example: G081 series SP mode 5-844 User Tools Host Interface Menu
Do not change any other service mode settings unless instructed otherwise, or the machine may be out of compliance with local regulations
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IEEE 1394
Introduction
IEEE1394 supports data transfer rates of up to 400 Mbps. It was originally developed by Apple.
# Apple uses the name FireWire for IEEE1394 products. The

FireWire logo is shown here.
# Other companies use other names, for example, Sony uses I-Link.
The concept of IEEE1394 is very similar to USB.
# It allows a lot of devices on the same bus (up to 63 can be

connected to the same bus).
# No terminator or device ID, or dip switch/IRQ/jumpers to adjust # Hot plugging # Plug and play # Provides power through the cable
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IEEE1394 was developed before USB, and was for a long time much faster than USB.
# IEEE1394 has a maximum data rate of 400 Mbps, and USB 1.1 has a maximum rate of 12 Mbps. # USB 2.0 has a speed of 480 Mbps, so there is currently not much difference between USB and
IEEE1394.
# However, the IEEE1394 specification has been upgraded to IEEE1394b, which allows speeds of
800 Mbps, and using fiber optic cables, up to 3.2 Gbps.
# Click here to see a comparative data rate table for various types of interface.
The main difference from USB is that IEEE1394 is a peer-to-peer technology.
# This means that there can be more than one computer on the same IEEE1394 bus. Because of
this, more than one computer can share the same printer. This is not possible with USB. For USB, there can only be one computer in the bus. camcorder to a VCR, or print a scanned image directly, without sending the data through a computer. special cable or hardware is required to connect computers together.
# Also, two devices can communicate without a computer; for example, you can copy from a
# Computers can also be connected together to form a high-speed network for copying files. No
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Specifications
IEEE1394-1995 supports data rates of 100, 200, and 400 Mbps (megabits per second) over a cable length of 4.5 m (15 ft).
# These speeds are actually 98.304, 196.608, and 393.216 Mbps. The figures are rounded up to
100, 200, and 400. IEEE1394a-2000: Introduces improvements to the signalling protocols, to improve efficiency. IEEE1394b: Includes more improvements, and supports data rates of 800, 1600, and 3200 Mbps. There is also support for long-distance cabling of up to 100 m. There is full backward compatibility with IEEE1394-1995 and IEEE1394a-2000.
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Data Rate Comparison Table

Technology Maximum Throughput
Serial Port (RS-232C) Parallel Port (Centronics) USB 1.1 USB 2.0 IEEE1394a IEEE1394b Ethernet IEEE802.11b Bluetooth
230 Kbps Standard: Up to 100 kbps With ECP or EPP: Up to 2.5 Mbps 1.5, 12 Mbps 1.5, 12, 480 Mbps 100, 200, 400 Mbps 800, 1600, 3200 Mbps 10 Mbps, or 100 Mbps 11 Mbps 720 kbps
bps: bits per second
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Connectors and Cables

Six-pin: Four pins are for two twisted pairs, for a transmit-receive connection. The other two pins are for power (8-40V, 1.5A). Used for devices that need AC power, such as printers and external disk drives. The following diagrams show a cross-section of a six-pin to six-pin cable, and a view of a sixpin socket of the type commonly found on IEEE1394 interface boards.
Pin 1
Pin 6
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Signal Description Cable Power GND Receive strobe Transmit data Receive data Transmit strobe
Four-pin: Data only; does not carry power. Used for camcorders and small portable equipment.
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Do not connect a 4-pin device between the device that supplies power to the bus and a device that needs to draw power from the bus. Including 4-pin devices in the middle of an IEEE1394 chain means that power is not carried to the units further along the chain, so it may not be convenient for some users. In the example below, device A supplies power to the bus. Device D is a 4-pin device. Devices to the right of D in the diagram will not be able to get power from the bus, unless one of them is able to supply power from its own main power inlet through to the bus in a similar manner to device A.
If a device is connected to the bus with a 4-pin cable, it must have its own power source, such as batteries or a main power cable. However, using the 6-pin cable for battery-powered devices like video cameras ensures that the batteries are not drained while downloading data to the computer.
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Here is an example of an IEEE1394 cable with a six-pin connector at one end and a four-pin connector at the other.
The cable length is limited to 4.5 m (15 ft). However, chains of devices can be connected, and there can be up to 16 jumps between the devices on the bus. Up to 63 devices can be connected to an IEEE1394 network. The reason for the 4.5 m limit on cable length and the 4.5 x 16 m (72 m) total bus length is signal attenuation. At the high speeds of IEEE1394, the signal would be attenuated too much if the cables were longer.
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IEEE1394 Bus
Topology: Chains and Trees # The drawings give three examples of how a printer containing an IEEE1394 card ports can be connected up. The ports are repeaters, allowing data to be passed on to the next device on the bus.
# The first example shows the printer connected
to two computers; one on each port. The result is a chain of three devices, with a computer at each end and a printer in the middle. printer being connected to a string of computers. The net effect is a chain of five devices, four computers and one printer.
# The second example shows one port on the
# The third example shows a hub being used. # Some rules must be followed, as explained
below.
Branching using hubs allows us to get up to 64 devices on the same bus, in a tree structure.
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Rules # Up to 64 devices on each bus
# There must be no loops in the bus # Max cable length between nodes: 4.5 m # Max. number of cables between the ends of a bus: 16
! Each cable is also known as a hop or jump.
Nodes # Each device on the bus is called a node.
# A device can contain more than one node. # Each node can contain more than one port, allowing nodes to be chained together. Each port
acts as a repeater, passing data packets on to other nodes on the bus. ! Optional IEEE1394 boards for printers and MFP copiers commonly have two ports, so that another device can be connected after the printer, forming a daisy chain. See the previous page. ! If the six-pin cables (carrying power for the physical layer signalling) are used, the repeater functions take place even if the node is switched off.
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# On each bus, there is a root node, which controls the bus and manages the resources. This root
node is often a 1394 interface board inside a PC.
# During a process called tree identification, the topology of the bus is determined. Each node is
assigned an address, and the device that will be the root node is decided. It is also possible to force a particular node to become the root. (by switching the root node off/on).
# Tree identification is done every time a device is added or removed, or whenever the bus is reset
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Cable and Backplane Connections # There are two types of IEEE1394 bus: cable, and backplane.
! Backplane: Devices are plugged into a chassis, like boards plugged into a PC motherboard. ! Cable: Devices are plugged into a root node, in a branching configuration, as described earlier
# In the backplane environment, devices do not contain repeaters, and their physical addresses
may be determined by their slot positions device is removed or added.
# In the cable environment, physical addresses are determined every time the bus is reset or a # Because of these differences, a bridge is needed to connect these two environments.
Addressing # The IEEE1394 bus appears as a large memory space shared between all the devices.
# Each node occupies a certain address range of this memory space.

! Addressing is based on the IEEE1212 Control and Status Register (CSR) Architecture.
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# The address is 64 bits.

! 10 bits are taken up by the network ID. This informs which IEEE1394 bus the signal is coming from. What do you mean, which bus the signal is coming from? There is only one bus, isnt there? In theory, there can be up to 1024 buses in one IEEE1394 network (the number of the bus is specified by the 10 bit network ID). Two or more buses can only communicate with each other if they are connected together using a device called a bus bridge. An example is shown below. The bus bridge isolates traffic in each IEEE1394 network.
Installing another IEEE1394 card inside a computer is also a way to make another bus.
Digital Processes
! 6 bits are taken up by the node ID. This informs which device on the above bus the signal is coming from. As a result, up to 63 branch and leaf nodes can be connected to a single root node. The node ID is assigned automatically during tree identification. ! 48 bits are taken up by the memory address. This means that an IEEE1394 network can address up to 256 terabytes of memory in each node. This type of addressing views the devices on the bus as memory that can be accessed with processor-to-memory transactions. In addition, each IEEE 1394 device has a unique identification code, similar to the MAC address on an Ethernet or IEEE802.11b interface card. The code for the IEEE 1394 device is called an EUI-64 code.
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Protocol Overview
Isochronous and Asynchronous Transfer
Overview
# Both of these modes of transfer are supported. # The mode that is used depends on the type of device. For example, a camcorder will use
isochronous transfer, and a disk drive will use asynchronous transfer.
# Isochronous transport guarantees transfer of data at a certain rate and at a certain time, without
interruptions. Data is considered to be useless if it arrives late. There are no retries.
# Contrast this with asynchronous, in which data can be broken up at irregular intervals, and where
reliability is more important than timing, and where there can be retries if errors occur.
# Isochronous transport is ideal for devices such as video devices that need to transfer high levels
of data within certain time constraints. For example, multimedia requires isochronous transport so that data is delivered as fast as it is displayed and so that the audio is synchronized with the video. transfer. Up to 80% of a packet can be allocated to isochronous transfer.
# In each IEEE1394 packet, bandwidth is allocated for both asynchronous and isochronous
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Isochronous
# Broadcasts to channel numbers, not specific addresses # No error correction or retransmission # Time-critical applications, or applications that are tolerant of errors, such as linked video and
audio
# Bandwidth and latency are guaranteed

! The isochronous resource manager (often the same device as the root node or bus manager) allocates resources for a device wishing to make an isochronous transfer. Up to 80% of the bus bandwidth can be used for isochronous transfers. The amount a device can obtain depends on how many devices on the bus are also currently making isochronous transfers. Asynchronous
# Transfers to a specific node with a specific address # Transfers are acknowledged, so error correction and retransmission are possible # Applications that are not time-critical but are not tolerant of errors, such as printers and hard disks # There is no guarantee of a specific amount of bandwidth on the bus. # The max data block size for an asynchronous packet depends on the transfer rate of the device.
! 100 Mbps 512 bytes; 200 Mbps 1,024 bytes; 400 Mbps 2,048 bytes
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Connecting an MFP Product using IEEE1394

This section explains how this company implements IEEE1394 in its printers and MFP products.
Cables
Normally, the printer only uses the 6-pin connectors. Use 6-pin cables to connect the printer to the computer.
Number of Ports
The IEEE1394 option normally has two ports. These ports are repeaters. In the diagram on the right, the printer is part of a single chain of five devices (four computers and one printer).
Data Speed
IEEE1394 printer interface options still do not support IEEE 1394b, so the maximum speed is 400 Mbps.
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Example of Use
In the example shown opposite, traffic on the office LAN is reduced by connecting up heavy-duty printing workstations to the printers using IEEE1394 (up to 400 Mbps, as explained earlier). General office workers who do not have high-volume print jobs are connected up using the slower Ethernet LAN. The printers are shared by both sections of the office, and they contain Ethernet and IEEE1394 interfaces.
100Base-T 100BaseIP over 1394
IEEE 1394
Heavy-duty Printing
General Office
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Two Ways to Set Up the Printer: SCSI Printing, and IP Over 1394
Overview There are two ways for a manufacturer to implement IEEE1394 in a printer.
# Implement SBP-2 (Serial Bus Protocol) and use the SCSI-2 printer command set: This is SCSI
Printing. Available for Windows 2000 or Windows XP.
# Use IP (Internet Protocol): This is IP over 1394. Available for Windows Me or Windows XP.
For each of these methods, the printer is plugged into the computer in exactly the same way, using the IEEE1394 cable (do not try to use SCSI or Ethernet cables and hardware). The daisy-chain or tree bus configuration is acceptable for either of these methods. Also, there can be a mixture of protocols on the same bus. For example, if a computer is connected to a printer using IP over 1394, the other devices on the same bus do not all have to use IP; some of them can be using SBP-2 based signaling (such as a disk drive, or a printer set up for SCSI printing). If using IP over 1394, the user must make additional settings to allow the IEEE1394 interface to use IP protocol. Normally, SCSI printing and IP over 1394 cannot both be enabled at any one time. Select either one, using a user tool. Check the documentation for the product for details.
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SCSI Printing - Advantages The main advantage of SCSI printing is that it is easier to set up than IP over 1394. - Disadvantages IP over 1394 is more flexible, and some applications cannot be used with SCSI printing, as we shall see later. - Operating Systems Windows 2000 users must use SCSI printing. Windows XP users can use either SCSI printing or IP over 1394. - Setup To set up the machine for SCSI printing, make sure that SCSI print is enabled in the user tools. - User Tools Bi-directional SCSI printing in the user tools allows the status of the items in the Accessories tab of the driver to be monitored at the computer using a software utility such as SmartNetMonitor.
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IP over 1394 - Advantages IP over 1394 also allows scanning over IEEE1394. SCSI printing does not allow this. In addition, some document solutions applications such as Scan Router can work on an IP over 1394 bus, but not using SCSI printing. In addition, the use of TCP/IP allows the printer to be connected to local networks, other subnets, and even to the Internet. Is it possible to connect a printer that uses IP over 1394 to a computer that is connected to an Ethernet LAN? Use of a 1394-Ethernet bridge or Media bridge (Windows XP) is not supported by GW products. Future products may support this. - Disadvantages With IP over 1394, Plug and Play does not work, and the user must make IP settings at the operation panel during installation.
# However, Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) should allow the computer to find the printer. UPnP is
provided with Windows XP and Me, but with Windows Me, it is not enabled by default.
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- Operating Systems Windows Me users must use this method. Windows XP users can also use this method. - Setup A Ricoh printer with an IEEE1394 board must have a separate IP address for IP over 1394; it cannot use its Ethernet IP address. In fact, as shown to the right, the subnet must be different, not just the IP address. Because of this, there are separate IP settings for IP over 1394 in the user tools. The user tool TCP/IP settings for the Ethernet connection will not be used for IP over 1394.
# This specification may change in the future.

In addition, to set up the machine for IP over 1394, make sure that IP over 1394 is enabled in the user tools.
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Comparing SCSI Printing and IP over 1394

Available Functions PC Operating System Required Protocol Used Bi-directional Communication Number of Hops Length of Cable
SCSI Printing Printing

Windows 2000 Professional with Service Pack 1 Windows 2000 Server with Service Pack 1 Windows XP SBP-2 Yes 16 hops (Max.) 4.5m between devices (Max.)
IP over 1394 Printing, Scanning

Windows Me Windows XP TCP/IP Yes 16 hops (Max.) 4.5m between devices (Max.)
# If Service Pack 1 is not installed in Windows 2000, there can be only one SCSI print device # Using IP over 1394 with Windows Me: Additional software may be required, such as
SmartNetMonitor for Client. Check the documentation for the product. version. Refer to the technical documentation for that model. Check the documentation for the printer.
connected to an IEEE 1394 bus, and the client cannot install the printer driver without using an account with Administrator permission.
# Using IP over 1394, some models support DNS, DHCP, and WINS, depending on the firmware # When using the Scan to E-mail function on IP over 1394, an SMTP gateway may be required.
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Installing an IEEE1394 Option

Extra memory may need to be installed in the printer/copier, or the IEEE1394 option will not work. Check your service or operation manuals to make sure. After installation, some settings need to be made. Check your training documentation and operation manuals for the product for details on the procedures to follow.
Remarks concerning IEEE1394 Options

Note the following general points about IEEE1394 interface options.
# The machine does not print reports specifically for IEEE1394. Print the Configuration Page during
installation to check that the machine recognizes the card.
# There is no spooler or print queue. If a computer tries to print using IEEE1394 while the printer is
busy, the IEEE1394 interface card inside the printer will return a busy signal.
# After starting a job using IEEE1394, do not switch the printer off until the job has been completed.
Although the printer may appear to be inactive, it may be in the middle of an IEEE1394 protocol exchange with the computer. with a utility such as SmartNetMonitor. However, when using SCSI print mode, if bi-directional communication is enabled in the User Tools for IEEE1394, the condition of the paper trays and items in the Accessories tab of the printer driver can be monitored from the computer.
# When using IEEE1394, it is not possible to check the printer status (busy/idle) from the computer
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Troubleshooting Notes
If there are problems when printing using the IEEE1394 interface, check the following.
# Is the computer using Windows 2000 with service pack 1? If not, install service pack 1. # Has the interface card been replaced recently? Each card has an individual address, similar to
the MAC address in an Ethernet card. If the card was changed, the driver still looks for the old card. The new card is considered as another device and a new printer appears in the Windows Control panel. The new card must be configured in the same way as the printer that was replaced (the old printer icon in Windows Control Panel should be deleted). chain. There can be no closed loops. If there is a loop, just disconnect the devices and connect them up again in a chain. The bus will reconfigure itself.
# Is there a loop somewhere in the network? An IEEE1394 network must be a chain or a branched # Try to find out where in the bus the problem is occurring. Test the machine one-to-one with the
computer to determine if the printer is defective (when the printers interface cable is plugged in, the computer should see Printer Ready; when the cable is disconnected, the computer should see Offline). Energy Star settings, it may disappear from Device Manager. If this is a problem, adjust the Energy Star settings in the printer.
# Does the device disappear soon after installation? If a device switches itself off because of the
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# After installing the printer in the middle of a daisy chain, is a device after the printer on the bus
suddenly unable to get power? This might happen if you use a 6-pin to 4-pin cable to connect up the printer. The 4-pin connection does not carry power to the next device in the bus. Do not connect a 4-pin device between the device that supplies power to the bus and a device that needs to draw power from the bus. Low-speed devices must be placed at the end of the bus. Otherwise, 400 Mbps devices may be forced to communicate at 100 Mbps. compatible with Windows 2000. Make sure that the IEEE 1394 board inside the computer is OHCI compliant.
# If the device is slow, there may be a low-speed device (e.g., 100 Mbps) partway along the chain. # Earlier IEEE 1394 host adapters are not OHCI compliant, and because of this they are not
Related Service Modes Do not change the settings unless instructed otherwise, or the machine may be out of compliance with local regulations
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Related User Tools

Already discussed in the SCSI Printing and IP over 1394 sections. Example: G081 series - Host Interface Menu - IEEE1394 Setup
To use IP over 1394, these values must be stored. They must be different from the TCP/IP settings used for the Ethernet network. Make sure that IP over 1394 and/or SCSI Print are enabled
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Bluetooth
Overview
Bluetooth (logo shown opposite) is one of the two widely-used wireless LAN technologies. The other is IEEE802.11b. Bluetooth is a specification for short-range radio links between mobile PCs, mobile phones and other portable devices. It was designed for both voice and data communications. It aims for low cost and low power consumption. It can be thought of as a way to replace the cable between two devices. However, it can also be used to form small networks, as we shall see. In addition to connecting a computer and printer, Bluetooth can be used to network a wide range of domestic appliances, such as stereo equipment and headphones in a home entertainment system, and a cordless telephone to its base. The technology is based on radio waves, so the devices do not have to be in line of sight. They can be in different rooms, for example. There are no cables, and the user does not have to make any complex settings to get things working. In theory, if you have a Bluetooth device and walk up to another Bluetooth device, the devices will communicate automatically as soon as they are within range. The user does not have to press any buttons or input any commands. Devices can establish a connection when they come between 10 metres of each other. 10 metres is considered to be a short range, and this short range is due to the radio frequency power output of 1 mW, which is very low (some cell phones emit up to 3 W). However, it will go through walls. Higher-powered Bluetooth devices with a power output of up to 100 mW can have a range of up to 100 metres, but Bluetooth is mainly intended to work at low power.
Digital Processes
Communication Speed
The basic specification for printing is 720 Mbps (megabits per second). A Bluetooth network has a total capacity of 1 Mbps. Protocol overhead takes up about 20% of this. Voice: In a full-duplex (two-way) voice channel, such as a telephone, data can pass at 64 kbps. This is much more than enough to support a voice conversation. Data: In a half-duplex (one-way) data link, such as printing from a computer, Bluetooth can transmit at up to about 720 kbps in one direction, with 57.6 Kbps in the other. For a full-duplex data link, the speed is about 430 kbps in each direction. At 720 kpbs, Bluetooth is a lot slower than the other networking technologies discussed in this section. For example, IEEE802.11b, the other wireless technology, operates at 11 Mbps. However, an updated Bluetooth with higher data rates is being considered. Click here for a table of data rates for various printer interfaces.
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Bluetooth Networks
A Bluetooth network is known as a 'piconet'. Another term for this is a personal-area network (PAN). Devices are connected to each other in an ad hoc fashion. (Loosely translated from the Latin, 'ad hoc' means 'on the fly'). A Piconet can start with two devices connecting to each other, and can expand until eight devices are connected. The connection is peer-to-peer, but one unit acts as the master, and the others act as slaves. In addition to the seven active slaves, there can also be passive, or 'parked' slaves out in the piconet. These devices are not actively communicating at the moment, and enter a low power mode. Up to 255 slaves can be parked. Slaves can participate in different piconets, and a master of one piconet can be the slave in another. This is known as a 'scatternet'. Up to 10 piconets can form a scatternet. In a scatternet, the piconets are not all synchronized with each other.
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The master allocates the slots for the various communications taking place on the piconet, to control timing and avoid collisions. The clock and frequency hopping sequence of the master device synchronizes all other devices in the Piconet (frequency hopping will be explained later). It also stores the ID codes of the slave devices.
# Each device has a unique 48-bit ID code programmed into the ROM at the factory; this ID code
normally appears as six two-digit numbers, such as 00:04:76:c5:fe:18. It is also known as the Bluetooth Device Address.
# Each active device in a piconet is also given a 3-bit address called the Active Device address. # The user can also store a name for the device that is easy to recognize when using Bluetooth PC
software to browse the Bluetooth devices in the piconet; this is known as a friendly name. In a piconet, the master can support up to three synchronous ('voice') links of up to 64 kbps. Any free slots in the bandwidth can be used for asynchronous ('data') links. There can be up to seven of these in a piconet (one master, seven slaves). Asynchronous links can be either point-to-point (from master to one slave) or broadcast from the master to all slaves. In an asynchronous link, the slave can only transmit when the master requests it. By connecting to a LAN access point, a Bluetooth device can also access LAN resources. However, if the LAN access point does not talk Bluetooth, the Bluetooth device will not be able to connect, unless it has TCP/IP.
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Radio Frequency Control Frequency Hopping

Bluetooth operates at 2.402 to 2.48 GHz. This waveband has been set aside by international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific and medical devices (ISM), and is license free in most countries. Many types of devices, such as cordless phones, microwave ovens, and baby monitors, can use these frequencies. Bluetooth breaks this waveband into 79 channels of 1 MHz width.
# In Japan, it is different. The frequency range is 2.472 to 2.497 GHz, and Bluetooth breaks it into
23 channels of 1 MHz width. France and Spain also use different frequencies. Communications between devices change frequency to another channel 1,600 times a second. In the diagram opposite, there are three devices on the network. Notice how the devices all simultaneously change to another frequency at regular intervals (1,600 times a second, or once every 625 microseconds).
# Rapid frequency change helps prevent
persistent interference between devices, not only Bluetooth devices but other types of device using the same frequency range. Interference on a particular frequency lasts only a fraction of a second.
Frequency
Channel 1 Channel 2 Channel 3
Time
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# The low power signal used by Bluetooth devices also reduces the chances of interference. # In the same area, there can be several piconets, perhaps making up a scatternet. To reduce the
chances of interference, each piconet hops frequencies differently. Even if there is interference, it will probably be only for 625 microseconds, and Bluetooth contains software to automatically sort out confusion.
# This frequency switching technique is called Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).

Each 625-microsecond interval is called a 'time slot'.
# According to Bluetooth specs, the master transmits in even-numbered time slots, slaves in oddnumbered time slots. Packets can be up to five time slots wide. Data in a packet can be up to 2,745 bits in length.
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Bluetooth Profiles
As stated earlier, a Bluetooth device will communicate with another automatically if within 10 metres. However, there are many different types of Bluetooth device, and because of this, there are a number of different connection protocols, known as 'profiles'. In order to work with each other, two devices must both be able to use the same profile. Here is a list of profiles.
# Generic Access Profile # Service Discovery Profile # Cordless Telephony Profile # Intercom Profile # Serial Port Profile # Headset Profile # Dial-up Networking Profile # Fax Profile # LAN Access Profile # Generic Object Exchange Profile # Object Push Profile
Digital Processes
# File Transfer Profile # Synchronization Profile # Hardcopy Cable Replacement Profile # Basic Imaging Profile
Bluetooth devices also have a device type identifier to inform other devices on the network what type of device it is. Using this information, Bluetooth devices within range of each other can form piconets among themselves and start working together. For example, a computer and a printer will form a piconet, stereo equipment and a set of headphones will form another piconet, and a cordless phone and its base will form a third piconet.
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Security
Bluetooth provides for several types of security, and the Bluetooth management software used by your PC may implement some or all of these.
Authorization
If somebody tries to connect to your piconet, there is an alarm or warning, and you can then check who it is on the screen (the User Friendly name and Active Device Address of the requesting unit appear). You can then allow or disallow the connection. This security is not foolproof, because the user of the requesting device can change the User Friendly name. The only way to be sure is to keep a record of the device addresses of authorized devices.
Authentication
Similar to Authorization (above), but the requesting user has to input a password as well. Trusted devices can be allocated a link key, so that they do not have to keep inputting the password. Such devices are authenticated automatically, without needing operator intervention.
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Encryption
Bluetooth specs also allow some form of encryption using keys. It is thought to be adequate for most users, but those with high security requirements will need to use stronger algorithms. In addition, not all Bluetooth devices support encryption. If a Bluetooth device requests encryption but the other device does not have this feature, the communication may terminate unexpectedly.
Withdrawing the Availability of Services

If a Bluetooth device offers more than one service, the user can disable some of them to prevent unauthorized access. However, this is a bit severe, because nobody can use these services in this case. So, Bluetooth provides for different passwords to be allocated to each service if required.
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Connecting an MFP Product using Bluetooth

This section explains how this company implements Bluetooth in its printers and MFP products.
Installing a Bluetooth Option

To connect to the printer, follow the instructions provided with the computers Bluetooth card.
Operating Systems Supported by Ricoh Products

There are no limitations on operating system. If there is a driver for the operating system, the printer can be used with Bluetooth.
Bluetooth Profiles Supported by Ricoh Products

Three profiles are supported. Communication from a PC must take place using one of these profiles. Serial Port Profile (SPP)
# The printer shown by a Bluetooth search is connected to the serial port of the PC for printing.
Hardcopy Cable Replacement Profile (HCRP)
# The printer shown by a Bluetooth search is connected to the Bluetooth printer port of the PC for
printing. This port is installed on the PC with the utility that comes with the PCs Bluetooth card.
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Basic Imaging Profile (BIP)
# BIP is direct printing from a remote device without a printer driver. PostScript 3 may be required
for this profile to be effective. Notes
# HCRP supports Bi-directional communication, but SPP does not. # HCRP is supported by Windows XP with the Service Pack 1 supplement.
Limitations on the Number of PCs that can Connect to the Printer # In brief, up to 3 PCs can connect to the printer at the same time.
# There cannot be more than one PC-to-printer connection using the same profile. For example, if
a PC has connected using SPP, any other PC wishing to connect at the same time will have to use HCRP or BIP. SPP will only become available after the original PC has disconnected (or has been refused access for security reasons). computer-printer relationship, the computer must be a master device, and a piconet can only have one master device. different protocol from the printer that is already connected.
# Within the same piconet, only one computer can connect to the printer. This is because in the # However, a PC from another piconet can connect to the printer. In this case, it must be using a
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Security Features
Public and Private Mode This can be set up either using a service mode or by the user (Telnet or Web Browser; refer to the operation manual for the product). Public mode (default setting):
# The printer can be found by Bluetooth software on the PC. The printer is shown by its model
name and Bluetooth active device address. Private mode:
# The printer cannot be found by Bluetooth software on the PC. However, if the printer is specified
using the PCs Bluetooth card, the printer can be used even if it is in private mode. Password The printer contains a password made up of the last four digits of the printer's serial number. If the Bluetooth software in the PC is using a high security mode, this password will have to be input whenever printing to that printer. However, at the moment, there is no high security mode option built into the printers to force the password to be input, so PC users can sidestep this by changing their security mode to a lower setting. This limitation may be addressed in the future. So for now, to ensure security at the printer side, use the Private mode mentioned above.
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If the printer does not print, try the following:
# Restart the computer and printer. # Transmissions between the client PC and the printer can be blocked by obstructions. Move the
printer and/or computer.
# If throughput is lower than expected, make sure that no IEEE 802.11b or other Bluetooth devices
are in use. There may be some interference.
# Make sure that the versions of Bluetooth used by the printer and computer are the same. A
device running Bluetooth 1.1 may not be able to work with a device running version 1.0.
# Make sure the printer you want to use can be found by the computer's Bluetooth software, and
that the printer port has been set up correctly for the printer as described in the documentation for that software.
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Related SP Modes
Public and Private Mode: See above Example: G081 series SP 5-851
User Tools - None
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Other Questions
Is anybody in charge?
# The Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) controls the Bluetooth specification. The SIG started
off with several leaders in telecommunications and computing, namely Intel, Ericsson, IBM, Toshiba, and Nokia. Other companies have since joined.
# In addition, the IEEE 802.15.1 standard is based on Bluetooth 1.1. # Compatibility between Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.1 devices is poor.
Why 'Bluetooth'?
# Scandinavian companies have been important in developing wireless technologies, and have
played a major role in setting up Bluetooth. In respect of that, this technology was named after Harald Bluetooth, king of Denmark in the 10th century, who united Denmark and introduced Christianity into that country.
Before wireless LAN technologies were developed, infra red ports (IrDA) were commonly seen on laptop computers. Why was an effective printing technology not developed from this?
# The main reason is that these infra red ports emit a beam of light in one direction, and this
requires that the ports on the communicating devices point towards each other exactly. This also means that only two devices can communicate with each other; there cannot be a network of devices linked together at the same time.
# Also, there were incompatibility problems with some of the protocols used for IrDA.
Digital Processes
Bluetooth vs IEEE 802.11b

Why do we have two wireless technologies? Do they complement each other, or compete with each other? The following short series of notes addresses this in relation to printing. Distance
# Bluetooth - 10 m (33.7 ft) # 802.11b - hundreds of feet, but depends on the environment of installation (walls, metal objects,
etc) Application
# 802.11b is more a LAN type application, with a full range of networking features # Bluetooth more a point to point type application, allowing small-scale networking, but not enough
features for corporate-scale networking Speed
# Bluetooth - 1 megabit per second bandwidth (700,000 bit per second throughput) # 802.11b - 11 megabit per second bandwidth - throughput depends on distance - somewhat less
than 11 megabit, but performance typically seems to be the same as a wired LAN connection.
# The throughput of Bluetooth is good enough for printing, but not for high throughput applications.
Cost
# Bluetooth is lower. It also consumes less power than IEEE802.11b.

Digital Processes
Ease of use
# Bluetooth is much easier - 802.11b has more setup to do (like normal LAN management)
Conclusion
# The two technologies are complementary. IEEE802.11b is more suitable for corporate networks.
Bluetooth is more suitable for home networks, and for use with PDAs and cell phones, but not for high-bandwidth devices such as digital cameras because it is too slow.
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Interference between Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b Networks

Symptoms
If throughput is reduced on either or both networks, interference may be the cause.
Causes
Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b devices both use the 2.4 GHz band. However, IEEE802.11b devices communicate on a single channel, which limits the frequency output of an IEEE802.11b device to about a third of the 2.4 GHz waveband at any one time. Bluetooth devices, on the other hand, rapidly hop frequencies all over the 2.4 GHz waveband. So intermittent interference between these two types of device is very likely. IEEE802.11b stations check for radio activity before sending a frame. However, Bluetooth does not do this, and may begin transmitting at any time, even while an IEEE 802.11b station is sending. On both types of network, interference causes lost packets, requiring retransmission of data, and reducing throughput. In addition, IEEE802.11b throughput is reduced even more by the following factors (these factors do not affect Bluetooth):
# IEEE802.11b protocol requires acknowledgement of reception for each packet. If

acknowledgement is not detected, the packet is resent.
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# At the start of transmission, if Bluetooth interference is present, an IEEE802.11b transmitter may

mistake the Bluetooth signals for carrier from another IEEE802.11b device, and think that the channel is busy.
Occurrence
Interference happens only when Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b devices transmit at the same time. Printing using Bluetooth will only cause radio activity for a short while, so an IEEE 802.11b network will only be affected temporarily, if at all. Serious problems are more likely to occur if there are large-scale Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b networks in the same building. Also, Bluetooth devices only have a range of 10 metres, so if the IEEE 802.11b device is not nearby, interference is less likely. Studies show that interference is unlikely if the devices are more than 2 metres apart. Laptops with both Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11b cards may have problems, especially if the laptop is situated at the outer edge of the IEEE 802.11b network, where the signal is weaker.
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Ways to Reduce Interference

Limit the use of Bluetooth to applications that are only active for a short time, such as printing small documents, or synchronizing PDAs to computers. Make sure that IEEE 802.11b signals can be picked up clearly in all areas that need them. If the signal is weak, any Bluetooth activity nearby could cause interference. Wireless technologies in the 5 GHz band are becoming available. Critical devices that are experiencing intolerable interference could be moved to this waveband.
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IEEE802.11b
Overview
IEEE802.11b is a wireless LAN technology. It is more powerful than Bluetooth, but harder to set up. It is also known as Wi-Fi. The Wi-Fi logo shown to the right is attached to products that have been certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance (formerly known as WECA: Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance), which is supervising compliance with the IEEE802.11b standard. Compared with Bluetooth, IEEE802.11b is faster and has a longer range. Also, IEEE802.11b devices can easily be integrated into existing Ethernet networks.
Communication Speed and Effective Range

The top speed is 11 Mbps whenever possible. The speed automatically falls back to 5.5 Mbps, then 2 Mbps and finally down to 1 Mbps if there are communication problems caused by interference or low signal strength. This means that speed can fluctuate, but data transfer is reliable. The range depends on the communication speed, as shown below.
11 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 2 Mbps 1 Mbps 100 m 200 m 270 m 400 m
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However, these figures are for outdoor use. Indoors, the range depends on the layout of the building, and it is anything up to 100 m, but could be as low as 10 m in extreme cases. The maximum range also depends on which mode is being used (50 m for ad hoc, 100 m for infrastructure). Throughput also depends on network topology and load. However, there is typically no difference in performance compared to a wired connection. Note that some countries forbid the use of wireless LAN technology out of doors. Click here for a table of data rates for various printer interfaces.
Radio Frequency Control

IEEE802.11b operates in the 2.4 GHz band, which is the same as Bluetooth. IEEE802.11b divides this waveband into 14 channels each of 22 MHz width. Devices on the same network must be tuned to the same channel. This method is known as DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum). The channels that can be used depend on the region.
# Europe: Channels 1-13 between 2412 and 2472MHz # North America: Channels 1-11 between 2412 and 2464MHz # Japan: Channels 1-14 between 2400 and 2497MHz # Spain: 10, 11 # France: 10-13
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25 MHz 25 MHz
Channel MHz
1 2,412
6 2,437
10
11 2,462
12
13
To avoid interference with other radio frequency equipment, it is recommended to separate the frequencies by at least three channels. The diagram shows that a device using channel 11 may encounter interference if it is near a device using a frequency between channels 9 and 13. For example, if there are problems using channel 11 (default), try using channel 8. The machines that are using the same channel are called a BSS (Basic Service Set).
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What is Spread Spectrum Technology? This wideband radio frequency technique consumes more bandwidth than narrowband transmission, but produces a signal that is louder and easier to detect, if the receiver knows the parameters of the spread-spectrum signal. If a receiver is not tuned correctly, a spread-spectrum signal looks like background noise. There are two spread spectrum techniques: frequency hopping (used by Bluetooth) and direct sequence (used by IEEE802.11b).
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IEEE802.11b Networks
There are two types of IEEE802.11b network: ad hoc, and infrastructure.
Ad Hoc
The ad hoc mode allows communication between each device in a simple peer-to-peer network. All devices must use the same channel. The channel can be set at the printers operation panel. The effective range between devices is about 50 m. There are two types of ad hoc mode. One is Ad hoc mode and the other is 802.11b ad hoc mode. In 802.11b ad hoc mode, in addition to having the same channel, machines must also have the same SSID (Service Set ID) in order to communicate; see Infrastructure mode for more on the SSID. 802.11b ad hoc mode is also called IBSS peer to peer mode (IBSS: Independent Basic Service Set). Some operating system environments and some wireless LAN cards only support one of these ad hoc modes.
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Infrastructure Mode
In infrastructure mode, devices can only communicate through an Access Point. Wireless LAN devices must use the same SSID (Service Set ID) as the access point in order to communicate. The SSID is a case sensitive 32-byte code.
# Some device makers use a different name (NEC and Colega

call it ESS-ID; Apple and IBM call it Network name). If a device has the same SSID as the access point, the channel will automatically be set to the same as the one used by the access point. If there is more than one Access Point, the client will connect to the access point that has the same SSID as the client. Printers generally only have one SSID; check the documentation for the product. Some access points support ANY mode, which allows devices to connect without comparing SSID codes, even if they have no SSID stored. If the access point is also connected to an Ethernet LAN using an Ethernet cable, devices on the wireless LAN will be able to connect to devices on this Ethernet LAN, and to a WAN or the Internet. The effective range between devices is about 100 m.
Access Point
Digital Processes
Allowable Number of Users

There is no limit on the number of users in an IEEE802.11b network. Also, if there are overlapping access points, people can move around a large area, such as a university campus, while remaining in contact with the network.
Advantages of Infrastructure or Ad Hoc mode

Infrastructure mode
# Access points provide access to Ethernet, WANs, and the Internet. # Wireless LAN range is almost double. # An access point can optimize traffic on the network.
Ad hoc mode
# Easier to set up
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Protocol
Protocol Layers
IEEE802.11b provides only two layers. These are the physical (PHY) layer and the medium access control (MAC) layer. The data transport layer (such as TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, Apple Talk, NetBEUI) must be supplied by the computer or device separately. Physical Layer The physical layer describes how the data is sent between devices, as radio signals. This has already been discussed. MAC Layer This is a CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance) protocol. Compare this with a CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access with collision detection) protocol such as used by Ethernet.
# In a collision avoidance protocol, before device A sends a packet to device B, it checks to make
sure that no other device is transmitting. If the channel is busy, device A waits for a short while before checking again. Device A also asks device B if it is ready to receive, because device B may be already receiving from another device C (if device C is out of wireless LAN range from device A, then device A will not detect that device C is transmitting).
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# A collision detection protocol cannot be used on a wireless LAN because collisions cannot be
detected. This is because when a device is transmitting, the signal that it sends will drown out any incoming signal, and collision will not be possible to detect.
In addition to collision avoidance, acknowledgement and cyclic redundancy check routines are also used. Note that in contrast with IEEE802.11b devices, Bluetooth devices do not use a collision avoidance protocol, so they can cause radio interference.
Control of Infrastructure and Ad Hoc Modes

In infrastructure mode, fixed access points control communication. When a client moves from the service area of one access point to another, the access points control the handoff to the next access point in a manner similar to a cellular network. In ad hoc mode, there is no structure to the network; there are no fixed points; and the devices can all communicate with each other. To keep order in this type of network, one device is elected as the master, while the other become slaves. This is similar to the Bluetooth piconet.
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Security
Several factors contribute to security, as described below.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

This type of radio frequency transmission technology is resistant to corruption, interference, jamming, and detection.
SSID (Service Set ID)

Use of the SSID (either in 802.11b ad hoc or infrastructure mode) ensures that a device that does not have the same SSID as your network will not be able to gain access.
Encryption using the WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) Key

What is the WEP Key? WEP is an encryption method using keys. There are 64 bit and 128 bit WEP keys. To unlock received encrypted data, the receiver must have the same WEP key as the sender. Open and Shared Modes There are also two modes, called Open and Shared modes
# Open: Transmission data is encrypted. # Shared: Handshaking protocol is also encrypted.

Digital Processes
WEP Key Number Some LAN card utilities allow more than one WEP key, and give a 'key number' to each WEP key. Most wireless LAN devices use 1 as the key number. The WEP key and the WEP key number must be the same or communication will not be possible.
MAC Address
The MAC (Medium Access Control) address is similar to the MAC address used for Ethernet devices. If infrastructure mode is used, access to the network can be limited at the access points using the MAC address. This type of security may not be available with some types of access points. This feature has to be enabled at the access point. Then, the supervisor of the access point must register the MAC addresses of devices that are allowed to use the access point.
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Connecting an MFP Product using IEEE802.11b

Installing an IEEE802.11b Option
In addition to IEEE802.11b settings, the data transport protocol must be set up properly, because IEEE802.11b does not supply a data transport protocol. Supported data transport protocols depend on the printer model and the operating system. Some common examples are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, Apple Talk, and NetBEUI. For the following example, we shall assume TCP/IP is being used. On the computer and printer, both TCP/IP and IEEE802.11b settings must be made. It does not matter in which order these are done. However, if you wish to use telnet or a web browser to set up the printers IEEE802.11b settings, you must set up TCP/IP first. After installing the wireless LAN card, some parameters have to be programmed. Briefly, these are as follows: 1. First, input the following TCP/IP settings at the printers operation panel: IP address, Subnet Mask, Gateway Address, DHCP, Frame Type (NW), and Active Protocol. ! Example: G080 printer Use the User Tools Host Interface Menu Network Setup Menu ! Basic TCP/IP concepts are not covered in this section of the manual. 2. Make sure that the computer has its TCP/IP settings stored correctly. ! The IP address must be on the same subnet as the printer.
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3. At printers operation panel (user tools) and at the computer, set up the IEEE802.11b parameters. ! Communication mode for the PC and the printer must be set initially to the ad hoc mode, even if you will use the machine in infrastructure mode. The default for the printer is ad hoc mode. ! The channel setting on the PC must be the same as for the printer. ! When using a WEP key, set 1 as the WEP key number. Ricoh wireless products use 1 as a default WEP key number. ! If 802.11 adhoc mode is being used, some vendors utilities need an SSID of ASSID. 4. At the printers operation panel, set the LAN type setting (a user tool) to IEEE802.11b (wireless LAN). ! This is only necessary in models where the IEEE802.11b and Ethernet connections cannot both be active at the same time. If the printer has both types of LAN card installed, one of them must be switched off with this user tool. 5. Try to ping the printer from the computer. 6. If you wish to use ad hoc mode, you have finished. Make a test print. If you wish to use infrastructure mode, change the printers IEEE802.11b settings (WEP key, SSID, Channel number) to match those of the access point. Then make a test print. Note: After TCP/IP contact has been established between PC and printer, you can change the printers settings with telnet (or a browser if the printer contains a web server such as Web Status Monitor).
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Operating Systems Supported by Ricoh Products

There are no limitations on operating system. If the wireless LAN card in the PC is supported by the operating system, the printer can be used over the wireless LAN interface.
Operating Modes Supported by Ricoh Products

Infrastructure, ad hoc, and 802.11 ad hoc modes are supported. However, ad hoc is not supported with Netware. Only one SSID can be stored. The default is null. If the operating mode is 802.11 ad hoc, then the default SSID automatically becomes ASSID. In such cases, if the printers default SSID is not changed, the SSID of the PC using the printer must also be ASSID. The SSID can be set at the machines operation panel, or with telnet, Web Status Monitor, or Web Image Monitor. Some devices automatically change from ad hoc mode to infrastructure mode when the same SSID is used in ad hoc mode and infrastructure mode. If you wish to connect the printer to such a device, the device must have a specified SSID to use infrastructure mode and ASSID to use ad hoc mode.
Security Features
Some models support 64-bit but not 128-bit WEP keys. Some models support both types. Check the documentation for the model. Normally, only one WEP key can be stored in Ricoh printers. Check the documentation for the model.
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General 1) Check the LED indicators on the wireless LAN card. ! Orange LED: Lit - IEEE 802.11b card is working Off - No power If the IEEE802.11b (wireless LAN) is not selected as the LAN type in the user tools, it does not light, even if the printer power is on. ! Green LED: Lit - It is connected properly to a network. Blinking - The machine is searching for devices. Off - No link established 2) Check if IEEE802.11b is selected in the LAN Type setting in the user tools. 3) Check for interference. If a Bluetooth network is nearby, there could be some intermittent interference. If there is persistent interference, try changing the channel setting (there should be a separation of at least three channels between interfering devices). 4) Make sure that the computer and printer are communicating on the same channel. If the computer cannot use the channel used by the printer (some client PC software has limitations on the channels that can be used), then change the channel setting in the printer. 5) WEP settings must be the same in the printer and the computer (Enable/Disable, WEP key and WEP key number)
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Ad Hoc Mode Move the devices closer together Check that printer and computer are using the same ad hoc mode. If there are both ad hoc and 802.11 ad hoc devices in the network, communication may not work correctly.
# Some operating system environments and some wireless LAN cards only support one of these ad
hoc modes. If the connection mode is 802.11 ad hoc mode, check that the SSID of the communicating devices is the same.
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Infrastructure Mode Bring the machine closer to the access point, change the antenna position, or check for obstructions between the machine and the access point. Do the printer and access point have the same SSID? If the Access Point has enabled MAC address security, check that the MAC address table has the printers MAC address, and that the printers MAC address is correct. The Access Point probably has a list of wireless clients that are currently connected. If the printer is not in the list, the printer cannot connect. If the printer is in the list, the printers IEEE802.11b settings should be correct (however, the PCs IEEE802.11b settings may be bad, the settings at the access point may be bad, or the printers IP address setting may be incorrect). Check the wireless communication status (use a user tool, telnet, or a web browser if the product contains a web server such as Web Status Monitor). This feature is only available with infrastructure mode. The status is described on a simple number scale.
STATUS DISPLAY Good Fair Poor Unavailable COMMUNICATION STATUS 76~100 41~75 21~40 0~20
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Related User Tools and SP Modes

User Tools Example: G080 printer Maintenance menu Check the wireless communication status (only works for infrastructure mode).
Host Interface menu Network Setup LAN Type
# Select either Ethernet or IEEE802.11b

as the active network connection
# If you wish to use IEEE802.11b, select it

with this user tool. Printing using the Ethernet LAN will be disabled
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Host Interface menu Network Setup IEEE802.11b
Transmission mode (ad hoc or infrastructure) Channel number used for communication; depends on the location of the machine, as discussed earlier Communication speed
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Host Interface menu Network Setup IEEE802.11b, continued
SSID
WEP key: After setting to active, enter the WEP key that will be used for encryption by the PC
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SP Modes Example: G080 printer, SP 5-840
SSID
WEP key WEP key number (normally fixed at 1 in printers; this may change in the future) Type of WEP key (64-bit or 128-bit) Do not adjust other SP modes, or the machine may not be in compliance with local regulations.
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Basics
What is a Fax Machine?
Facsimile, commonly known as fax, is used for sending written, printed, or graphic information from one location to another. The communication can be across the room or across the world. A simple block diagram of fax operation is on the right. Facsimile machines combine scanner and printer technology with telephone equipment to send copies to a remote location. There are three basic steps in a facsimile transmission. A light source scans the writing and drawings on the original, and converts the information into an electrical signal. This signal is sent over the telephone line to a receiving fax machine. The receiving machine converts the incoming signal into a copy of the original.
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Fax Basics Transmission Reception Fax Circuit Update Compression Techniques Modulation Techniques Protocol Faxing From a PC Fax Troubleshooting Common Fax Features
ORIGINAL --- ---- -- ---- ------ --- ---- ----- --- - - --- -- -- - -- --- -- - --- -- ---- -- --- -RECEIVED F MESSAGE AX --- ---- -- ---- ------ --- ---- ----- --- - - --- -- -- - -- --- -- - --- -- ---- -- --- --
SCANNING CONVERSION TRANSMITTING F MACHINE AX TELEPHONE LINE
PRINTING CONVERSION RECEIVING F MACHINE AX
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Group 3 Fax Communication
Fax Basics
Facsimile machines can transmit alphanumeric and graphic characters. Anything that can be put on paper, from handwritten notes to photographs, can be sent by fax.
Mechanical Processes
A fax machine contains a scanner and a printer. The mechanisms are basically the same as those used in copiers.
Data Path
This section outlines the path of data through the machine in transmission and reception modes.
Components
The following components of the fax video data path are not used in copiers.
SAF Memory (Store And Forward Memory)

When a user stores a fax message in the memory for sending later or transmission to more than one destination, the message goes into the SAF memory. Also, incoming confidential messages and substitute receptions (data coming in when the printer is not working) are held in this memory.
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Line Buffer
This memory buffer ensures synchronization of video data transfer between different components of the circuit. If the line buffer is too small, the scanner mechanism will have to keep stopping and starting, leading to excessive noise. A line buffer size of four or eight lines is typical.
Data Compressor and Reconstructor (DCR)

This circuit compresses the data before sending it out over the telephone line. It also reconstructs compressed data coming in from the telephone line
ECM Memory (Error Correction Mode Memory)

ECM is an optional extension to Group 3 protocol that provides a more reliable way to send data over noisy lines. Using ECM, data is assembled into protocol frames. ECM requires RAM for assembly into and extraction from protocol frames. This memory is the ECM memory. With ECM, image data is arranged in protocol frames (256 bytes in each frame), and transmitted in blocks made up of 256 frames. Therefore, each block is 64 kbytes. Normally, one page of compressed image data can be sent in one block, but more than one may be needed if halftone mode was used when scanning the original. Single Buffer and Double Buffer ECM Memory Single Buffer (64 kbytes): This memory is only large enough to hold one block. After receiving a block of compressed facsimile data from the remote terminal into ECM memory, the data is reconstructed
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and printed. The next block cannot be received until printing has finished. The first block is deleted from memory after printing. Double Buffer (128 kbytes): This memory can hold two blocks. While one block is being printed, the next block can be received into the other half of the double buffer memory. This ensures continuous operation, saving time and overall communication charges. In some machines with a single buffer only, SAF memory or hard disk memory are used to provide double buffer capability. ECM is explained in more detail in the Protocol section. For full details, see ITU-T recommendation T.30.
FIFO Memory (First-In First-Out Memory)

The FIFO synchronizes the transfer of video data to the modem (transmission) or from the modem (reception). It also acts as a buffer, ensuring that there is always some data for the modem to pick up, modulate, and send out. The FIFO also has some unique functions, in addition to synchronizing data transfer from the cpu to the modem, as explained in the Transmission section (see the part entitled Data Transmission).
Modem
During transmission, the modem converts the data into a form that can be sent out on the telephone line in accordance with the appropriate ITU-T V-series recommendations; this process is called Modulation.
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During reception, the modem converts incoming data into a form that the machine can work with; this process is called Demodulation. The term modem is derived from these two processes; MOdulation/DEModulation. The different types of modulation encountered in fax machines are described in the Modulation section (for full details see the ITU-T V-series recommendations).
Network Interface Circuits

The filters, relays, attenuators and other components in these circuits interface the machine with the public telephone network. These circuits ensure that the machine connects to the line and that it dials in the correct way. They also ensure that the machine and the network equipment do not damage each other. Some of the components are included in an assembly called the Hybrid IC (HIC).
Voice Message Processor

This converts recorded voice messages from analog (audio) to digital for storage in the memory. It also retrieves the message for memory when it is needed for sending out over the telephone line.
Transmission
This section explains the path of data through the machine during transmission. The main description is for memory transmission with ECM. Following this main description are diagrams showing the differences between memory transmission with ECM and the following modes: Memory transmission without ECM
Fax Basics
Immediate transmission with ECM Immediate transmission without ECM
Scanning
This is the same as for digital copiers. Fax machine scanners either contain a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) or a CIS (Contact Image Sensor).
Data Processing
CCD and Analog Video Processing This is the same as for digital copiers. Digital Video Processing This is the same as for digital copiers. If the original is wider than the paper in the printer at the other end, data will be deleted in the main scan and sub-scan directions to make the data fit on the paper at the other end. This process is known as reduction.
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Fax Basics
Storage to SAF Memory After leaving the Video Processor, the data is compressed and then stored in the SAF memory. The compression method used varies from model to model. A simple compression technique such as MH gives fast data storage, but the data takes up more room in the memory. More complex compression techniques such as MR or MMR compress the data more effectively so that less memory space is used, but they increase the scanning time. If a line takes up more space after compression, it is stored in raw uncompressed format. Retrieval from SAF Memory When it is time to send the data, the data comes out of the memory into the cpu. The cpu reconstructs the raw data, and passes it to the line buffer. (Lines of data that were stored without compression go from the memory straight to the line buffer. Compression The cpu then compresses the data in accordance with the method agreed in the set-up protocol that was exchanged between the two machines. ECM Data Frame Assembly Using the ECM memory, the cpu assembles the data into ECM data frames, which are sent to the modem and the line.
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Modulation The modem converts the data to serial and modulates it. Attenuation The data then passes through an attenuator, which adjusts the tx level (this is the output power of the data signal). It then passes through a variable resistor on the NCU, which can be used to adjust the tx level. The data then passes to the network. Flow charts for the different transmission modes are given below.
Compression
Memory Transmission, with ECM
Video Processor
Line Buffer
CPU
Reconstruction SAF Memory CPU Line Buffer
Compression CPU
ECM Memory
Modem
Attenuator
Gain Control
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Compression
Memory Transmission, without ECM
Video Processor
Line Buffer
CPU
Reconstruction SAF Memory CPU Line Buffer
Compression CPU
FIFO Memory
Modem
Attenuator
Gain Control
Txdata2.wmf
Compression
Immediate Transmission, with ECM
Video Processor
Line Buffer
CPU
ECM Memory
Modem
Attenuator
Gain Control
Txdata3.wmf
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Fax Basics
Immediate Transmission, without ECM
Compression Video Processor Line Buffer CPU
FIFO Memory
Modem
Attenuator
Gain Control
Txdata4.wmf
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Fax Basics
Reception
This section explains the path of data through the machine during reception. The data paths for thermal printers and laser printers are explained separately. The main description is for basic reception without ECM. Following this main description are diagrams showing the differences between basic reception with ECM and the following modes: Basic reception without ECM Memory reception without ECM Memory reception with ECM
Common Processes
Filtering and Demodulation Data from the line passes through a filter to remove unwanted frequencies. Then it goes to the modem, which demodulates the data. Reconstruction From the modem, the data goes to the SAF memory, where it is held in case the printer jams or runs out of paper or toner; after the user corrects the fault, the message will be printed out from the memory and no data will be lost. The data coming from the modem is compressed data. From the SAF memory, the data passes to the cpu where it is reconstructed using the line buffer. After this, the path depends on the type of printer inside the machine.
Fax Basics
Thermal and Ink Jet Printers

Smoothing The cpu then smooths the data, to remove jagged edges from the data. The resolution of the received data is upgraded into the highest that the printer can print; this is typically 8 x 7.7 dots per mm. Printing The cpu passes the data to the thermal head or ink jet print head through the line buffer.
Line Buffer CPU Fromthe Network Filter Modem
SAF Memory
ECM Memory
I/O P ort
Thermal Head
Thermal Paper Rxpath1.wmf
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Fax Basics
Laser Printers
Page Assembly The data then goes through the slave cpu to the page memory. When a full page of data has been assembled in the page memory, the data goes to the LIF (Laser Interface). If the page is too long for the paper in the cassette, the data is split into two pages and/or reduced in the page memory. Smoothing The LIF smooths the data. Smoothing removes jagged edges, converting the resolution of the received image into the highest resolution that the printer can accept. This is typically 8 x 15.4 dots per mm or 16 x 15.4 dots per mm for a laser printer. Printing The laser beam switches on/off in accordance with the data signal, and forms a latent image on the master surface. Flow charts for different reception modes are on the next two pages.
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From the Network Filter Modem
SAF Memory
ECM Memory
I/O Port
Main CPU
Line Buffer
Buffer
Page Memory
Slave CPU
LIF
Laser Diode Driver Laser Diode
Copy Paper Rxpath2.wmf
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Fax Basics
Basic Reception with ECM

Modem
Reconstruction ECM Data Extraction ECM Memory Main CPU Line Buffer
SAF Memory
Printer Engine Rxdata1.wmf
Basic Reception without ECM

Modem FIFO Memory
Reconstruction Main CPU Line Buffer Printer Engine
SAF Memory
Rxdata2.wmf
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Fax Basics
Memory Reception with ECM

Modem ECM Data Extraction
Reconstruction SAF Memory Main CPU Line Buffer
Memory Reception without ECM

Modem FIFO Memory SAF Memory
Reconstruction Main CPU Line Buffer
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Transmission
Transmission
Overview
This section explains the communication control circuits for transmission. When they leave the factory, most machines that have memory are set up for automatic dialing and transmission from memory. The main part of this section is based on the steps taken by this type of machine. Other modes, such as transmission without memory, send later, automatic dialing from behind a PABX, and manual dialing will be explained at the end of this section. Below, there follows a brief outline of the individual steps for memory transmission with automatic dialing. These steps are basically the same for most machines. Document DetectionThe user places the document in the feeder, and the CPU turns on the fluorescent lamp when it detects the document. This process is not described in this section. Document FeedThe machine feeds the document through the scanner. This process is not described in this section. Video ProcessingThe machine scans the document, converts the scanned data to digital, and passes it through the video processing circuits. This process is not described in this section. Call Collision PreventionAfter the document has been scanned, the machine checks whether a fax message is coming in. (The machine cannot dial while a message is coming in.)
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Transmission
DC Loop Closure and Line MonitoringIf there is no incoming call, the machine closes the circuit between itself and the telephone exchange. The machine will monitor the line for dial tone and/or line current if required by local conditions (this is required in some European countries). DialingThe machine dials the other party. Signal DetectionThe machine then waits for a signal from the other party before going into tx mode, if required by local conditions (this is required in some European countries). Data TransmissionThe data passes from the memory out to the line through the modem and network interface circuits. Return to StandbyThe machine returns to standby mode. The circuits for European and Asian models are different from those for North American models. Because of this, two separate sections have been prepared.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
North American Models

Call Collision Prevention
Overview
After placing an original in the feeder, the user enters the telephone number at the operation panel's ten-key pad, then presses the Start key. The machine then scans the document and stores it in the SAF memory. The machine then prepares to dial. Note: Remember that for transmissions that do not use the memory, the order of events is different. After the user presses Start, the document is fed partway into the scanner and the machine dials. Scanning and storing is done after the other end has been reached. See Immediate Transmission for details. However, before the machine dials, it must check whether another call is in progress or not, to prevent a collision of incoming and outgoing signals. If the machine detects that a call is already in progress, it will wait until the line is clear before dialing. There are two criteria for detecting whether a call is in progress. 1. Has a ringing signal been detected, or is a potential ringing signal still being analyzed? 2. Is the local loop with the local telephone exchange closed? To understand this, we need to understand how a fax machine connects to a PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network). This explanation begins on the next page. The explanation is based on network conditions in the USA; details differ from country to country.
Transmission
PSTN Circuit
DC Loop Overview Every telephone or fax machine is connected to a local exchange of the PSTN through a two-wire pair. One wire is called "Tip" and the other is called "Ring"; these names refer to the tip and ring parts of the plugs used in manual switchboards (in Europe, L1 and L2 are often preferred). This two-wire circuit is known as the "dc loop", or "local loop". Each telephone and fax machine contains a switch which opens and closes the local loop. When the switch is closed, dc generated by the local exchange flows through the dc loop. The voltage on the dc loop varies from area to area; for example, in the USA, it is about 48 V.
Local Exchange Fax or T elephone LOOP OPEN + Local Exchange Fax or T elephone LOOP CLOSED +
Dcloopu1.wmf
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Transmission
DC Loop through Telephone When the telephone is on-hook, the hook switch connecting it to the local exchange is open, and dc from the local exchange cannot pass through the dc loop. However, the telephone's ringer is connected (the ringer does not allow the dc from the exchange to pass, but allows the ac ringing signal to pass). When the handset is picked up, pressure on the hook switch is released, and the switch closes. Then, dc from the local exchange passes through the dc loop.
TELEPHONE (Simplified)
RING Dialing Circuit Hook Switch Ringer TIP
LOCAL EXCHANGE
Ringing Signal Generator (20-47 Hz)
+
Dcloopu2.wmf
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Transmission
DC Loop through Fax Machine with External Telephone Inside the fax machine, there are two components, called the Oh relay and the Di switch. These act as the fax machine's hook switch. When the machine is in standby mode (as shown above), the Oh relay is set up so that the network is connected to the external telephone (commonly known as the handset); in this set-up, the handset can be used as a normal telephone, as explained on the previous page. The dc loop is open, because the handset's hook switch is open. However, the ringing signal detector in the fax machine and the ringer in the handset are both connected to the line. When the machine closes the dc loop, it switches over the Oh relay to disconnect the handset from the line. Then it closes the Di switch to connect the fax machine to the dc loop. The fax machine's CPU will be able to detect the presence of dc by monitoring the line current detector.
Di Switch
T o/From Fax Circuits
Line Current Detector
+24V
Oh Relay
F TERMINAL AX (Simplified) Ringing Signal Detector
Handset Hook Switch
LOCAL EXCHANGE
Dcloopu3.wmf
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Transmission
TIP Network RING LINE CURRENT
Call Collision Prevention in Fax Machines

For 0.2 s after the user presses Start, the CPU monitors the ringing signal detector and the line current detector to check that the local loop has not already been closed (if the local loop has been closed, there will be current on the telephone line). If a possible ringing signal is still being analyzed when the user presses Start, the CPU will wait for 8 seconds, then check whether the signal is still being analyzed. The diagram shows the call collision prevention circuits. The position of the relays in standby mode depends on the reception mode being used. See Reception for diagrams.
LINE CURRENT
RI Handset TI
+24VS CPU
RINGING SIGNAL
Dcloopu4.wmf
Ringing signal detector: This circuit consists of some zener diodes and a photocoupler. If the voltage of an incoming signal is high enough, it turns on the photocoupler. Then, the CPU detects that its connection to the ringing signal detector has been grounded. Line current detector: This is a pair of photocouplers. The CPU detects line current when one of the sensor outputs is grounded; the output that is grounded depends on the polarity of the dc on the loop.
Transmission
DC Loop Closure and Line Monitoring

After it has been confirmed that there is no possibility of call collision, the machine automatically closes the circuit between itself and the local exchange; this circuit is commonly called the dc loop, or the local loop. Closing the dc loop is the fax machine's way of going off-hook before dialing. In some areas, dialing cannot begin until the machine has checked for dial tone and line current. This is known as "line monitoring".
DC Loop Closure
The fax machine closes the dc loop after checking for incoming calls. If there is no incoming call, the cpu closes the dc loop by activating the Oh relay to disconnect the handset from the line. Then, after 5 ms, it closes the Di switch to connect the fax machine to the line. The cpu then waits for the 'PSTN wait interval' [A] of about 2 s before starting to dial.
OH Relay Di Switch
Dialling
[A]
Only if pulse dialing is used 5 ms Dcclus1.wmf
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Transmission
TIP Network RING Di Photocoupler
On the circuit diagram, curved arrows show the relays switching over from standby mode to close the dc loop. The Di switch is a photocoupler. The standby position of the Oh relay depends on the reception mode selected. See Reception for details. Note PSTN wait interval: This can normally be adjusted by RAM address.
Handset RI TI +5V
+5V
+24VS 5 5 Oh Relay CPU
Dcclus2.wmf
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Transmission
Line Monitoring
Before starting to dial, conditions in parts of Europe require that the machine monitors the line current detector for line current, and signals on the line for dial tone. Therefore, in Europe/Asia models, the PSTN wait interval can be replaced by dial tone and line current detection, if required by local conditions. (Dial tone and line current detection are also available in USA versions of some of the more complex models.) Line Current Monitoring Line current detection allows the machine to check whether the dc loop has been closed. If there is no line current, the dc loop may still be open. The machine uses the following parameters to detect line current. Line current wait time [A] Line current detection time [B] Line current drop detection time [C]
[C] [A] [B]
Line Current Monitoring Starts Here

Dcclus3.wmf
[A] starts when the dc loop closes. [B] starts when the line current first reaches the machine.
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Transmission
The machine checks for line current during [A]. Line current must be on the line for [B] or longer before it is recognized by the CPU. If the CPU has not recognized line current during the interval [A], the machine disconnects. However, if the line current has started but has not been on for [B] when [A] expires (as shown below), detection continues until it has been on for [B]. After starting [B], the machine continually checks the line current for interruptions. If any single interruption lasts for [C] or longer, the line is cut, [A] and [B] are reset, and the machine returns to standby. Dial Tone Monitoring The local exchange sends a dial tone to inform the user that the exchange can accept a telephone number. Dial tone monitoring allows the fax machine to check for this tone before dialing; if there is no dial tone, the exchange may not be ready to accept a telephone number. The machine uses the following parameters to detect dial tone. Acceptable frequency range Dial tone detection time [A] Reset time [B] Continuous tone time [C] Permissible drop time [D]
Dial tone first appears [C] >=[D] <[C] Dial T one
[A]
<[D]
DC Loop Closure [B]
Dial T one Detected
Dcclus4.wmf
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Transmission
[B] starts when the dc loop is closed. Dial tone must appear before [B] expires. If dial tone appears just as [B] expires, detection continues and the deadline at the end of [B] is ignored. The machine detects a dial tone when the tone continues for [C] or longer without interruption. Also, [A] must have passed since the dial tone first appeared. Interruptions shorter than [D] are ignored. Switching Line Monitoring On/Off A nation that requires line monitoring has the necessary parameters programmed in the ROM; they are normally activated when the country code (normally a bit switch setting) is set to the code for that nation. However, if required, line current and dial tone can be disabled; the way to do this varies from model to model. Similarly, in countries which normally have line monitoring disabled, line current and dial tone detection can be enabled; however, the parameters for detection will have to be stored in the appropriate RAM addresses. When line monitoring is disabled, the machine waits for the PSTN wait interval [A] before starting to dial.
Dial Pulses or T ones [A]
Loop Closure
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Transmission
Note The following parameters can be programmed by RAM address. Line Current Monitoring Line current wait time Line current detection time Line current drop detection time Line current monitoring on/off Dial Tone Monitoring Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Other PSTN wait interval
Dial tone detection time Continuous tone time Dial tone monitoring on/off
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Transmission
Dialing
Overview
After the dc loop has been closed, the machine can dial. In automatic dialing mode, the machine dials in accordance with the number entered by the user at the operation panel, either in full, or as a Quick Dial or Speed Dial. There are two types of dialing: pulse dialing, and tone dialing. The dialing method must match the dialing mode that can be accepted by the local exchange, or the machine will not be able to dial out. The dialing method can be chosen by a user function in most countries.
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TIP Network RING Di Photocoupler
Transmission
Pulse Dialing
Pulse dialing was originally developed to operate mechanical switching systems in the local exchanges. The machine sends voltage pulses to the local exchange by interrupting the dc loop. It does this by opening and closing the Di switch. Each digit is represented as a different number of pulses. For example, to dial a "2", the machine sends out 2 pulses. The Oh relay remains fixed during dialing (it does not move until the machine returns to standby mode). The Di switch is a photocoupler. Photocouplers are compact and inexpensive.
Handset RI TI +5V
+5V
+24VS 5
Oh Relay
CPU
Dialu1.wmf
Each digit of the telephone number is sent out as a pulse train. The cpu sends out the dial pulses by opening and closing the Di photocoupler on/off.
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Transmission
Di Photocoupler
OFF HOOK
The time that the Di photocoupler opens is called the break time [A] and the time that it closes is called the make time [B]. Each pulse sent out on the line is made by opening and closing the Di photocoupler. A minimum pause [C] is required between each digit, regardless of whether the user pressed the pause key while dialing. Example: Dialing 43 Notes
[B]
[C]
ON HOOK
DC Loop Closed
[A]
3
Dialu2.wmf
Most countries dial in the same way (the number of pulses sent out [P] is the same as the number dialed [N]). However, some areas require different types of pulse dial signals. For example, in Oslo, P must be 10 - N, and in Sweden, P must be N + 1. The required mode can be selected by bit switch adjustment. Pulse dialing can be done at two rates: 10 pulses per second (pps) or 20 pps. If the local exchange can only handle 10 pps dialing, the machine must not be set to dial at 20 pps. The dial pulse rate can usually be adjusted by bit switch. Parameters A to C illustrated on the diagrams in this section are programmable. For pulse dialing at 10 pps, the times stored in the NCU parameters are used as explained in this section. However, at 20 pps, only half the values in parameters A and B are used, and three-quarters of the value in parameter C.
Transmission
Tone Dialing
Overview Each dialed digit is sent out as a DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) tone, which is a mixture of two frequencies. The following diagram shows what frequencies are generated for each digit on a typical telephone keypad. For example, a '5' is represented by a 770 Hz tone combined with a 1,336 Hz tone. The DTMF tone frequencies are the same throughout the world. They were carefully chosen so as not to coincide with other frequencies that may occur on the line. In some types of telephone equipment, the DTMF circuit remains on line after the call has been connected. This allows the use of DTMF tones for giving orders to the remote terminal (e.g., extracting information from a remote database). The advantages of using DTMF over pulse dialing are as follows. Dialing is faster DTMF tone generation circuits are compact solid-state circuits There can be end-to-end signaling after call connection, as mentioned in the previous paragraph
Diale5.wmf
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Transmission
DTMF Tone Generation The diagram shows how DTMF tones are generated in fax machines. The cpu generates two square waves of the required frequencies. These each pass through a low pass filter to remove noise, and are added together. In the attenuator, the DTMF tone is attenuated. The attenuation value is different from that used for the attenuation of facsimile data. The DTMF tone is then amplified to compensate for the signal loss between the attenuator and the telephone line. The tone then passes to the line through the Di switch and Oh relay, which remain fixed during tone dialing.
Filter Adder Attenuator T the o Network
Filter
CPU
Dialu3.wmf
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Transmission
Attenuation of DTMF Tones The machine always uses permissive attenuation for DTMF tones, even if programmable attenuation has been selected. (See Data Transmission concerning permissive and programmable attenuation. Programmable attenuation is only done in older models, some of which may still be in the field.) Note: The DTMF tone attenuation value can be adjusted by RAM address. However, unlike the attenuation value for facsimile data, it cannot be adjusted using dedicated transmission parameters or bit switches. Timing DTMF tones are sent out in accordance with the timing shown in the diagram. Note: The DTMF tone on time [A] and off time [B] can be adjusted by RAM address.
Pauses
[A]
[B]
Diale7.wmf
If the user dials a pause using the Pause key, the machine waits for a pre-programmed interval before sending the next tone or pulse. Note: The pause interval can be changed using a RAM address adjustment.
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Transmission
Signal Detection
Overview
After dialing, the machine waits for the response from the other end. The response is usually either a CED tone, a busy tone, or a ringback tone. These tones are known as progress tones. Instead of a progress tone, a protocol signal such as NSF or DIS may be detected at this time. The received signal passes through two filters. A high From the pass filter (with a cut off of about 300 Hz) removes low Network frequencies, such as noise from the fax machine's power supply, and a low pass filter (with a cut off of about 2100 Hz) removes high frequencies, such as noise from overhead railway power cables. The signal then passes to a programmable gain amplifier, which raises the signal level enough for the machine's hardware to analyze it. The minimum signal level on the line will vary from country to country, so the amplifier is programmable. For example, in typical USA models, the amplifier is set up so that signals weaker than -53 dBm are not detected.
CPU
Filters
A/D Converter
Programmable Gain Amplifier

Sigdet.wmf
The amplified signal is converted to digital, then passed to the tone detector in the cpu.
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Transmission
The incoming signal may determine whether or not the machine goes into transmit mode. Most machines have bit switch or other settings to determine when the machine goes into transmit mode. The choices are typically as follows: After dialing After receiving NSF or DIS After receiving CED Note: The gain of the amplifier depends on the country code (the country code is selected by a bit switch adjustment). However, the gain can be changed by a RAM address adjustment; in most machines, there are 4 possible values to choose from.
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Transmission
Busy Tone Detection

If the call has gone through and if the called terminal is already off hook (i.e., the other end is busy), the local exchange at the other end sends back a busy tone.
DIALLING SIGNAL
Network Local Exchanger Local Exchanger
BUSY
T ransmitter
Receiver
BUSY TONE
Sigdet2.wmf
If the machine detects busy tone, it will disconnect the line. The number will be redialed (see Redialing), unless the maximum number of redials have already been made. If busy tone detection is disabled and the line is busy, the machine will hold the line until the ITU-T T1 timer (about 1 minute) runs out. So busy tone detection can reduce the amount of time the machine holds the line.
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Transmission
Busy Tone with Cadence In many countries, the busy tone has a cadence (a fixed on-off cycle), so the machine measures the on and off times of the received signal and compares them with values programmed in the RAM. RAM addresses specify four permissible lengths for each signal state. The machine first checks if the signal has a length within range 1. If it does not, then range 2 is selected, and so on. An example is shown to the right, in which the on-off time durations are found to be within range 3. Note The following values are stored in RAM. Range 1, ON time Range 1, OFF time Range 2, ON time Range 2, OFF time Range 3, ON time Range 3, OFF time Range 4, ON time Range 4, OFF time The number of cycles required for detection (for example, a setting of 4 means that ON-OFF-ON or OFF-ON-OFF must be detected twice).
Busy T one ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Out of Out of W ithin Within Within Within Range 1 Range 2 Range 3 Range 3 Range 3 Range 3 T Cycles wo Detection Flag
Sigdet3.wmf
Transmission
ON or OFF time tolerance (+/-), for ranges 1 to 4. Acceptable signal frequency range Continuous Busy Tone In some countries, such as the UK, the busy signal is not a cadence. The busy tone must continue for a certain time before the machine detects it. Note: The minimum time required for continuous busy tone detection is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
Ringback Tone Detection

If the call has gone through and if the called terminal is on hook, the local exchange at the other end sends a ringing signal to the called party; at the same time it sends a ringback signal back to the caller.
DIALLING SIGNAL

RINGBACK TONE
NO REPL Y YET
T ransmitter
Receiver
Sigdet4.wmf
Ringback tone detection is always switched on in Austria. Ringback tone is detected if the ringback tone is longer than the minimum ringback tone detection time (0.1 s), which is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
- If the machine at the other end is a telephone When the phone rings at the other end, the transmitting machine detects ringback tone. The other party picks up the handset when the phone rings, and replaces it when there is no voice on the line. Then, the local exchange at the receiving end sends back a busy tone to the transmitter (this is normal in Austria). When the transmitter detects this busy tone, it immediately disconnects the line without waiting for the ITU-T T1 time to expire. Ringback tone and busy tone were both detected on this call; in such cases, the software in the transmitter disables automatic redialing for this number. Note: In Austria, it is necessary to prevent a fax machine from redialing addresses for which the T1 timer expired on the first attempt. - If the machine at the other end is a fax machine In Austria, the receiving fax machine will close the dc loop after it has detected one ringing signal. (So, the ringback tone to the transmitter will be short, but not too short for detection.) Immediately after closing the dc loop, the receiving machine will send CED. If the user at the receiving end presses Stop after this, both machines will disconnect immediately. The transmitter will not receive busy tone from the other end, as it has already disconnected, so the number can be redialed automatically.
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Transmission
Note The ringback tone has the same frequency as the busy tone. The only RAM address that must be programmed for ringback tone detection is as follows. Ringback tone detection time
CED Detection
If the receiver is a fax terminal in Auto Receive (Fax) mode, it will emit a 2100 Hz tone called CED.
DIALLING SIGNAL

CED TONE CED TONE
F AX MODE
T ransmitter
Receiver
Sigdet5.wmf
This signal informs the caller that they have connected to a fax machine. CED is the high-pitched tone that prompts the user to press the Start key when using Manual Dialing. In automatic dialing mode, the transmitting fax terminal confirms CED detection when the CED tone continues for 200 ms or more. Then it starts to scan the document.
Transmission
Data Transmission
The data transmission circuit is shown above. The cpu retrieves the data from the SAF memory, processes it, and passes it to the modem. The modem modulates the data to convert it into a form that is suitable for transmission over the public telephone network. The data is then attenuated to the correct signal strength for transmission. The major steps are explained on the following pages.
T the o Network TIP RING
Programmable Resistor Select Switch Programmable Resistor
Processing in the CPU

The cpu retrieves the data from the SAF memory and reconstructs it (if it was compressed before storage into the SAF). The cpu then processes the data before sending it to the modem. The signal to the modem is eight-bit parallel, with one bit representing one picture element (unless the data was reducedsee the Digital Processes chapter for details on reduction).
Speaker V olume and On/Off Control Attenuator
[B]
[A]
Modem Attenuator SAF Memory
CPU
Tx-u.wmf
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Transmission
Compression Compression reduces the number of bits in the data signal, and therefore the transmission time for one page. MH, MR, and MMR compression are done according to ITU-T standards. A proprietary procedure called EFC (Estimated Fillbit Control) may be applied to the compressed data. EFC is not strictly a compression technique, but it improves the efficiency of data transfer by controlling the number of fill bits inserted by the transmitter at the end of each line of data (see below). The data is compressed in accordance with the method agreed in the protocol between the transmitting and receiving machines. In Group 2 and Group 1 modes, the data is not compressed before transmission. Brief explanations of the different coding types follow. MH and MR coding are explained in detail in the ITU-T recommendations for Group 3 facsimile. MHEvery line is MH coded. MRData is treated in blocks of 2 lines (in Standard or Detail resolution) or in blocks of 4 lines (in Fine resolution). The first line of each block is MH coded, then the remaining lines in the block are MR coded using the first line as the reference line. SMRThis is similar to MR coding except that data is treated in blocks of 8 lines (in Standard or Detail resolution) or in blocks of 16 lines (in Fine resolution).
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Transmission
MMRData is treated by the page (or the ECM block if the page needs more than one block). The first line of the page is MH coded, then all the following lines on the page are MR coded using the first line as the reference line. In some models, MMR is only done for storing data into memory, or if ECM is being used. EFCThe sending machine only includes fill bits in the data stream when the FIFO memory in the receiver is full (normally fill bits are always added to the end of any line that is sent out in less than the time specified by the I/O rate). New EFCFill bits are never added to the data, and the receiver uses the SAF memory or hard disk instead of the FIFO memory. If the receiver's memory is full, it sends PIN and the line is disconnected. If ECM (the extension to Group 3 protocol known as Error Correction Mode) is used, EFC and New EFC are not used. The compressed data goes out to the modem on the data bus.
Compression is described in more detail in the section on compression.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Data Transfer to the Modem I/O rate: The I/O (input/output) rate is the amount of time needed for the scanner or printer to process one scan line of image data (modulation and demodulation are not included in this time). On the transmitting side, it indicates the time needed to scan, process, and compress a scan line. On the receiving side, it indicates the time needed to reconstruct, process, and print a scan line. In Group 3 transmission without ECM, I/O rates of the communicating machines must be the same. If ECM is used, I/O rate is not used (0 ms/line is assumed). Without ECM The FIFO synchronizes the transfer of video data to the modem (transmission) or from the modem (reception). It also acts as a buffer, ensuring that there is always some data for the modem to pick up, modulate, and send out. The FIFO has some unique functions, in addition to synchronizing data transfer from the CPU to the modem, as explained below. Without EFC (Estimated Fillbit Control): During the protocol exchange, I/O rate capabilities are compared. The I/O rates of both terminals must be the same during communication. The maximum I/O rate of the slower machine is used. Say that the chosen I/O rate is 10 ms/line. If the sending machine takes less than 10 ms to scan, process, and compress a particular scan line, it adds fill bits (zeros) to the end of the compressed scan line to make up the extra time. This keeps the two machines synchronized.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
With EFC: If EFC is used, the two terminals' FIFO sizes are compared during the protocol exchange, as well as the I/O rates. During transmission, the sending machine continually estimates how much space remains in the receiver's FIFO (the I/O rate, receiver's FIFO size, and amount of data sent are used in this estimation). Fill bits are not added to the end of each scan line, unless the receiver's FIFO seems to be getting full; the transmitter then sends fill bits (zeros) until there is some space in the FIFO. This system speeds up data transfer between the terminals. With ECM All compressed image data for an ECM block (normally one page, unless halftone is used) are held in the ECM memory, and assembled into protocol frames before transmission. At the receiving end, printing does not start until the whole block of data has been received. Therefore, there is no need to synchronize the scan line I/O rate of the two machines. The FIFO is not needed for ECM; the ECM memory at each end acts as a buffer memory. Printing is not done until a block of data has been assembled in the receiver's ECM memory. Therefore, there is no real time synchronization of the scan line I/O rate of the two machines. Because of this, no fill bits need to be exchanged between the terminals. This means that EFC is not used with ECM. Note: In laser printers, the I/O rate is also 0 ms/line during reception. This is because the data is assembled in a page memory before printing. ECM is described in more detail in the section on fax protocol, and EFC is described in more detail in the section on compression.
Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Modulation
The data passes to the modem on the data bus as 8-bit parallel data. The modem converts this to serial and modulates it before passing it on to the network interface circuits. Modulation techniques are described in detail in another section.
Attenuation
The signal is then attenuated and passed to the line. Permissive Attenuation For G3 and V.21 protocol signals, the attenuator ensures that the signal level output to the line matches the value programmed in the bit switches for tx signal level. If the number is dialed as a Speed or Quick Dial, any value stored for tx level in the dedicated transmission parameters for this address will be used instead of the bit switch value. Note: For G2, G1, and PIS (462 Hz) signals (these are all now obsolete), the output to the line is slightly different than for G3. For example, if the bit switches specify -9 dBm, the different types of signal will have the following level on entering the network. G3, V.21: -9 dB G2, PIS (462 Hz): -8 dB G1: -12 dB. The above values differ from model to model.
Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Programmable Attenuation Programmable attenuation is only done in older models, some of which may still be in the field. If programmable attenuation is required (which is not very often), a technician from the telephone company will visit the location and measure the output level from the machine. The technician will then connect a programmable resistor to the rear of the machine; the resistor value is selected carefully to ensure that the machine's output level is between 0 and -15 dBm. Programmable attenuation must then be switched on by a bit switch adjustment. The bit switches and dedicated transmission parameters for signal level are ignored. The attenuation between points [A] and [B] on the circuit diagram is fixed (see the beginning of this section). For example: G3, V.21: -5 dB G2, PIS (462 Hz): -4 dB G1: -8 dB The above values differ from model to model. G1 and G2 are now obsolete.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Exit to the Network

The signal then passes through an amplifier, which raises the signal level to make up for the signal loss as the data passes out to the line through the network interface circuits. The data then passes to the line through the Di and Oh Relays, which do not change position during data transmission. Notes 1. The transmission level can be changed by bit switch, if local line conditions make it necessary. 2. Dedicated transmission parameters are three bytes of settings, that can be programmed for each Quick Dial Key and Speed Dial Code. The settings include transmission level, and initial modem rate. The settings can be programmed to suit the line conditions normally encountered when sending to the terminal stored in the Quick Dial Key or Speed Dial Code. 3. In older models programmable or permissive attenuation can be selected by a bit switch adjustment. 4. ECM is normally on. In some models, it can be switched off for a particular destination using dedicated tx parameters, or for all destinations by bit switch adjustment. 5. If transmitted signals are degraded (especially at higher frequencies) because of the length of wire between the modem and the local exchange, try adjusting the cable equalizer by bit switch. There are normally four values available, including zero (off). If the cable equalizer is switched on, high frequencies are made louder and low frequencies are made softer. The cable equalizer characteristic may vary depending on the modem in use. Modems used in fax machines generally raise the levels of frequencies between 1700 Hz and 3000 Hz, and reduce the levels of frequencies between 300 Hz and 1700 Hz. If the cable equalization is overcorrected, output signals will be degraded again, leading to unnecessary modem rate fallback during training.
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Transmission
Return to Standby
After transmission, the next step depends on the status of the handset hook switch. If the handset is on hook at the end of the communication, the cpu turns off the Di switch to disconnect the fax machine from the dc loop, then the Oh relay in accordance with the following diagram on the right.
OH Relay Di Switch
10 ms
Stbyu1.wmf
If the handset is off hook (for example, if the Voice Request feature was being used), the Oh relay switches off before the Di switch, as shown on the right. Note: The difference in timing is to meet PTT requirements in some European countries.
OH Relay Di Switch
5 ms
Stbyu2.wmf
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Transmission
Finally, the cpu turns off the power supply for all components except those needed for monitoring the machine and telephone line in standby mode. The machine is now back in standby mode. Note The machine must wait for a minimum amount of time before dialing the next number. This interval is normally stored in RAM and can be adjusted. However, there may be a government requirement regarding the value, as for most of the adjustable communication parameters that are discussed in this manual.
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Transmission
Others
Manual Dialing
An outline of the steps taken follows. Document Detection: The user places the document in the feeder, and the tx motor feeds the document to the scan line. Document Feed, Video Processing: These steps are the same as for automatic dialing. DC Loop Closure, Dialing, and Signal Detection: The user picks up the handset. The handset hook switch closes the circuit between the machine and the telephone exchange (known as the dc loop). The user listens for dial tone then dials. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end. There is no automatic call collision prevention after the user presses Start. Data Transmission, Return to Standby: These steps are the same as for automatic dialing
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Transmission
Circuits Machines without Auto Select Mode

TIP Network
RING
Machines with Auto Select Mode

TIP Network
RING
LINE CURRENT
LINE CURRENT Handset Hook Switch RI
[A]
[A]
LINE CURRENT [B]
LINE CURRENT [B] +24VS CPU TI

Handset Hook Switch Auto Mode Relay +24VS RI Ringing Signal Detector
CPU
TI Oh Relay
[C]
Mandlu2.wmf
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Transmission
Picking up the Handset After placing the document in the feeder, the user picks up the handset. The hook switch in the handset closes the dc loop between itself and the local exchange. Auto or Manual Receive modes: The cpu detects dc loop closure when pin A or pin B goes low; the pin that goes low depends on the polarity of the circuit. Auto Select mode: The cpu detects that the handset is off hook when the signal on pin C changes state. When the cpu detects this, it switches over the Auto Mode and Oh relays. (The above diagram shows the relays in standby mode for Auto Select mode.) The +24V signal used here must remain on during standby mode. This is because pin A is also used for detecting when the handset is picked up in Auto Select mode.
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Transmission
Dialing When the cpu detects the dc loop, the operation panel LED prompts the user to dial. Dialing from the handset: The dial switch or tone generator in the handset sends the dial signal out to the line. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end. Dialing from the ten-key pad: When the first number is input at the ten-key pad, the Oh relay switches into the down position (see the previous diagram). After the dial pulses or tones have gone out to the network, the Oh relay switches over again to connect the handset to the line. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end. The cpu then connects the line to the fax machine by turning on the Di switch then switching over the Oh relay 10 ms later. This is the opposite of the dc loop closure procedure for automatic dialing. The reason for the above is as follows. If the Oh relay is closed first, the dc loop already established between the handset and the local exchange would be disconnected and the call would be terminated. So, the Di switch is closed first. There are now two dc loops; one to the handset, and one through the fax circuit. Then the Oh relay disconnects the handset to leave the fax machine connected to the local exchange. In automatic dialing, there is no dc loop formed with the local exchange at this time, so the Oh relay can be switched over first without disconnecting the call. Document feed, video processing, data transmission, and return to standby then proceed as previously described. The user may pick up the handset during communication (for a voice request), or before a document is placed in the feeder (for example, to make a phone call).
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Transmission
When the user picks up the handset, the hook switch inside the handset closes. If this is done in standby mode, the dc loop then forms through the hook switch in the handset. The cpu detects line current, which informs it that the handset has been picked up. If the user picks up the handset after the dc loop has been closed (for example, to answer a voice request), the cpu cannot directly detect that the handset has been picked up. The user has to press the Stop key after picking up the handset. Then the Oh relay switches over to connect the handset to the local exchange.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Immediate Transmission
An outline of the procedure follows. Document Detection: The user places the document in the feeder, and the CPU turns on the scanner lamp when it detects the document. Call Collision Prevention, DC Loop Closure, Line Monitoring, Dialing, and Signal Detection: After the user has pressed Start on the operation panel, the machine feeds the first page partway into the scanner. The machine then dials the other party, before scanning the document. Document Feed: When the other terminal has been reached and handshaking and modem training have been done, the machine scans the document. When document stamping is switched on, the page is stamped if transmission was successful. Video Processing: While the machine scans the document, it converts the scanned data from analog to digital, and passes it through the video processing circuits. Data Transmission: The data passes to the telephone line through the modem and network interface circuits. Return to Stand-by: After all data has been transmitted, the page is fed out. The machine returns to stand-by.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Redialing
If there is a line failure, or if the line is busy, the machine can redial the same number automatically, as defined by parameters stored in RAM. (Also, the user can redial immediately by pushing the Redial key.) There are RAM addresses to control the following: Redialing (memory transmission) Redialing (immediate transmission)
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Transmission
International Dialing
Some national PTTs require automatic detection of international dial and country dial tones. International numbers are dialed as follows.
If behind P ABX 0 P 009 112 P 123... T number el. Pause Country code International dial access code Pause PSTN access code
P ABX PSTN Monitoring Monitoring International Dial Country Dial T one Detection T one Detection DC Loop Closure
International dial tones and country dial tones are detected in the same way as PSTN dial tones, except that the timers and frequency limits are different.
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Transmission
Note: The necessary parameters are held in RAM. International Dial Tone Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Country Dial Tone Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Other International dial access code
Detection time Continuous tone time Wait interval
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Transmission
Auto Dialing from behind a PABX

Outline
The procedure is as follows. Document Detection, Document Feed, Video Data Processing, Call Collision Prevention, DC Loop Closure: These are the same as for transmission without PABX. When the machine goes into transmit mode, it checks for incoming calls, then it connects to the PABX by switching over the Di switch and Oh relay. Line Monitoring: Some local conditions require the machine to monitor the line for PABX line current, dial tones, busy tone, and ringback tone. If line monitoring is disabled, the machine waits for the PABX wait interval before going on to the next step (in the USA, this interval is 2 s). Access to the PSTN: The machine must gain access to the PSTN through the PABX by dialing an access code. Line Monitoring, Telephone Number Dialing, Signal Detection, Data Transmission, Return to Standby: These are the same as for transmission without PABX.
Line monitoring and access to the PSTN are explained in more detail on the following pages.
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Transmission
Line Monitoring
1. Line Current This is the same as for PSTN line current detection. 2. Dial Tone The machine monitors the line for PABX dial tone in the same way as when it monitors the line for PSTN dial tone. However, the following parameters for dial tone detection are different and are stored in separate RAM addresses. Acceptable frequency range Detection time Reset time Continuous tone time Permissible drop time If PABX line monitoring is enabled and parameters are already programmed, you can disable dial tone detection. The method differs from model to model. If PABX dial tone detection is disabled, the machine will wait for the PABX wait interval (see the next page) before dialing the PSTN access code. This interval is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
3. Busy Tone Detection This is the same as for basic transmission, except that the following parameter has a separate RAM address. Acceptable frequency range 4. Ringback Tone Detection This is the same as for basic transmission, except that the following parameter has a separate RAM address. Detection time
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Transmission
Access to the PSTN

The machine sends out the first digit of the phone number, which should be the PSTN access code. The PSTN access code is programmed by bit switch. If this first digit is the same as the value specified by the bit switch, the cpu recognizes the access code and starts to monitor the line from the PABX. Note that the PSTN access code can be a two-digit code. In this case, the cpu monitors the line for line current and dial tone after the user dials the two-digit code specified by the access code bit switch. If line monitoring is disabled, the cpu waits for preset intervals before dialing. The intervals are: [A]: PABX wait interval [B]: PSTN wait interval; this is the same as the interval discussed in DC Loop Closure. Both intervals are stored in RAM and can be adjusted. The above diagram shows the set-up for the USA; A is 2 s and B is 4 s.
Example Access Code: 0 T No.: 555 el.
[A]
2s
[B]
4s
Loop Closure
Pabxe1.wmf
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Transmission
The next step depends on the PSTN access mode selected. There are three types: loop start, ground start, and flash start. 1. Loop Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it monitors the line for line current and dial tone, then starts to dial the destination telephone number.
P ABX Line Current and T one Detection DC Loop Closure PSTN Line Current and T one Detection
Pabxe2.wmf
1 2 3
2. Ground Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it gains access to the line by closing the Gs relay for a certain interval [A], which is stored in RAM.
Gs Relay
[A]
DC Loop Closure
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection Begins Pabxe3.wmf
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Transmission
3. Flash Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it gains access to the PSTN by opening the Di relay for a certain interval [A], which is stored in RAM. Circuit
GS Gs OH
[A]
Di Relay
DC Loop Closure
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection Begins

Pabxu3.wmf
Line
Ds
Di OH Di Driver Handset Ds Gs CPU
Pabxu5.wmf
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Transmission
4. Pauses If the user enters one or more pauses after the access code, the machine monitors the PSTN then waits for the PABX pause time (stored in RAM) for each pause dialed. Then it dials the number. However, the machine will wait for only one pause: If the pause key was pushed more than 8 times consecutively If the pause time RAM address contains FF. Notes The access method can be selected by bit switch. The following settings are available; no PABX, loop start, ground start, and flash start. The PSTN access code can be programmed by bit switch. The PABX pause time ([A] in the above diagram) can be changed by a RAM address adjustment.
Example: 0PPP123
P ABX Line Current and T one Detection
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection [A] [A] [A]
DC Loop Closure
Pabxe6.wmf
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
EUROPEAN/ASIAN MODELS
Call Collision Prevention
Overview
After placing a document in the feeder, the user enters the telephone number at the operation panel's ten-key pad, then presses the Start key. The machine then scans the document and stores it in the SAF memory. The machine then prepares to dial. Note: Remember that for transmissions that do not use the memory, the order of events is different. After the user presses Start, the document is fed partway into the scanner and the machine dials. Scanning and storing is done after the other end has been reached. See Immediate Transmission for details. However, before the machine dials, it must check whether another call is in progress or not, to prevent a collision of incoming and outgoing signals. If the machine detects that a call is already in progress, it will wait until the line is clear before dialing. There are two criteria for detecting whether a call is in progress. 1. Has a ringing signal been detected, or is a potential ringing signal still being analysed? 2. Is the local loop with the local telephone exchange closed? To understand this, we need to understand how a fax machine connects to a PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network). This explanation begins on the next page.
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Transmission
PSTN Circuit
DC Loop Overview Every telephone or fax machine is connected to a local exchange of the PSTN through a two-wire pair. One wire is called "Tip" and the other is called "Ring"; these names refer to the tip and ring parts of the plugs used in manual switchboards (in Europe, L1 and L2 are often preferred). This two-wire circuit is known as the "dc loop", or "local loop". Each telephone and fax machine contains a switch which opens and closes the local loop. When the switch is closed, dc generated by the local exchange flows through the dc loop. The voltage on the dc loop varies from area to area; for example, in the USA, it is about 48 V.
Local Exchange Fax or T elephone LOOP OPEN + Local Exchange Fax or T elephone LOOP CLOSED +
Dcloopu1.wmf
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Transmission
DC Loop through Telephone When the telephone is on-hook, the hook switch connecting it to the local exchange is open, and dc from the local exchange cannot pass through the dc loop. However, the telephone's ringer is connected (the ringer does not allow the dc from the exchange to pass, but allows the ac ringing signal to pass). When the handset is picked up, pressure on the hook switch is released, and the switch closes. Then, dc from the local exchange passes through the dc loop.
TELEPHONE (Simplified)
RING Dialing Circuit Hook Switch Ringer TIP
LOCAL EXCHANGE
+
Dcloopu2.wmf
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Transmission
DC Loop through Fax Machine with External Telephone Inside the fax machine, two components (called the Oh relay and the Ds relay) act as the fax machine's hook switch. When the machine is in standby mode (as shown above), the Oh relay is set up so that the network is connected to the external telephone (commonly known as the handset); in this set-up, the handset can be used as a normal telephone, as explained on the previous page. The dc loop is open, because the handset's hook switch is open. However, the ringing signal detector in the fax machine and the ringer in the handset are both connected to the line. When the machine closes the dc loop, it switches over the Oh relay to disconnect the handset from the line. Then it closes the Ds relay to connect the fax machine to the dc loop. The fax machine's cpu will be able to detect dc by monitoring the line current detector. Note: In France, the Di switch is in series with the Oh relay instead of the Ds relay, and the Di relay closes the dc loop.
9 August 2003
T o/From Fax Circuits
Ds relay
Line Current Detector
+24V
Oh relay
Ringing Signal Detector
Handset Hook Switch
F TERMINAL AX (Simplified)
LOCAL EXCHANGE
Dcloopu3.wmf
Page 501
Transmission
Call Collision Prevention in Fax Machines

L1
For 0.2 s after the user presses Start, the cpu monitors the ringing signal detector and the line current detector to check that the local loop has not already been closed (if the local loop has been closed, there will be current on the telephone line). If a possible ringing signal is still being analyzed when the user presses Start, the cpu will wait for 8 s, then check whether the signal is still being analyzed. The call collision prevention circuit is shown below. The circuit shown is for a fax machine in standby mode.
Network L2 Line Current Sensor LINE CURRENT
LINE CURRENT
T1 Handset T2 RINGING SIGNAL CPU
Dcloope4.wmf
Ringing signal detector: This circuit consists of some zener diodes and a photocoupler. It is adjustable, to allow for variations in ringing signals within Europe. If the voltage of an incoming signal is high enough, it turns on the photocoupler. Then, the cpu detects that its connection to the ringing signal detector has been grounded. Line current detector: This is a Hall effect sensor. The cpu detects line current when one of the sensor outputs is grounded; the output that is grounded depends on the polarity of the dc on the loop.
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Transmission
DC Loop Closure and Line Monitoring

After it has been confirmed that there is no possibility of call collision, the machine automatically closes the circuit between itself and the local exchange; this circuit is commonly called the dc loop, or the local loop. Closing the dc loop is the fax machine's way of going off-hook before dialing. In some areas, dialing cannot begin until the machine has checked for dial tone and line current. This is known as "line monitoring".
DC Loop Closure
The fax machine closes the dc loop after checking for incoming calls. If there is no incoming call, the cpu closes the dc loop by activating the Oh relay to disconnect the handset from the line. Then, after 5 ms, it closes the Ds relay to connect the fax machine to the line. The cpu then waits for the 'PSTN wait interval' [A] of about 2 s before starting to dial.
OH Relay Ds or Di Relay
[A]
5 ms
Dialling if Only starts

Dccle1.wmf
The PSTN wait interval can normally be adjusted by RAM address. On the following circuit diagrams, curved arrows show the relays switching over from standby mode to close the dc loop.
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GS Gs OH Di
Transmission
GS Gs OH Ds
Line
Ds
Line
Di
5 5 OH Di Driver Handset Gs Ds CPU
5 OH Di Driver Handset Gs Ds CPU
Dccle2.wmf
Dccle3.wmf
In most countries, the circuit is as shown in the left-hand diagram (the Ds relay closes the dc loop). In France, the circuit is as shown in the right-hand diagram (the Di relay closes the dc loop). The Gs relay is not used for dc loop closure; it is only shown for reference in these diagrams.
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Transmission
Line Monitoring
Before starting to dial, conditions in parts of Europe require that the machine monitors the line current detector for line current, and signals on the line for dial tone. Therefore, in Europe/Asia models, the PSTN wait interval can be replaced by dial tone and line current detection, if required by local conditions. (Dial tone and line current detection are also available in USA versions of some of the more complex models.) Line Current Monitoring Line current detection allows the machine to check whether the dc loop has been closed. If there is no line current, the dc loop may still be open. The machine uses the following parameters to detect line current. Line current wait time [A] Line current detection time [B] Line current drop detection time [C]
[C] [A] [B]
Line Current Monitoring Starts Here

Dcclus3.wmf
[A] starts when the dc loop closes. [B] starts when the line current first reaches the machine. The machine checks for line current during [A]. Line current must be on the line for [B] or longer before it is recognized by the cpu. If the cpu has not recognized line current during the interval [A],
Facsimile Processes
Transmission
the machine disconnects. However, if the line current has started but has not been on for [B] when [A] expires, detection continues until it has been on for [B]. After starting [B], the machine continually checks the line current for interruptions. If any single interruption lasts for [C] or longer, the line is cut, [A] and [B] are reset, and the machine returns to stand-by. Dial Tone Monitoring The local exchange sends a dial tone to inform the user that the exchange can accept a telephone number. Dial tone monitoring allows the fax machine to check for this tone before dialing; if there is no dial tone, the exchange may not be ready to accept a telephone number.
Dial tone first appears >=[D] <[C] Dial T one [C]
[A]
The machine uses the following parameters to detect dial tone. Acceptable frequency range Dial T one Dial tone detection time [A] DC Loop Detected Closure Reset time [B] [B] Continuous tone time [C] Dcclus4.wmf Permissible drop time [D] [B] starts when the dc loop is closed. Dial tone must appear before [B] expires. If dial tone appears just as [B] expires, detection continues and the deadline at the end of [B] is ignored.
<[D]
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Transmission
The machine detects a dial tone when the tone continues for [C] or longer without interruption. Also, [A] must have passed since the dial tone first appeared. Interruptions shorter than [D] are ignored. Switching Line Monitoring On/Off A nation that requires line monitoring has the necessary parameters programmed in the ROM; they are normally activated when the country code (normally a bit switch setting) is set to the code for that nation. However, if required, line current and dial tone can be disabled; the way to do this varies from model to model. Similarly, in countries which normally have line monitoring disabled, line current and dial tone detection can be enabled; however, the parameters for detection will have to be stored in the appropriate RAM addresses. When line monitoring is disabled, the machine waits for the PSTN wait interval [A] before starting to dial.
Dial Pulses or T ones [A]
Loop Closure
Dcclus5.wmf
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Transmission
Note: The following parameters can be programmed by RAM address. Line Current Monitoring Line current wait time Line current detection time Line current drop detection time Line current monitoring on/off Dial Tone Monitoring Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Other PSTN wait interval
Dial tone detection time Continuous tone time Dial tone monitoring on/off
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Transmission
Dialing
Overview
After the dc loop has been closed, the machine can dial. In automatic dialing mode, the machine dials in accordance with the number entered by the user at the operation panel, either in full, or as a Quick Dial or Speed Dial. There are two types of dialing: pulse dialing, and tone dialing. The dialing method must match the dialing mode that can be accepted by the local exchange, or the machine will not be able to dial out. The dialing method can be chosen by a user function in most countries.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
T the modem o and other data circuits
Pulse Dialing
Pulse dialing was originally developed to operate mechanical switching systems in the local exchanges. The machine sends voltage pulses to the local exchange by interrupting the dc loop. It does this by opening and closing the Di switch. Each digit is represented as a different number of pulses. For example, to dial a "2", the machine sends out 2 pulses. The Oh Relay remains fixed during dialing (it does not move until the machine returns to stand-by mode). The Di switch is a relay. This is because of PTT requirements in some areas. (PTTs are national telephone network administrative bodies.)
Line OH
Di Ds
5 Di
Driver Handset
Ds
CPU
Diale1.wmf
When the Di relay is opened and closed, there are sharp voltage peaks at the leading and trailing edges of the dial pulses, which could damage circuits in the machine. Because of this, a extra relay is added to the dialing circuit; this relay is known as the Ds relay. The Ds relay is opened while the Di relay is dialing, to prevent voltage spikes from damaging the machine.
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Transmission
Each digit of the telephone number is sent out as a pulse train. The cpu sends out the dial pulses by switching the Di and Ds relays in accordance with the following timing. Example: Dialing 32 The time that the Di relay opens is called the break time [A] and the time that it closes is called the make time [B]. Each pulse sent out on the line is made by opening and closing the Di relay. A minimum pause [C] is required between each digit, regardless of whether the user pressed the pause key while dialing.
[D] [A] [A] [A] [E] [D][A] [A] [E] Ds [C]
[B] Di
[B]
[B]
Diale2.wmf
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Transmission
Notes: Most countries dial in the same way (the number of pulses sent out [P] is the same as the number dialed [N]). However, some areas require different types of pulse dial signals. For example, in Oslo, P must be 10 - N, and in Sweden, P must be N + 1. The required mode can be selected by bit switch adjustment. Pulse dialing can be done at two rates: 10 pulses per second (pps) or 20 pps. If the local exchange can only handle 10 pps dialing, the machine must not be set to dial at 20 pps. The dial pulse rate can usually be adjusted by bit switch. Parameters A to E illustrated on the diagrams in this section are programmable. For pulse dialing at 10 pps, the times stored in the NCU parameters are used as explained in this section. However, at 20 pps, only half the values in parameters A, B, D, and E are used, and threequarters of the value in parameter C.
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Transmission
In France, the relay circuit and the relay timing are different, as already mentioned. The principle is the same, however.
OH T the modem o and other data circuits
[C]
Ds Line
Ds
[B]
[B]
[B]
Di 5 5 Di Driver Handset Ds CPU

[D] [A] [A] [A] [E] [D] [A] [A] [E] Di
3
Diale3.wmf
Diale4.wmf
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Transmission
Tone Dialing
Overview Each dialed digit is sent out as a DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) tone, which is a mixture of two frequencies. The following diagram shows what frequencies are generated for each digit on a typical telephone keypad. For example, a '5' is represented by a 770 Hz tone combined with a 1,336 Hz tone. The DTMF tone frequencies are the same throughout the world. They were carefully chosen so as not to coincide with other frequencies that may occur on the line. In some types of telephone equipment, the DTMF circuit remains on line after the call has been connected. This allows the use of DTMF tones for giving orders to the remote terminal (e.g., extracting information from a remote database). The advantages of using DTMF over pulse dialing are as follows. Dialing is faster DTMF tone generation circuits are compact solid-state circuits There can be end-to-end signalling after call connection, as mentioned in the previous paragraph
Diale5.wm
Transmission
DTMF Tone Generation The diagram shows how DTMF tones are generated in fax machines. The cpu generates two square waves of the required frequencies. These each pass through a low pass filter to remove noise, and are added together. In the attenuator, the DTMF tone is attenuated. The attenuation value is different from that used for the attenuation of facsimile data. The DTMF tone is then amplified to compensate for the signal loss between the attenuator and the telephone line. The tone then passes to the line through the Ds or Di relay and the Oh relay, which remain fixed during tone dialing.
T the o Network
Filter Adder Attenuator
Filter
CPU
Dialu3.wmf
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Transmission
Attenuation of DTMF Tones A variable resistor can be used to adjust the signal level within a range of about 2 dB. Note: The DTMF tone attenuation value can be adjusted by RAM address. However, unlike the attenuation value for facsimile data, it cannot be adjusted using dedicated transmission parameters or bit switches. Timing DTMF tones are sent out during the DTMF on time [A] as shown in the diagram. Note: The DTMF tone on time [A] and off time [B] can be adjusted by RAM address.
[A] [B]
Diale7.wmf
Pauses
If the user dials a pause using the Pause key, the machine waits for a pre-programmed interval before sending the next tone or pulse. Note: The pause interval can be changed using a RAM address adjustment.
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Transmission
Signal Detection
Overview
After dialing, the machine waits for the response from the other end. The response is usually either a CED tone, a busy tone, or a ringback tone. These tones are known as progress tones. Instead of a progress tone, a protocol signal such as NSF or DIS may be detected at this time. The received signal passes through two filters. A high From the pass filter (with a cut off of about 300 Hz) removes low Network frequencies, such as noise from the fax machine's power supply, and a low pass filter (with a cut off of about 2100 Hz) removes high frequencies, such as noise from overhead railway power cables. The signal then passes to a programmable gain amplifier, which raises the signal level enough for the machine's hardware to analyze it. The minimum signal level on the line will vary from country to country, so the amplifier is programmable. For example, in typical USA models, the amplifier is set up so that signals weaker than -53 dBm are not detected.
CPU
Filters
A/D Converter
Programmable Gain Amplifier

Sigdet.wmf
The amplified signal is converted to digital, then passed to the tone detector in the cpu.
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Transmission
The incoming signal may determine whether or not the machine goes into transmit mode. Most machines have bit switch or other settings to determine when the machine goes into transmit mode. The choices are typically as follows: After dialing After receiving NSF or DIS After receiving CED Note: The gain of the amplifier depends on the country code (the country code is selected by a bit switch adjustment). However, the gain can be changed by a RAM address adjustment; in most machines, there are 4 possible values to choose from.
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Transmission
Busy Tone Detection

If the call has gone through and if the called terminal is already off hook (i.e., the other end is busy), the local exchange at the other end sends back a busy tone.
DIALLING SIGNAL
BUSY
T ransmitter
Receiver
BUSY TONE
Sigdet2.wmf
If the machine detects busy tone, it will disconnect the line. The number will be redialed (see Redialing), unless the maximum number of redials have already been made. If busy tone detection is disabled and the line is busy, the machine will hold the line until the ITU-T T1 timer (about 1 minute) runs out. So busy tone detection can reduce the amount of time the machine holds the line.
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Transmission
- Busy Tone with Cadence In many countries, the busy tone has a cadence (a fixed on-off cycle), so the machine measures the on and off times of the received signal and compares them with values programmed in the RAM. RAM addresses specify four permissible lengths for each signal state. The machine first checks if the signal has a length within range 1. If it does not, then range 2 is selected, and so on. An example is shown below, in which the on-off time durations are found to be within range 3. Note The following values are stored in RAM. Range 1, ON time Range 1, OFF time Range 2, ON time Range 2, OFF time Range 3, ON time Range 3, OFF time Range 4, ON time Range 4, OFF time The number of cycles required for detection (for example, a setting of 4 means that ON-OFF-ON or OFF-ON-OFF must be detected twice).
Busy T one ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Out of Out of W ithin Within Within Within Range 1 Range 2 Range 3 Range 3 Range 3 Range 3 T Cycles wo Detection Flag
Sigdet3.wmf
Transmission
ON or OFF time tolerance (+/-), for ranges 1 to 4. Acceptable signal frequency range - Continuous Busy Tone In some countries, such as the UK, the busy signal is not a cadence. The busy tone must continue for a certain time before the machine detects it. Note: The minimum time required for continuous busy tone detection is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
Ringback Tone Detection

If the call has gone through and if the called terminal is on hook, the local exchange at the other end sends a ringing signal to the called party; at the same time it sends a ringback signal back to the caller.
NO REPL Y YET Local Exchanger
RINGBACK TONE
DIALLING SIGNAL
Network Local Exchanger
T ransmitter
Receiver
Sigdet4.wmf
Ringback tone detection is always switched on in Austria. Ringback tone is detected if the ringback tone is longer than the minimum ringback tone detection time (0.1 s), which is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
- If the machine at the other end is a telephone When the phone rings at the other end, the transmitting machine detects ringback tone. The other party picks up the handset when the phone rings, and replaces it when there is no voice on the line. Then, the local exchange at the receiving end sends back a busy tone to the transmitter (this is normal in Austria). When the transmitter detects this busy tone, it immediately disconnects the line without waiting for the ITU-T T1 time to expire. Ringback tone and busy tone were both detected on this call; in such cases, the software in the transmitter disables automatic redialing for this number. Note: In Austria, it is necessary to prevent a fax machine from redialing addresses for which the T1 timer expired on the first attempt. - If the machine at the other end is a fax machine In Austria, the receiving fax machine will close the dc loop after it has detected one ringing signal. (So, the ringback tone to the transmitter will be short, but not too short for detection.) Immediately after closing the dc loop, the receiving machine will send CED. If the user at the receiving end presses Stop after this, both machines will disconnect immediately. The transmitter will not receive busy tone from the other end, as it has already disconnected, so the number can be redialed automatically.
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Transmission
Note The ringback tone has the same frequency as the busy tone. The only RAM address that must be programmed for ringback tone detection is as follows. Ringback tone detection time
CED Detection
If the receiver is a fax terminal in Auto Receive (Fax) mode, it will emit a 2100 Hz tone called CED.
DIALLING SIGNAL

CED TONE CED TONE
F AX MODE
T ransmitter
Receiver
Sigdet5.wmf
This signal informs the caller that they have connected to a fax machine. CED is the high-pitched tone that prompts the user to press the Start key when using Manual Dialing. In automatic dialing mode, the transmitting fax terminal confirms CED detection when the CED tone continues for 200 ms or more. Then it starts to scan the document.
Transmission
Data Transmission
The data transmission circuit is shown on the right. The cpu retrieves the data from the SAF memory, processes it, and passes it to the modem. The modem modulates the data to convert it into a form that is suitable for transmission over the public telephone network. The data is then attenuated to the correct signal strength for transmission. Details of the major steps follow.
T the o Network L1 L2
V ariable Resistor
Processing in the CPU

Outline The cpu retrieves the data from the SAF memory and reconstructs it (if it was compressed before storage into the SAF). The cpu then processes the data before sending it to the modem. The signal to the modem is eight-bit parallel, with one bit representing one picture element (unless the data was reducedsee Digital Processing for details on reduction).
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Speaker V olume and On/Off Control Attenuator
[B]
[A]
Modem Attenuator SAF Memory
CPU
Tx-e.wmf
Page 525
Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Compression Compression reduces the number of bits in the data signal, and therefore the transmission time for one page. MH, MR, and MMR compression are done according to ITU-T standards. A proprietary procedure called EFC (Estimated Fillbit Control) may be applied to the compressed data. EFC is not strictly a compression technique, but it improves the efficiency of data transfer by controlling the number of fill bits inserted by the transmitter at the end of each line of data (see below). The data is compressed in accordance with the method agreed in the protocol between the transmitting and receiving machines. In the obsolete Group 2 and Group 1 modes, the data is not compressed before transmission. Brief explanations of the different coding types follow. MH and MR coding are explained in detail in the ITU-T recommendations for Group 3 facsimile. MHEvery line is MH coded. MRData is treated in blocks of 2 lines (in Standard or Detail resolution) or in blocks of 4 lines (in Fine resolution). The first line of each block is MH coded, then the remaining lines in the block are MR-coded using the first line as the reference line. SMRThis is similar to MR coding except that data is treated in blocks of 8 lines (in Standard or Detail resolution) or in blocks of 16 lines (in Fine resolution).
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Transmission
MMRData is treated by the page (or the ECM block if the page needs more than one block). The first line of the page is MH coded, then all the following lines on the page are MR coded using the first line as the reference line. In some models, MMR is only done for storing data into memory, or if ECM is being used. EFCThe sending machine only includes fill bits in the data stream when the FIFO memory in the receiver is full (normally fill bits are always added to the end of any line that is sent out in less than the time specified by the I/O rate). New EFCFill bits are never added to the data, and the receiver uses the SAF memory or hard disk instead of the FIFO memory. If the receiver's memory is full, it sends PIN and the line is disconnected. If ECM (the extension to Group 3 protocol known as Error Correction Mode) is used, EFC and New EFC are not used. The compressed data goes out to the modem on the data bus.
Compression is described in more detail in the section on compression.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Data Transfer to the Modem I/O rate: The I/O rate is the amount of time needed for the scanner or printer to process one scan line of image data (modulation and demodulation are not included in this time). On the transmitting side, it indicates the time needed to scan, process, and compress a scan line. On the receiving side, it indicates the time needed to reconstruct, process, and print a scan line. In Group 3 transmission without ECM, I/O rates of the communicating machines must be the same. If ECM is used, I/O rate is not used (0 ms/line is assumed). Without ECM The FIFO synchronizes the transfer of video data to the modem (transmission) or from the modem (reception). It also acts as a buffer, ensuring that there is always some data for the modem to pick up, modulate, and send out. The FIFO has some unique functions, in addition to synchronizing data transfer from the CPU to the modem, as explained below. Without EFC (Estimated Fillbit Control): During the protocol exchange, I/O rate capabilities are compared. The I/O rates of both terminals must be the same during communication. The maximum I/O rate of the slower machine is used. Say that the chosen I/O rate is 10 ms/line. If the sending machine takes less than 10 ms to scan, process, and compress a particular scan line, it adds fill bits (zeros) to the end of the compressed scan line to make up the extra time. This keeps the two machines synchronized. With EFC: If EFC is used, the two terminals' FIFO sizes are compared during the protocol exchange, as well as the I/O rates. During transmission, the sending machine continually estimates how much
Facsimile Processes
Transmission
space remains in the receiver's FIFO (the I/O rate, receiver's FIFO size, and amount of data sent are used in this estimation). Fill bits are not added to the end of each scan line, unless the receiver's FIFO seems to be getting full; the transmitter then sends fill bits (zeros) until there is some space in the FIFO. This system speeds up data transfer between the terminals. With ECM All compressed image data for an ECM block (normally one page, unless halftone is used) are held in the ECM memory, and assembled into protocol frames before transmission. At the receiving end, printing does not start until the whole block of data has been received. Therefore, there is no need to synchronize the scan line I/O rate of the two machines. The FIFO is not needed for ECM; the ECM memory at each end acts as a buffer memory. Printing is not done until a block of data has been assembled in the receiver's ECM memory. Therefore, there is no real time synchronization of the scan line I/O rate of the two machines. Because of this, no fill bits need to be exchanged between the terminals. This means that EFC is not used with ECM. Note: In laser printers, the I/O rate is also 0 ms/line during reception. This is because the data is assembled in a page memory before printing. ECM is described in more detail in the section on fax protocol, and EFC is described in more detail in the section on compression.
Transmission
Modulation
The data passes to the modem on the data bus as 8-bit parallel data. The modem converts this to serial and modulates it before passing it on to the network interface circuits. Modulation techniques are described in detail in another section.
Attenuation
The signal is then attenuated and passed to the line. For G3 and V.21 protocol signals, the attenuator ensures that the signal level output to the line matches the value programmed in the bit switches for tx signal level. If the number is dialed as a Speed or Quick Dial, any value stored for tx level in the dedicated transmission parameters for this address will be used instead of the bit switch value. Note: For G2, G1, and PIS (462 Hz) signals, the output to the line is slightly different than for G3. For example, if the bit switches specify -9 dBm, the different types of signal will have the following level on entering the network. The following values differ from model to model. G3, V.21: -9 dB G2, PIS (462 Hz): -8 dB G1: -12 dB There is also a variable resistor, which can be used to adjust the signal level within a small range, typically 2dB.
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Transmission
Exit to the Network

The signal then passes through an amplifier, which raises the signal level to make up for the signal loss as the data passes out to the line through the network interface circuits. The data then passes to the line through the Di (or Ds) and OH relays, which do not change position during data transmission. Notes 1. The transmission level can be changed by bit switch, if local line conditions make it necessary. 2. Dedicated transmission parameters are three bytes of settings, that can be programmed for each Quick Dial Key and Speed Dial Code. The settings include transmission level, and initial modem rate. The settings can be programmed to suit the line conditions normally encountered when sending to the terminal stored in the Quick Dial Key or Speed Dial Code. 3. ECM is normally on. In some models, it can be switched off for a particular destination using dedicated tx parameters, or for all destinations by bit switch adjustment. 4. If transmitted signals are degraded (especially at higher frequencies) because of the length of wire between the modem and the local exchange, try adjusting the cable equalizer by bit switch. There are normally four values available, including zero (off). If the cable equalizer is switched on, high frequencies are made louder and low frequencies are made softer. The cable equalizer characteristic may vary depending on the modem in use. Modems used in fax machines generally raise the levels of frequencies between 1700 Hz and 3000 Hz, and reduce the levels of frequencies between 1700 Hz and 300 Hz. If the cable equalization is overcorrected, output signals will be degraded again, leading to unnecessary modem rate fallback during training.
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Transmission
Return to Standby
After transmission, the next step depends on the status of the handset hook switch. If the handset is on hook at the end of the communication, the cpu turns off the Ds relay to disconnect the fax machine from the dc loop, then the Oh relay in accordance with the timing diagram on the right.
OH Relay Ds or Di Relay
10 ms
Stbye1.wmf
If the handset is off hook (for example, if the Voice Request feature was being used), the Oh relay switches off before the Ds relay, as shown on the right. Notes: The difference in timing is to meet PTT requirements in some European countries. In France, the Di relay opens the dc loop instead of the Ds relay.
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OH Relay
Ds or Di Relay
5 ms
Stbye2.wmf
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Transmission
Finally, the cpu turns off the power to all components except those needed for monitoring the machine and telephone line in standby mode. The machine is now back in standby mode. Note: The machine must wait for a minimum amount of time before dialing the next number. This interval is normally stored in RAM and can be adjusted. However, there may be a government requirement regarding the value, as for most of the adjustable communication parameters that are discussed in this manual.
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Transmission
Others
Manual Dialing
Outline An outline of the steps taken follows. Document Detection: The user places the document in the feeder, and the tx motor feeds the document to the scan line. Document Feed, Video Processing: These steps are the same as for automatic dialing. DC Loop Closure, Dialing, and Signal Detection: The user picks up the handset. The handset hook switch closes the circuit between the machine and the telephone exchange (known as the dc loop). The user listens for dial tone then dials. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end. There is no automatic call collision prevention after the user presses Start. Data Transmission, Return to Standby: These steps are the same as for automatic dialing.
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Facsimile Processes
Transmission
Oh Relay
Picking up the Handset After placing the document in the feeder, the user picks up the handset. The hook switch in the handset closes the dc loop between itself and the local exchange. The CPU detects dc loop closure when pin [A] or pin [B] goes low; the pin that goes low depends on the polarity of the circuit. Dialing When the CPU detects the dc loop, the operation panel LED prompts the user to dial. Dialing from the handset: The dial switch or tone generator in the handset sends the dial signal out to the line. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end.
Handset Hook Switch Network
Line Current Sensor
LINE CURRENT
[A]
LINE CURRENT
[B]
CPU
Mandiale.wmf
Dialing from the ten-key pad: When the first number is input at the ten-key pad, the Oh Relay switches into the up position (see the previous diagram). After the dial pulses or tones have gone
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Transmission
out to the network, the Oh relay switches over again to connect the handset to the line. The user presses Start after hearing a signal from the other end. The cpu then connects the line to the fax machine by turning on the Ds relay (or Di relay in France) then switching over the Oh relay 10 ms later. This is the opposite of the dc loop closure procedure for automatic dialing. The reason for the above is as follows. If the Oh relay is closed first, the dc loop already established between the handset and the local exchange would be disconnected and the call would be terminated. So, the Ds relay is closed first. There are now two dc loops; one to the handset, and one through the fax circuit. Then the Oh relay disconnects the handset to leave the fax machine connected to the local exchange. In automatic dialing, there is no dc loop formed with the local exchange at this time, so the Oh relay can be switched over first without disconnecting the call. See the DC Loop Closure and Dialing sections for details of the automatic dialing circuit. Document feed, video processing, data transmission, and return to standby then proceed as previously described. The user may pick up the handset during communication (for a voice request), or before a document is placed in the feeder (for example, to make a phone call). When the user picks up the handset, the hook switch inside the handset closes. If this is done in standby mode, the dc loop then forms through the hook switch in the handset. The cpu detects line current, which informs it that the handset has been picked up. If the user picks up the handset after the dc loop has been closed (for example, to answer a voice request), the cpu cannot directly detect that the handset has been picked up. The user has to press
Transmission
the Stop key after picking up the handset. Then the Oh relay switches over to connect the handset to the local exchange.
Immediate Transmission
An outline of the procedure follows. Document Detection: The user places the document in the feeder, and the cpu turns on the fluorescent lamp when it detects the document. Call Collision Prevention, DC Loop Closure, Line Monitoring, Dialing, and Signal Detection: After the user has pressed Start on the operation panel, the machine feeds the first page partway into the scanner. The machine then dials the other party, before scanning the document. Document Feed: When the other terminal has been reached and handshaking and modem training have been done, the machine scans the document. The page is stamped if transmission was successful. Video Processing: While the machine scans the document, it converts the scanned data to digital, and passes it through the video processing circuits. Data Transmission: The data passes to the telephone line through the modem and network interface circuits. Return to Standby: After all data has been transmitted, the page is fed out. The machine returns to standby.
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Transmission
Redialing
If there is a line failure, or if the line is busy, the machine can redial the same number automatically, as defined by parameters stored in RAM. (Also, the user can redial immediately by pushing the Redial key.) There are RAM addresses to control the following: Redialing (memory transmission) Redialing (immediate transmission)
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Transmission
International Dialing
Some national PTTs require automatic detection of international dial and country dial tones. International numbers are dialed as follows.
If behind P ABX 0 P 009 112 P 123... T number el. Pause Country code International dial access code Pause PSTN access code
Intdle1.wmf
DC Loop Closure
P ABX PSTN Monitoring Monitoring
International Dial Country Dial T one Detection T one Detection Intdle2.wmf
International dial tones and country dial tones are detected in the same way as PSTN dial tones, except that the timers and frequency limits are different.
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Transmission
Note: The necessary parameters are held in RAM. International Dial Tone Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Country Dial Tone Acceptable frequency range Reset time Permissible drop time Other International dial access code
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Transmission
Auto Dialing from behind a PABX

Outline
The procedure is as follows. Document Detection, Document Feed, Video Data Processing, Call Collision Prevention, DC Loop Closure: These are the same as for transmission without a PABX. When the machine goes into transmit mode, it checks for incoming calls, then it connects to the PABX by switching over the Ds relay (or Di relay in France) and the Oh relay. Line Monitoring: Some local conditions require the machine to monitor the line for PABX line current, dial tones, busy tone, and ringback tone. If line monitoring is disabled, the machine waits for the PABX wait interval before going on to the next step (in the USA, this interval is 2 s). Access to the PSTN: The machine must gain access to the PSTN through the PABX (by dialing an access code for example). Line Monitoring, Telephone Number, Dialing, Signal Detection, Data Transmission, Return to Standby: These are the same as for transmission without a PABX. Line monitoring and access to the PSTN are explained in more detail on the following pages.
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Transmission
Line Monitoring
1. Line Current This is the same as for PSTN line current detection. 2. Dial Tone The machine monitors the line for PABX dial tone in the same way as when it monitors the line for PSTN dial tone. However, the following parameters for dial tone detection are different and are stored in separate RAM addresses. Acceptable frequency range Detection time Reset time Continuous tone time Permissible drop time If PABX line monitoring is enabled and parameters are already programmed, you can disable dial tone detection. The method differs from model to model. If PABX dial tone detection is disabled, the machine will wait for the PABX wait interval (see the next page) before dialing the PSTN access code. This interval is stored in RAM.
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Transmission
3. Busy Tone Detection This is the same as for basic transmission, except that the following parameter has a separate RAM address. Acceptable frequency range 4. Ringback Tone Detection This is the same as for basic transmission, except that the following parameter has a separate RAM address. Detection time
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Transmission
Access to the PSTN

The machine sends out the first digit of the phone number, which should be the PSTN access code. The PSTN access code is programmed by bit switch. If this first digit is the same as the value specified by the bit switch, the cpu recognizes the access code and starts to monitor the line from the PABX. Note that the PSTN access code can be a two-digit code. In this case, the cpu monitors the line for line current and dial tone after the user dials the two-digit code specified by the access code bit switch. If line monitoring is disabled, the cpu waits for preset intervals before dialing. The intervals are: [A]: PABX wait interval [B]: PSTN wait interval; this is the same as the interval discussed in DC Loop Closure. Both intervals are stored in RAM and can be adjusted. The above diagram shows the set-up for the USA; A is 2 s and B is 4 s.
Example Access Code: 0 T No.: 555 el.
[A]
2s
[B]
4s
Loop Closure
Pabxe1.wmf
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Transmission
The next step depends on the PSTN access mode selected. There are three types: loop start, ground start, and flash start. 1. Loop Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it monitors the line for line current and dial tone, then starts to dial the destination telephone number.
P ABX Line Current and T one Detection DC Loop Closure PSTN Line Current and T one Detection
Pabxe2.wmf
1 2 3
2. Ground Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it gains access to the line by closing the Gs relay for a certain interval [A], which is stored in RAM.
Gs Relay
[A]
DC Loop Closure
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection Begins Pabxe3.wmf
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Transmission
3. Flash Start After the cpu recognizes the PSTN access code, it gains access to the PSTN by opening the Ds relay for a certain interval [A], which is stored in RAM. (In France, the circuit is different; the Di relay is used. See DC Loop Closure.) Circuit
GS Gs OH
[A]
Ds Relay
DC Loop Closure
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection Begins

Pabxe4.wmf
Line
Di
Ds OH Di Driver Handset Ds Gs CPU
Pabxe5.wmf
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Transmission
4. Pauses If the user enters one or more pauses after the access code, the machine monitors the PSTN then waits for the PABX pause time (stored in RAM) for each pause dialed. Then it dials the number. However, the machine will wait for only one pause: If the pause key was pushed more than 8 times consecutively If the pause time RAM address contains FF. Notes The access method can be selected by bit switch. The following settings are available; no PABX, loop start, ground start, and flash start. The PSTN access code can be programmed by bit switch. The PABX pause time ([A] in the above diagram) can be changed by a RAM address adjustment.
Example: 0PPP123
P ABX Line Current and T one Detection
PSTN Line Current and T one Detection [A] [A] [A]
DC Loop Closure
Pabxe6.wmf
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Reception
Reception
Overview
This section explains how a fax machine receives a fax message. The base of the description will be for Auto Receive (Fax) Mode. Points concerning Manual Receive (Tel) Mode and Auto Select (Auto) Mode are discussed in the relevant sections. In addition, a section at the end explains additional features. Below follows a brief summary of the individual steps for Auto Receive Mode. These steps are basically the same for most machines. Ringing Signal DetectionWhen someone sends the unit a fax, the local exchange sends a ringing signal to the unit. The CPU monitors the ringing signal detector. If Manual Receive Mode has been selected, ringing signal detection is disabled. Loop ClosureWhen the CPU confirms that the incoming signal is a ringing signal, it closes the dc loop with the local exchange. If the caller is not a fax machine, the unit will send out the preprogrammed voice message, if it has been enabled (some models do not have this feature). This section also explains how the machine treats an incoming call if the machine is in Manual Receive Mode or Auto Select Mode. Data ReceptionData from the line passes to the modem and to the CPU. Printing The machine prints the fax message and feeds it out. This process is not described in this section.
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Reception
Return to StandbyAfter the final page has come in, the unit disconnects the line. After printing has finished, the unit disconnects the dc loop (in exactly the same way as for the end of transmission). Note that if the message is received to memory first, printing takes place after the whole message has been received and the machine has disconnected itself from the telephone line. This is explained in the Transmission section. The circuits for European and Asian models are different from those for North American models. Because of this, two separate sections have been prepared.
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Reception

Ringing Signal Detection
Monitoring the Line
The ringing signal detector is a circuit containing a photocoupler and some zener diodes. The cpu constantly monitors the output [A] for a ringing signal unless the printer is in use or the dc loop is already closed. An incoming signal switches the photocoupler on/off if the voltage is higher than a certain voltage. The cpu analyzes the signal [A]. The above circuit is for machines that do not have Auto Select Mode. The circuit for machines that have Auto Select Mode is discussed on the next page.
TIP Network RING
RI Handset TI
+24VS CPU
Ringing Signal Detector
[A]
Rngdetu1.wmf
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Reception
Auto Select Mode Machines that have this extra reception mode have an extra relay in the network interface, called the Auto Mode relay. The circuit is shown below. When the machine is standing by in Auto Receive mode, the relays are as shown above. When the machine is standing by in Manual Receive mode, the Oh relay is in the up position and the Auto Mode relay is in the down position. When the machine is standing by in Auto Select mode, the Oh relay is in the down position and the Auto Mode relay is in the up position.
Handset TI OH Relay Ringing Signal Detector Auto Mode Relay TIP Network RING
RI
+24VS CPU
Rngdetu2.wmf
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Reception
Silent Ringing Detection If Auto Select mode is used, the Oh relay is in the down position, so the handset cannot ring. This means that the machine makes no noise when a call comes in, unless the incoming call is from a telephone; if CNG is not detected, the cpu rings the fax machine's internal buzzer. If Auto Receive mode is used, the user may have the option to enable silent ringing detection. In this case, the Oh relay will be in the down position, disconnecting the handset ringer from the line.
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Reception
Signal Analysis
A ringing signal must satisfy three basic criteria: frequency, number of rings, and continuity. In all models, the principles of ringing signal detection are the same. A few models differ slightly from the explanation given below. Frequency When the cpu detects a signal, it measures the frequency. If the frequency is within the limits specified by the parameters [A] programmed in the memory, the cpu determines that it is a possible ringing signal. Number of Rings Ringing signals have a cadence, consisting of rings and intervals between rings, as shown on the previous page. The cpu counts the rings.
Ringing Signal [B] One Ring [C]
Ringing Signal, One W avelength [A]
[E]
Rngdete2.wmf
However, the cpu does not increment the ring counter unless the ring was long enough. The first ring must be longer than the interval [B], and subsequent ones must be longer than the interval [C]. A certain number of rings [D] must be detected before the cpu confirms that the incoming signal is a ringing signal. When the count reaches the required value, the cpu confirms that the signal is a
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Reception
ringing signal. The machine then goes into receive mode, and the cpu turns on the power supply for all components. Continuity The ringing signal must also satisfy a continuity test. The time between the end of a ring and the start of the next ring must not exceed the interval [E]. Otherwise, ringing detection flags will be reset and the next ring detected will be treated as the start of a new ringing signal. Note: Parameters A to E described in this section can be adjusted.
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Reception
DC Loop Closure
Auto Receive (FAX) Mode
After confirming the ringing signal, the cpu closes the dc loop by switching over the Oh relay then turning on the Di switch. The timing is the same as for transmission. The machine sends CED to the transmitting machine, to inform it that it has connected to a fax terminal.
Manual Receive (TEL) Mode

In manual receive mode, automatic ringing signal detection and loop closure are not done. The user picks up the handset after hearing it ring; this closes the dc loop. The user then presses Start after hearing the fax signal from the other end. Then the fax machine connects to the line by closing the Di switch then switching over the Oh relay. The timing is exactly the same as for manual dialing.
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Reception
Auto Select (AUTO) Mode

The machine detects the ringing signal in the same way as for Auto Receive Mode. However, the Oh relay is in the down position in standby mode, so the handset does not ring. If the machine detects CNG (which means that the other end is an auto-dialing fax machine), it closes the dc loop and sends out CED. From this point, the machine behaves in the same way as if it was in Auto Receive Mode. If the machine does not detect CNG after 2 s, it will send out a voice message (if the machine has this function). Then, if CNG has still not come in within a certain time (let us call it [A]), the machine will emit an alarm to alert the user. From this point, the machine must detect CNG or the user must pick up the handset within a certain time (let us call it [B]). If the other party hangs up during this interval, the machine will also hang up.If the interval [B] expires, the machine sends out CED. If the other party is a fax machine in manual dialing mode, the other party will press Start, and fax communication can go ahead in the same way as for Manual Receive Mode. If the other party hangs up instead, this machine will also hang up. Note: Timers A and B can be adjusted.
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Reception
Data Reception
This section explains the path of data from the telephone line to the cpu (non-memory transmission) or the SAF memory (memory transmission). Data from the line first passes to an amplitude equalizer, which raises the level of frequencies above about 1000 Hz, and lowers the level of frequencies below about 1000 Hz. This makes the signal profile as flat as possible. The data is then filtered to remove low frequency noise (such as from the power supply) and high frequency noise (such as that caused by overhead power lines for railways). The data then passes to the modem. The modem demodulates the incoming data and converts it to parallel.
From the Network TIP RING Speaker V olume and On/Off Control Equalizer
Filters Modem
CPU
SAF Memory
ECM Memory
FIFO Memory Rx-u.wmf
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Reception
The data is extracted from the ECM data frames in the ECM memory and passed to the cpu for data reconstruction (the opposite of compression). If ECM is disabled, the data passes through the FIFO memory instead of the ECM memory. - Machines with SAF Memory Machines with SAF memory store the message in the SAF at the same time as the data passes to the cpu for decoding. This protects against data being lost as a result of a printing error (such as a jam).If memory reception is used (e.g., confidential mode), the data is held in the SAF memory until the user prints the data. Note: If transmitted signals are degraded because of the distance between the modem and the local exchange, try adjusting the cable equalizer. This is normally a bit switch adjustment. Note concerning ECM In receive mode, both buffers of the double buffer memory are used, so if a page has to be split into two blocks, the second block can be received while the first block is still being printed. (In transmit mode, only a single buffer is used; if a page has to be split into two blocks, the first block must be sent and erased before the second block can be stored in the ECM memory) ECM reception of MMR coded dataIf the printer jams or runs out of paper while receiving the second block, the second block will be erased from memory. This is because the data at the beginning of the second block cannot be reconstructed, as the line at the end of the first block has already been erased. An Error Report is printed, which contains a message for the user to contact the sender for retransmission.
Reception
T the o Network TIP RING
Others
Voice Message
Voice Message Types There are two types of voice message that can be recorded. One is for use with the Notify function (to inform the Notify destination that a fax message has come in), and the other is for use in Auto Receive mode (to warn any telephone caller that they have connected to a fax machine). In most models, only the Auto Answer voice message is available. The diagram shows the circuits for storing, playing back, and transmitting a voice message.
Programmable Resistor Select Switch Programmable Resistor
Speaker Speaker Volume and On/Off Control

PLA YBACK
TRANSMISSION
Attenuator
Modem
V oice Message Processor

RECORDING
Microphone Memory
Voice-u.wmf
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Reception
Storing the Voice Message To record a voice message, the user speaks into the microphone, which is either in the handset or built into the operation panel. The diagram on the previous page shows the circuit when a microphone is used. The signal is amplified. Then, it passes to the Voice Message Processor, which converts the voice signal to digital and stores it in the memory. The voice message memory normally has battery backup. Note: In some models, the user speaks into the handset microphone. When the user selects voice message recording, a relay connects the handset microphone to the voice message processor. Playing Back the Voice Message To play back a voice message, the Voice Message Processor reads the digitized message from the memory and converts it back to an audio signal. The signal is then amplified. The signal passes through the speaker volume control, which the user can normally adjust. The signal is then amplified before going to the speaker.
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Reception
Voice Message Transmission in Auto Receive Mode If the Voice Message has been programmed and switched on, the unit sends it out immediately before the CED tone if it does not receive CNG; if CNG is not received, the calling machine is not an automatic dialing fax terminal. Total communication time is increased by the length of the voice message. The Voice Message Processor converts the stored Voice Message into a voice signal. The Voice Message is attenuated and passed to the line in the same way as transmitted data.
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Reception
Reception with Answering Machine

Overview The answering machine is connected to the rear of the fax machine, in the same place as a handset. In standby mode, the Oh relay connects the answering machine to the line. The hook switch in the answering machine is open, so there is no dc loop. However, the ringer in the answering machine can detect ac ringing signals coming from the local exchange.
Oh Relay
LOCAL EXCHANGE
+24V
F TERMINAL AX (Simplified)
Ringer
ANSW ERING MACHINE (Simplified) Ansmach1.wmf
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Reception
Answering Machine with Telephone When an answering machine with a telephone answers an incoming call, the call proceeds as shown in the diagram. When a ringing signal comes in from the local exchange, the answering machine starts to ring [A]. While the answering machine is still ringing [B], the call can still be answered if someone picks up the handset. If by point [C] the handset has not been picked up, the answering machine connects to the line and starts to send the pre-recorded message, with a beep at the end [D]. The caller then has a chance to record a message, before the line is disconnected [E].
Caller (T elephone) Receiver (T elephone with Answering Machine)
Dialling
End-to-end Delay [A]
[B]
[C] Pre-recorded message
Beep
[D]
Recording mode
[E]
Ansmach2.wmf
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Reception
Answering Machine with Fax Terminal Auto Receive (Fax) Mode When a ringing signal comes in [A], the answering machine starts ringing and the fax machine begins ringing signal detection. As soon as the fax machine detects the ringing signal, it closes the dc loop [B], disconnecting the answering machine. Therefore, as long as the fax machine closes the dc loop before the answering machine can react ([C] in the diagram on the previous page), the answering machine does not affect the fax machine's operation.
Caller Receiver (Fax T erminal with Answering Machine)
Dialling
End-to-end Delay [A] Ringing [B] Fax communication proceeds as normal from this point
Ansmach3.wmf
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Reception
Caller (Auto-dialling Fax T erminal) Receiver (Fax T erminal with Answering Machine)
Manual Receive (Tel) Mode As just explained, the answering machine has no effect on the fax machine when it is in Fax Mode. Therefore, the user must set the fax machine up in Tel Mode to use an answering machine. The operation of the fax machine then depends on what type of equipment is calling it. a) Receiving from a fax machine in automatic dial mode First, the ringing signal comes in [A]. The fax machine is in manual receive mode, so it ignores this. Because the fax machine ignores the ringing signal, the answering machine answers the line [B], and proceeds in the same way as if it were connected to a telephone (see "2. Answering Machine with Telephone"). The recorded message should contain the following instructions: "If you want to leave a recorded message, speak after you hear the beep. If you want to send a fax message, press 2 after you hear the beep, then press Start on your fax machine after you hear a high-pitched tone." (The number the person at the other end has to press depends on the answering machine.)
Dialling
End-to-end Delay [A] Answering machine is ringing [B] Pre-recorded message
Beep Recording mode [D] Fax communication proceeds as normal fromthis point Ansmach4.wmf
[C]
CNG
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Reception
While this is going on, the other end sends CNG [C]. When the receiving fax machine detects CNG, it switches over the Oh relay to disconnect the answering machine [D], and closes the Di relay to connect itself to the line. The answering machine does not have any effect on the operation of the machine, unless there is a problem with CNG detection. If the fax machine cannot detect CNG, it cannot connect to the line. For example, CNG cannot be detected if it comes in at the same time as the answering machine's recorded message is going out. Because of this, the best time for the fax machine to detect CNG is while the answering machine is in recording mode, after sending out the beep (see the previous diagram). Note: Some problems have been experienced in this area, as different types of terminal transmit CNG at different times, due to variations in interpretation of ITU-T recommendations.
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Reception
Caller (T elephone, or Manual Dialling Fax T erminal)
b) Receiving from a fax in manual dial mode or a telephone There is no CNG, so the answering machine has control of the line. When the answering machine detects a ringing signal [A], it sends out a recorded message. This message should contain the following instructions: "If you want to leave a recorded message, speak after you hear the beep. If you want to send a fax message, press 2 after you hear the beep, then press Start on your fax machine after you hear a highpitched tone." (The number the other end has to press depends on the answering machine; see the Note at the end of this section.) When the fax machine detects this '2' from the other end [B], it switches over the Oh relay to disconnect the answering machine, and closes the Di switch to connect itself to the line [C]. Then it sends CED to the caller [D]. When the caller hears this high-pitched tone, the caller presses Start [E], and fax-to-fax communication can go ahead.
Receiver (T elephone with Answering Machine)
Dialling
End-to-end Delay Ringing signal comes in Answering machine is ringing
[A] Pre-recorded message
Beep Recording mode [C] CED End-to-end Delay [E] 'Start' [D]
[B]
'2'
Ansmach5.wmf
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Reception
TIP Network RING
The caller must use a DTMF tone dialing telephone. The cpu detects the tone at [A]. Then the cpu will switch the machine into auto receive mode using [B], and the other end will be able to send the fax message.
Answering Machine Hook RI Switch
+5V
+24VS TI +5V [B] Oh Relay CPU
[A]
DTMF T one Detector
Ansmach6.wmf
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Reception
Remote Control
Remote control features do not use the same circuit to detect the codes input at the remote telephone or fax machine. In remote control mode, the machine closes the dc loop, so DTMF tones from the other end pass to the cpu along the same route as received fax data signals. Using remote control, the fax machine is controlled from a remote location through the telephone network using a telephone or fax machine. The user dials the fax machine and selects a feature by inputting some numbers. The fax machine then executes the selected function. When the receiving machine detects a ringing signal, it closes the dc loop and sends out CED. The user at the other end then presses the required button on his ten-key pad, and transmits DTMF tones to the receiver (the caller must use a DTMF tone dialing telephone or fax machine). The receiving side's cpu detects the DTMF tones.
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Reception
European/Asian Models
Ringing Signal Detection
Monitoring the Line
The ringing signal detector is a circuit containing a photocoupler and some zener diodes. The cpu constantly monitors the output [A] for a ringing signal unless the printer is in use or the dc loop is already closed. An incoming signal switches the photocoupler on/off if the voltage is higher than a certain voltage. The cpu analyzes the signal [A]. The circuit contains a variety of resistors, capacitors, and jumpers to ensure compliance with a wide range of PTT requirements.
Handset CPU Network
[A] Ringing Signal Detector Rngdete1.wmf
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Reception
Signal Analysis
A ringing signal must satisfy three basic criteria: frequency, number of rings, and continuity. In all models, the principles of ringing signal detection are the same. A few models differ slightly from the explanation given below. - Frequency When the cpu detects a signal, it measures the frequency. If the frequency is within the limits specified by the parameters [A] programmed in the memory, the cpu determines that it is a possible ringing signal. - Number of Rings Ringing signals have a cadence, consisting of rings and intervals between rings, as shown on the previous page. The cpu counts the rings.
Ringing Signal, One W avelength [A] [E] Ringing Signal [B] One Ring [C]
Rngdete2.wmf
However, the cpu does not increment the ring counter unless the ring was long enough. The first ring must be longer than the interval [B], and subsequent ones must be longer than the interval [C]. A certain number of rings [D] must be detected before the cpu confirms that the incoming signal is a ringing signal. When the count reaches the required value, the cpu confirms that the signal is a
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Reception
ringing signal. The machine then goes into receive mode, and the cpu turns on the power supply for all components. - Continuity The ringing signal must also satisfy a continuity test. The time between the end of a ring and the start of the next ring must not exceed the interval [E]. Otherwise, ringing detection flags will be reset and the next ring detected will be treated as the start of a new ringing signal. Note: Parameters A to E described in this section can be adjusted.
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Reception
DC Loop Closure
Auto Receive (FAX) Mode
After confirming the ringing signal, the cpu closes the dc loop by switching over the Oh relay then turning on the Di or Ds relay. The timing is the same as for transmission. The machine sends CED to the transmitting machine, to inform it that it has connected to a fax terminal.
Manual Receive (TEL) Mode

In manual receive (TEL) mode, automatic ringing signal detection and loop closure are not done. The user picks up the handset after hearing it ring; this closes the dc loop. The user then presses Start after hearing the fax signal from the other end. Then the fax machine connects to the line by closing the Di or Ds relay then switching over the Oh relay. The timing is exactly the same as for manual dialing.
Auto Select (AUTO) Mode

When the machine detects the ringing signal, it closes the dc loop in the same way as for Auto Receive Mode. If the machine detects CNG (which means that the other end is an auto-dialing fax machine), it sends out CED. From this point, the machine behaves in the same way as if it was in Auto Receive Mode. If the machine does not detect CNG after 2 s, it will send out a voice message (if the machine has this function). Then, if CNG has still not come in within a certain time (let us call it [A]), the machine
Reception
will emit an alarm to alert the user. From this point, the machine must detect CNG or the user must pick up the handset within a certain time (let us call it [B]). If the other party hangs up during this interval, the machine will also hang up. If the interval [B] expires, the machine sends out CED. If the other party is a fax machine in manual dialing mode, the other party will press Start, and fax communication can go ahead in the same way as for Manual Receive Mode. If the other party hangs up instead, this machine will also hang up. Note: Timers A and B can be adjusted.
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Reception
Data Reception
This section explains the path of data from the telephone line to the cpu (non-memory transmission) or the SAF memory (memory transmission). Data from the line first passes to an amplitude equalizer, which raises the level of frequencies above about 1000 Hz, and lowers the level of frequencies below about 1000 Hz. This makes the signal profile as flat as possible. The data is then filtered to remove low frequency noise (such as from the power supply) and high frequency noise (such as that caused by overhead power lines for railways). The data then passes to the modem. The modem demodulates the incoming data and converts it to parallel.
From the Network L1 L2 Speaker V olume and On/Off Control Equalizer
Filters Modem
CPU
SAF Memory
ECM Memory
FIFO Memory Rx-e.wmf
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Reception
The data is extracted from the ECM data frames in the ECM memory and passed to the cpu for data reconstruction (the opposite of compression). If ECM is disabled, the data passes through the FIFO memory instead of the ECM memory. - Machines with SAF Memory Machines with SAF memory store the message in the SAF at the same time as the data passes to the cpu for decoding. This protects against data being lost as a result of a printing error (such as a jam).If memory reception is used (e.g., confidential mode), the data is held in the SAF memory until the user prints the data. Note: If transmitted signals are degraded because of the distance between the modem and the local exchange, try adjusting the cable equalizer. This is normally a bit switch adjustment. Note concerning ECM In receive mode, both buffers of the double buffer memory are used, so if a page has to be split into two blocks, the second block can be received while the first block is still being printed. (In transmit mode, only a single buffer is used; if a page has to be split into two blocks, the first block must be sent and erased before the second block can be stored in the ECM memory) ECM reception of MMR coded dataIf the printer jams or runs out of paper while receiving the second block, the second block will be erased from memory. This is because the data at the beginning of the second block cannot be reconstructed, as the line at the end of the first block has already been erased. An Error Report is printed, which contains a message for the user to contact the sender for retransmission.
Reception
T the o Network L1 L2
Others
Voice Message
Voice Message Types There are two types of voice message that can be recorded. One is for use with the Notify function (to inform the Notify destination that a fax message has come in), and the other is for use in Auto Receive mode (to warn any telephone caller that they have connected to a fax machine). In most models, only the Auto Answer voice message is available. The diagram shows the circuits for storing, playing back, and transmitting a voice message.
Modem
Speaker Speaker Volume and On/Off Control

PLA YBACK
TRANSMISSION
Attenuator
V oice Message Processor

RECORDING
Microphone Memory
Voice-e.wmf
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Reception
Storing the Voice Message To record a voice message, the user speaks into the microphone, which is either in the handset or built into the operation panel. The diagram on the previous page shows the circuit when a microphone is used. The signal is amplified. Then, it passes to the Voice Message Processor, which converts the voice signal to digital and stores it in the memory. The voice message memory normally has battery backup. Note: In some models, the user speaks into the handset microphone. When the user selects voice message recording, a relay connects the handset microphone to the voice message processor. Playing Back the Voice Message To play back a voice message, the Voice Message Processor reads the digitized message from the memory and converts it back to an audio signal. The signal is then amplified. The signal passes through the speaker volume control, which the user can normally adjust. The signal is then amplified before going to the speaker.
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Reception
Voice Message Transmission in Auto Receive Mode If the Voice Message has been programmed and switched on, the unit sends it out immediately before the CED tone if it does not receive CNG; if CNG is not received, the calling machine is not an automatic dialing fax terminal. Total communication time is increased by the length of the voice message. The Voice Message Processor converts the stored Voice Message into a voice signal. The Voice Message is attenuated and passed to the line in the same way as transmitted data (see section 2-8 for details).
Remote Control
Using remote control, the fax machine is controlled from a remote location through the telephone network using a telephone or fax machine. The user dials the fax machine and selects a feature by inputting some numbers. The fax machine then executes the selected function. When the receiving machine detects a ringing signal, it closes the dc loop and sends out CED. The user at the other end then presses the required button on his ten-key pad, and transmits DTMF tones to the receiver (the caller must use a DTMF tone dialing telephone or fax machine). The receiving side's cpu detects the DTMF tones.
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
Fax Circuit Update

The descriptions in the Core Technology Manual (Facsimile Processes Transmission North American Models, Facsimile Processes Reception North American Models) are based on the C series models (H081 series). There have been a few small changes since these models.
Changed Names
The following components have new names. There is no change in the function of these components. These new names took effect from the F/L series models (H516/H521 series). Old New Oh relay CML relay, Relay Di switch OHDI switch
Changes to the Circuit

In some NCUs, there is no Off-hook Detection circuit. DC Loop: This new circuit, between the OHDI switch and the exit to the fax main board prevents dc from entering the fax main board from the NCU. CML relay: In some NCUs, the wiring between this relay and the telephone line has been altered, but there is no change in how the machine dials out, because PTT requirements have not changed. Some example block diagrams are shown on the next few pages.
Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
C series (H081 series): Old names, as used in the main text of the core technology manual
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
Schmidt 3 (H547): Changed names, but no changes to the circuits

TIP Current Sensor JP6 JP5 BR1
24V OHDISW
TRXD
RING
OHDISW Q6 NCU Hook0 Hook1 Ex Ring
24V Relay T1 R1
Ring Detect RITONE

Ext. Tel DP/OffHook Detection
Ex TDI Q5 CMLSW
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
Schmidt 4 (H535): Changed names, and changes to the circuits

JP7 Surge Protection Overcurrent Protection Noise Filter CML Relay Surge Protection OHDI SW. TRXD DCLoop LTransformer
TIP RING
DB1
JP8 Current Sensor OHDISW CMLSW Hook0 Hook1
T1 T2
Noise Filter
Ring Detection Circuit
ExRing
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
European/Asian Models
The fax circuit descriptions in the Core Technology Manual (Facsimile Processes Transmission European/Asian Models, Facsimile Processes Reception European/Asian Models) are based on the C series models (H081 series). There have been a few small changes since these models. These changes are listed below.
Changed Names
The following components have new names. There is no change in the function of these components. These new names took effect from the F/L series models (H516/H521 series). Old New Oh relay CML relay Di switch, Di relay OHDI switch Ds switch, Ds relay DO switch
Changes to the Circuit

DC Loop: This new circuit, between the OHDI switch and the exit to the fax main board prevents dc from entering the fax main board from the NCU.
! In some NCUs, there is a control signal (DCLSW) to this DC Loop circuit. This signal adjusts the
maximum level of dc that passes out of the machine through the NCU to the line. In TBR21 nations, the limit is 60 mA. For other European nations, the limit is 120 mA.
Some example block diagrams are shown on the next few pages.
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
C series (H081 series): Old names, as used in the main text of the core technology manual
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
FX6 (H516): Changed names, but no changes to the circuits
SHUNT T1 TIP RING R1 GS Current Sensor
CML Relay
Filter (16Hz)
DO Sw. TRXD Loop Closure Circuit OHDI Sw.
JP24 DOSW OHDISW GS Sw. CMLSW Hook0 SHUNT T1 TIP RING R1 GS CN5 CN7 Ring Detection Circuit Hook1 GSSW CSEL0 CSEL1 RSEL ExRing
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Facsimile Processes
Fax Circuit Update
Schmidt 4 (H535): Changed names, and changes to the circuits

SHUNT T1 TIP RING R1 GS OHDI Sw. Current Sensor CML Relay Noise Filter DO Sw. TRXD DCLoop
Filter (16 kHz)
DCLSW
DOSW OHDISW GS Sw. CMLLSW Hook0 SHUNT T1 TIP R1 GS Noise Filter Ring Detection Circuit Hook1 GSSW CSEL RSEL ExRing
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Compression Techniques
Overview
Compression and Reconstruction
Digital machines compress image data for two purposes. To reduce the amount of memory or hard disk space required for storage To reduce the amount of time needed to transmit the image data by fax. This section will deal mainly with fax data compression and reconstruction. For fax communication, data is compressed in accordance with internationally-agreed standards. However, for temporary storage on hard disk, other techniques may be used. An analog facsimile machine takes a long time to transmit all the black and white pixels of a scanned original. Therefore, to reduce transmission time, the high-speed facsimile compresses the scanned data before transmission. Compression: Reduces the volume of scanned data Reconstruction: Converts the compressed data back into the original data
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Encoding Scheme for Compression

If an A4-size document (216 mm x 297 mm, very approximately equal to a Letter size document) is scanned at standard resolution (8 dots per mm across the page and 3.85 dots per mm down the page), a large number of pixels are generated. The actual number is: 216 x 8 x 297 x 3.85 = 1,975,882 pixels. If these pixels are sent out at 9,600 bits per second, it takes about 3 minutes and 40 seconds to send the page. To reduce this time, an encoding system was developed to achieve high-speed transmission which reduces the transmission time to 1/6 - 1/7th of that required for uncompressed data. Modified Huffman (MH) coding is the basic compression technique for facsimile data transmission. It looks at run lengths, that is, the consecutive numbers of pixels that have the same color. For example, if a sample of data is "white, white, white, black, black, black", it can be considered as "3 white, 3 black". Modified Huffman coding specifies a code of "1000" for "3 white", and "10" for "3 black". The designers of MH coding determined the most common run lengths and gave them the shortest codes; 3 black is one of the most common sequences. Less frequent run lengths were given longer codes. In this way, a code table was constructed with regard to the various occurrence rates of run lengths, to minimize the total number of bits in the transmitted data.
The ITU-T T.4 recommendation contains the run length code tables, as shown on the following pages. The code table consists of "terminating codes" to replace run lengths of 0 to 63, and "make-up codes" to replace run lengths of multiples of 64 bits. Scanned data is compressed by replacing each run length with either: A terminating code (for black or white run lengths less than 64) A make-up code followed by a terminating code (for black or white run lengths of 64 or greater)
Terminating Codes White Run Length 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Black Run Length 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
00110101 000111 0111 1000 1011 1100 1110 1111 10011 10100 00111 01000 001000 000011 110100
0000110111 010 11 10 011 0011 0010 00011 000101 000100 0000100 0000101 0000111 00000100 00000111
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White Run Length 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 Black Run Length 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
110101 101010 101011 0100111 0001100 0001000 0010111 0000011 0000100 0101000 0101011 0010011 0100100 0011000 00000010 00000011 00011010 00011011 00010010 00010011 00010100 00010101 00010110 00010111 00101000 00101001 00101010
000011000 0000010111 0000011000 0000001000 00001100111 00001101000 00001101100 00000110111 00000101000 00000010111 00000011000 000011001010 000011001011 000011001100 000011001101 000001101000 000001101001 000001101010 000001101011 000011010010 000011010011 000011010100 000011010101 000011010110 000011010111 000001101100 000001101101
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White Run Length 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 Black Run Length 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
00101011 00101100 00101101 00000100 00000101 00001010 00001011 01010010 01010011 01010100 01010101 00100100 00100101 01011000 01011001 01011010 01011011 01001010 01001011 00110010 00110011 00110100
000011011010 000011011011 000001010100 000001010101 000001010110 000001010111 000001100100 000001100101 000001010010 000001010011 000000100100 000000110111 000000111000 000000100111 000000101000 000001011000 000001011001 000000101011 000000101100 000001011010 000001100110 000001100111
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White Run Length 64 128 192 256 320 384 448 512 576 640 704 768 832 896 960 1024 1088 1152 1216 1280 1344 1408 1472 1536 1600
Make-up codes Black Run Length 11011 64 10010 128 010111 192 0110111 256 00110110 320 00110111 384 01100100 448 01100101 512 01101000 576 01100111 640 011001100 704 011001101 768 011010010 832 011010011 896 011010100 960 011010101 1024 011010110 1088 011010111 1152 011011000 1216 011011001 1280 011011010 1344 011011011 1408 010011000 1472 010011001 1536 010011010 1600
0000001111 000011001000 000011001001 000001011011 000000110011 000000110100 000000110101 0000001101100 0000001101101 0000001001010 0000001001011 0000001001100 0000001001101 0000001110010 00000001110011 0000001110100 0000001110101 0000001110110 0000001110111 0000001010010 0000001010011 0000001010100 0000001010101 0000001011010 0000001011011
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White Run Length 1664 1728 EOL Black Run Length 1664 1728 EOL
011000 010011011 000000000001
0000001100100 0000001100101 000000000001
Note: A scan line for A4-width paper at the normal 8-pixel/mm resolution requires 1728 bits. However, some machines can scan wider paper. The following table gives the make-up codes used for wider paper. Additional make-up codes for wide paper
Run Length (White or Black) 1792 1856 1920 1984 2048 2112 2176 2240 2304 2368 2432 2496 2560 Make-up codes 00000001000 0000001100 00000001101 000000010010 000000010011 000000010100 000000010101 000000010110 000000010111 000000011100 000000011101 000000011110 000000011111
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Modified Huffman (MH) Method

One-dimensional Coding
MH coding is often referred to as a one-dimensional coding scheme. This refers to the fact that MH codes the data on a scan line without referring to the data on adjacent lines. Modified Read (MR) coding uses a reference scan line to encode the scan line, and is thus known as twodimensional coding. MR coding is dealt with in a later section. This section explains how MH coding is implemented in facsimile communications.
Encoding Example
The following diagram shows a 1728-bit scan line. If MH coded, "10 white" is encoded as "00111", "5 black" as "0011", "3 white" as "1000", "2 black" as "11", and "1708 white" as a combination of the make-up code for 1664 white ("011000") and the terminating code for 44 white ("00101101").
1 Scan Line (1728 bits)
...
W10 "00111" B5 "0011" W3 B2 "1000" "11" W1708 W1664 + W44 "011000" "00101101" 040101.vsd
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All data lines begin with a white run length, in order for the receiving terminal to ensure synchronization of color. If, however, the actual scan begins with a black run length, a white run length with length of 0 is transmitted.
End of line encoding (EOL)

EOL (End of Line) : 000000000001 At the end of each scan line of data, an EOL code is added. This is a unique code than can never be generated within a line of MH coded data. EOL ensures that the communicating machines can resynchronize if a noisy telephone line causes data errors. There is also an EOL at the start of the page, before the first line. The receiving terminal uses the following rules to reconstruct the line of original data between EOL codes: EOL is always followed by a white run length. A black run length always follows a white run length, and a white run length always follows a black run length. A make-up code is always followed by a terminating code. The number of bits in a scan line is either 1,728 (for A4 size), 2,048 (for B4 size), or 2,376 (for A3 size).
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Fill Data
Fill data: A variable length string of 0s. Using MH coding, it is possible that a line of encoded data is very short, and the next line is sent out before the receiving machine has processed that short line of data. To solve this problem, each line must take a minimum time to send. This must equal the receivers I/O processing time. If the line of data ends before the I/O processing time, fill bits (all zeroes) are inserted between the encoded data and the EOL code until the I/O processing time is reached.
EOL Coded Data EOL Coded Data Fill EOL Coded Data
C>N
C<N CN
C: Coded Data (includes EOL) N: Minimum bit quantity

040102.vsd
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The I/O processing time is determined as a minimum number of bits as shown in the following table. It depends on the modem transmission rate, the I/O rate (for an A4-width scan line), and the paper width.
I/O rate 40 ms 20 ms Paper Width A4 B4 A4 B4 Modem rate 9,600 bps 193 229 7,200 bps 145 173 4,800 bps 193 229 97 115 2,400 bps 96 115 49 59 10 ms A4 B4 97 73 49 25 115 87 59 31
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Return to Control (RTC)

The end of a page is indicated by transmitting six consecutive EOL codes. This is known as RTC (return to control).
EOL
Data
EOL <T
Data
Fill
EOL
Data
T: Minimum transmission time of a total coded scan line
Several scan lines of data at the beginning of a page. Data EOL Data EOL EOL EOL EOL EOL EOL Post message command RTC
040103.vsd
Last coded scan line of a page
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ITU-T Recommendation Recommendation T.4 includes the following descriptions: Minimum transmission time per line (also known as the I/O rate) One line refers to one encoded scan line and is defined as the sum of data bits, required fill bits, and EOL bits. a. 20 milliseconds : recommended standard b. 40 milliseconds : approved option. 10 milliseconds : approved option. 5 milliseconds : approved option. These are applicable to standard resolution (3.85 lines/mm down the page) and high resolution (7.7 lines/mm). Maximum transmission time per line The maximum transmission time per one encoded scan line is 5 seconds. When the transmission time exceeds 5 seconds, the receiving terminal must proceed to disconnect the line. Encoding system Two encoding systems are available: a one-dimensional run length encoding method (MH) and a two-dimensional encoding method (MR), which is approved as an option.
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Modified Read (MR) Method

Overview
The MR method is an expanded form of the one-dimensional run length encoding method and is considered an option of that encoding method. The method is described in detail in this section. While the MH method encodes pixels in the pixel scanning direction, the MR method also takes notice of the pixels running in the feed direction. The MR method compares the pixels in the current line with the pixels in the preceding line, and transmits information on the relationship between these two lines. When dealing with relatively simple characters such as those contained in the alphabet, encoding based on the MH method remains effective. However, when dealing with more complex characters, like Chinese-based characters, the encoding efficiency falls. This is where the two-dimensional coding method, the MR method, is more effective. The MR encoding method bases itself on the Relative Address Designation Encoding Method (READ) which combines NTT's Edge Different Coding (EDIC) method and KDD's Relative Address Coding (RAC) method. Slight modifications were made to this method. In two-dimensional coding, the first line is MH coded, and is treated as a reference line for coding the second line. The second line is expressed as the difference between itself and the reference line. Then, the second line becomes the reference line for the third line, and so on.
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K Parameter
The weakness of this method is that if an error occurs, all data after the line with the error will be decoded wrongly, and the rest of the page will be garbled. To counter this, a limit is placed on the number of consecutive lines that are MR coded. When this limit is reached, the next line is MH coded, and this line becomes the reference line for the next block of consecutive MR-coded lines. In this way, if an error occurs, only the block containing the error will be lost. The limit on the number of consecutive MR-coded lines is the K parameter. Every Kth line is MH coded. Following each MH-coded line, the number of consecutive MR-coded lines is K-1. The maximum K value is as shown below: Standard vertical resolution (for regular characters): K = 2 Optional higher resolution (for fine characters): K = 4
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Two-dimensional Encoding Scheme

In two-dimensional coding, the positions of pixels that change color (known as changing pixels) are coded with respect to the position of a reference element. The reference element can be either on the coding line (the line being coded) or on the reference line (directly above the coding line)
Changing Pixels
Changing pixels are pixels with color (black or white) different to the pixel immediately before on the same line. See the following diagram. a0: Reference or initial changing pixel along the coding line a1: First changing pixel to the right of a0 on the coding line a2: First changing pixel to the right of a1 on the coding line b1: First changing pixel on the reference line to the right of a0 and of opposite color to a0 b2: First changing pixel to the right of b1 on the reference line
Reference line Coding line
Changing pixels
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040102.tif
Page 603
Coding Modes
When encoding the position of a changing pixel on the coding line, one of the three modes shown below must be selected. Pass Mode Vertical Mode Horizontal Mode - Pass Mode If b2 is to the left of a1, pass mode is used. The pixel is represented by the code for Pass Mode (0001; see the Two-dimensional Code Table later in this section). After encoding, a0 becomes the pixel directly beneath b2, to prepare for the next encoding procedure. Note that if b2 is located directly above a1, pass mode is not selected (see the following diagrams).
Pass mode
040103a.tif
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Not pass mode

040103b.tif
- Vertical Mode Vertical mode is used if the distance between a1 and b1 is three pixels or fewer. The pixel is represented by one of the following codes: V(0), VR(1), VR(2), VR(3), VL(1), VL(2), VL(3). The appended characters, R and L, represent whether a1 is to the right or the left of b1, while the figures in parentheses represent the distance. The codes are listed in the Twodimensional Code Table (later in this section). After encoding in vertical mode, a0 is set in the a1 position to prepare for the next encoding procedure.
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- Horizontal Mode Horizontal mode is used if the distance between a1 and b1 is more than three pixels. In this mode, the run lengths a0a1 and a1a2 are encoded by the following formula: H + M (a0a1) + M (a1a2) H is the horizontal mode flag code 001. M (a0a1) and M (a1a2) represent the run length and color of each, and are encoded using one-dimensional coding. After encoding in horizontal module, a0 is set in the a2 position.
Vertical mode
Horizontal mode
040104a.tif
Vertical Mode and Horizontal Mode
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The following table shows the codes used in the three modes explained above. Two-dimensional Code Table
Mode Pass Horizontal Vertical Elements to be coded b1, b2 a0a1, a1a2 a1 just under b1 a1b1 = 0 a1 to the right of b1 a1b1 = 1 a1b1 = 2 a1b1 = 3 a1 to the left of b1 a1b1 = 1 a1b1 = 2 a1b1 = 3 Notation P H V(0) VR(1) VR (2) VR(3) VL(1) VL(2) VL(3) Code word 0001 001+ M(a0a1) + M(a1a2 ) 1 011 000011 0000011 010 000010 0000010
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Coding Procedure
Coding is conducted in accordance with the flow chart shown in the Two-dimensional coding flow diagram on the next page. When the required coding mode has been identified (using Step 1 or 2 as explained below), the code word is selected from the Two-dimensional Code Table on the previous page. Step 1 If a pass mode is detected, this is coded as 0001. Then, a0 is set directly beneath b2 to prepare for the next encoding procedure. If a pass mode is not detected, go to step 2. Step 2 If the distance between a1 and b1 is three or fewer pixels, vertical mode is used. Then, a0 is set in the a1 position to prepare for the next encoding procedure. If the distance between a1 and b1 is more than three pixels, horizontal mode is used. Then, a0 is set in the a2 position to prepare for the next encoding procedure.
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Two-dimensional coding flow diagram

Start
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First line of K lines? Yes No EOL = 0 EOL = 1 Put a 0 just before the first picture element One dimensional coding Detect a
1
Detect b
1
Detect b
b 2 to the left of a 1 ? Yes Pass mode coding
No
| a 1b 1 | 3 No Detect a
2
Yes
Horizontal mode coding Put a 0 just under b 2 Put a

0
Vertical mode coding
on a
Put a
on a
No
End of line? Yes
No
End of page? Yes RTC
Page 609
End
Processing the first and last pixels in a line

(A) Processing the first pixel The first initial reference pixel a0 along each coding line is imagined to be immediately before the first pixel and is considered to be a white pixel. The first run length a0a1 is replaced by a0a1 - 1. Therefore, when the first run is black, and the line is encoded using horizontal mode, then M(a0a1) corresponds to a white run of zero length. (B) Processing the last pixel The machine continues until it has encoded the position of the changing pixel imagined to be immediately after the last actual pixel. This pixel is encoded either as a1 or a2. Also, if b1 and/or b2 are not detected on this line, they will be placed on the imaginary changing pixel immediately after the last actual pixel on the reference line.
Line synchronization code

EOL will be added at the end of the line. After the EOL, a tag bit will be added to indicate whether one-dimensional encoding or two-dimensional encoding will be used for the next line. EOL + 1: The next line will go through one dimensional encoding. EOL + 0: The next line will go through two dimensional encoding.
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Fill
To ensure that the encoded data is not shorter than the per-line minimum transmission time, fill will be inserted between the data and the line synchronization code. Fill bits are not inserted in the middle of data. Format : Variable length string of 0s
Return to control (RTC)

At the end of a page, six EOL + 1 signals are transmitted.
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Summary
In summary, transmitted data will look something like the following after MR coding.
Mrsumm1.wmf
At the end of the page, the data will appear as follows.
Mrsumm2.wmf
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Simple Modified Read (SMR) Method

This is the same as MR coding except that K is 8 for Standard and Detail resolution, and 16 for Fine resolution. This compresses data more effectively, but more data will be lost if line errors occur.
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Modified MR (MMR) Method

The modified MR (MMR) encoding method uses the same algorithm as the MR method explained previously. The differences between the MMR and MR methods are as follows: i. K parameter = : This means that all lines are encoded by two-dimensional encoding. The first line of the page, the reference line, is a white line added to the top of the page, and MH coded. All lines on the page are coded with reference to this imaginary white line. ii. EOL is the line synchronization signal. iii. No fill bits are used. iv. RTC: Transmission of two consecutive EOL signals (also known as EOFB) v. After EOFB, when it is necessary to arrange the information into a certain block size (such as to make up a complete ECM data frame), pad bits are added. Pad bits are a variable length row of 0s. vi. If there is a change in coding mode from MMR to something else, an extension code is used. The format of the extension code is 0000001xxx, where xxx depends on which coding mode is used instead of MMR after the extension code. Because an error can result in the loss of a lot of data, MMR is only used where data transmission is highly reliable, such as on high-quality digital networks (Group 4 Facsimile), or if ECM is in use. MMR may also be used when storing data to SAF memory, for the most efficient use of the memory space.
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Estimated Fillbit Control (EFC)

Overview
Estimated Fillbit Control (EFC) was developed by Ricoh to improve the efficiency of MH, MR, and MMR coding. To reduce transmission time, EFC controls the number of fill bits inserted at the end of each line of compressed data. EFC is not strictly a compression technique, but it improves the efficiency of data transfer by controlling the number of fill bits inserted by the transmitter at the end of each line of data. There are several proprietary EFC techniques on the market. The techniques used by this manufacturer include EFC, New EFC, and SSC (Super Speed Coding).
Basic EFC
This method works as follows: while data is being received into memory, it is passes through a FIFO (first-in first-out) memory. However, because of memory capacity limitations, the transmission side must be controlled so that the FIFO memory in the receiving terminal will not overflow. The transmission side controls the number of fillbits by estimating the status of the receivers memory. For the MH method, the minimum number of bits (number of bits per line after encoding + fill bits) is defined by the following equation: Minimum no. of bits = (Modem speed x I/O rate) + 1 However, with the EFC method, the minimum number of bits is such that: Minimum no. of bits Modem speed x Minimum reproduction processing time
The I/O rate shows the time needed by the receiver to process a line, but the full duration may not always be needed, so: I/O speed Minimum reproduction processing time Therefore, the number of fillbits will be smaller than with the MH or MR method. Consequently, it is possible to achieve a reduction in transmission time. Furthermore, EFC comes in two kinds, EFC and New EFC. While machines with EFC capability can exchange a page in 13 seconds, a boosted buffer memory allows machines with New EFC to transmit a page in 12 seconds (from memory to memory).
EFC Without Consecutive Flag Transmission

This is also known as EFC plus Short Preamble. This method is an improvement in terms of transmission control. With the preamble set at one second, transmission time is further reduced. The receiving terminal can ignore carrier interruption signals transmitted from the modem until data processing within the memory is completed. Normally, the post-message command can be received immediately after the page of image data.. However, depending on the contents of the data, processing the data stored in the reception memory takes some time, occasionally causing the post-message command to be received only on the second try.
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Super Speed Coding (SSC) Method

The Super Speed Coding (SSC) method combines EFC plus Short Preamble and white line double-speed processing to achieve a further reduction in transmission time.
White-Line Double Speed Processing

When the data is all white, this method reduces the minimum number of bits to half that of the conventional bit number. On the reception side, when a white line is transmitted, the printer motor is fast forwarded to skip the line. Both terminals must have this feature, or it will not work.
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JBIG Method
What is JBIG?
JBIG (Joint Bi-Level Image Expert Group) is a working group which consists of members of ITUT T.82 and ISO11544. The JBIG compression method allows lossless compression of bi-level (black-and-white) images. Data compression is approximately 1.2 to 1.3 times better than the MMR method in text mode, and 2 to 10 times in halftone mode.
How is it Done?
JBIG compression consists of four processes: Conversion to bi-level data (if the original data is more than one-bit-per-pixel (i.e., if the output contains greyscales) Progressive coding (sending a low resolution image first, then increasing the resolution by sending more data to enhance the image) Division into stripes Coding (using a process known as arithmetic coding)
Conversion to Bi-level Data

Multi-level data is converted to bitplanes using a process known as Grey coding. Each bitplane consists of an image made up of bi-level pixels (0 or 1). Each bitplane will then undergo the remaining steps of the JBIG compression process.
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The number of bitplanes generated increases with the number of greyscales in the image. Because of this, if there are more than 8 bits per pixel, other compression techniques may be more efficient than JBIG.
Progressive Coding With progressive coding, an image is sent gradually instead of all at once. A low resolution image is sent first, then more detail is sent, and the receiver can progressively build up a higherresolution image. With JBIG, the resolution doubles with each level of detail. Division into Stripes
The image is then divided into stripes, and each stripe is coded and sent separately. There are two modes for JBIG compression. Standard mode: The transmitted data stripe consists of 128 lines. Optional mode: the transmitted data stripe consists of one page (transmission speed with this mode is faster). The mode used is determined during handshaking, and can be set by bit switch adjustments.
Coding
MH, MR, and MMR are based on run-length coding. JBIG is based on a different process, known as arithmetic coding. Arithmetic coding is done by a device known as a Q-coder. Arithmetic coding looks at the patterns of pixels (known as contexts) surrounding each pixel. The algorithm contains a library of contexts, and for each context, there is a prediction as to
whether the central pixel is black or white. For example, if the context consists of all white pixels, it is likely that the target pixel is also white. As for MH coding, the Q-coder assigns short codes to the most probable combinations of pixels, and long codes to the least likely combinations. In this way, maximum compression is achieved if each target pixel is always equal to the predicted pixel value for their context.
Other Points about JBIG

When is JBIG used?
JBIG compression is disabled when any of the following conditions occur. When JBIG compression is turned off When ECM is turned off When the receiving terminal does not have the JBIG feature. When the receiving terminal does not have the ECM feature.
What is the Data Format?

JBIG compressed data is referred to as a Bilevel Image Entity (BIE). The BIE consists of a header frame (BIH: Bilevel Image Header) and a compressed data frame (BID: Bi-level Image Data).
BIH (Bi-Level Image Header)
BIE: Bi-level Image Entity
BID (Bi-Level Image Data)
Header
a693d531
Image Data
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The BIH frame contains information such as main scan width (pixels), sub-scan length, and compression mode (standard/optional). The BID frame contains the actual data.
What are the Strengths and Weaknesses?

Strengths Superior compression for bi-tonal images than MMR, especially for complex images containing shading for example. Smaller files for greyscale images than JPEG. Weaknesses Takes twice as long to decompress as Group 4 MMR. JPEG is better for photographs
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Modulation Techniques
Introduction
Fax machines communicate with each other by emitting a wave of a certain frequency onto the telephone line. This wave is called the carrier. The data signal from the fax machine is known as the modulating signal. To transmit data using this carrier wave, the fax machine superimposes the modulating signal onto the carrier wave by varying the frequency, amplitude, or phase (or a combination of these) in a standard manner. This process is known as modulation. The machine receiving this modulated signal can recover the original data by demodulating the signal. Demodulation also includes noise removal and compensation for distorted waveforms. A device called a modem carries out modulation and demodulation. The modem outputs the carrier wave. The characteristics of the carrier wave are based on the following formula. E = A sin (2ft + ) A: Amplitude, f: Frequency, : Phase, t: Time, E: Output The modem transmits data by modulating either A, f, or , or a combination of these. For example, the V.29 modem sending at 9,600 bps modulates A and . The frequency of the wave is fixed at 1,700 Hz. At any point on the wave, the wave has one value of A and one value of . The V.29 modem can output 2 possible values of A and 8 possible values of . This means that the V.29 modem can output 16 different waves. Each of these 16 waves can be made to represent a different combination of bits; 0000, 0001, 0010, and so on up to 1111 can be represented with a unique waveform.
1700 Hz
A simple example of how a V.29 modem converts digital data into an analog signal is illustrated here. The receiving modem decodes the signal by measuring the amplitude of the wave and the phase of the wave at the start of each Baud. Baud Rate Each of the individual waveforms shown in the previous diagram is known as a Baud. The Baud rate is the number of bits per second divided by the number of bits per Baud. For a 9600 bps (bits per second) modem, each Baud represents 4 bits. Therefore, the Baud rate is 2400. This means that the V.29 9,600 bps modem sends out 2,400 waveforms per second. Another way to think of the Baud is that it is the number of times per second that the signal from the modem changes. Do not confuse the Baud rate with bps when considering the machine's data speed.
9600 bps Digital Data 0011 1000 1001 Modem
0011 1000 One Baud
1001
Modem1.wmf
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Page 623
Generally, public telephone networks can only communicate using frequencies that are within the voice band, that is, between 300 and 3,400 Hz. Therefore, the carrier wave must be somewhere within these limits (the frequency of the carrier differs depending on the modulation method used). In facsimile communication, several types of modulation are used. This section will describe these methods briefly. Details of the methods are given in the following ITU-T recommendations. V.21: Specifies conditions for signalling (protocol signals) at 300 bps, using frequency shift keying (FSK). V.27ter: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at 2,400 and 4,800 bps, using polyphase shift keying (PSK). V.29: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at 7,200 and 9,600 bps, using quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). V.32/V.17: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at 9,600 bps using trellis code modulation (TCM); this is used in machines that communicate at speeds of up to 14,400 bps, if they have to step down to 9,600 bps. V.33 (V.32bis)/V.17: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at 12,000 and 14,400 bps. V.8/V.34: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at up to 28,800 bps V.8/V.34bis: Specifies conditions for signalling (fax data) at up to 33,600 bps
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As will be seen, a more complex modulation type allows more information to be carried on the same wave, which leads to a higher data speed. This is illustrated by the fact that the data rate for the 9,600 bps modem is higher than for the 7,200 bps modem, even though the Baud rate is the same (refer to Quadrature Amplitude Modulation). Note bps is the data rate in bits per second Hz (Hertz) is the frequency of a wave in cycles per second
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V.21Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Frequency shift keying (FSK) is a type of frequency modulation that is used for transmitting digital signals. In basic frequency modulation (FM), the modulating signal changes the frequency of the carrier wave. In the example in the diagram, an analog signal is modulating the carrier wave. Notice how the phase of the wave changes when the value of the data signal changes from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 0.
Fm.wmf
In fax machines, the modulating signal is a 300 bps digital signal (for example, an NSF protocol signal). Fax machines use the FSK method outlined in ITU-T recommendation V.21. If the signal is a 0, the transmitted frequency is 1,850 Hz. If the signal is a 1, the transmitted frequency is 1,650 Hz. The Baud rate is 300 Baud, and there is only one bit per Baud.
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V.27TERPolyphase Shift Keying (PSK)

Overview
Polyphase shift keying (PSK) is a type of phase modulation (PM). In PM, data is modulated by altering the phase of the carrier wave. The frequency is kept constant. See the diagram for a simple example. A one is represented by a 180 phase shift, and a zero is represented by the phase staying the same.
Pm.wmf
PSK under the V.27ter specifications uses a carrier frequency of 1,800 Hz. However, the data rate of 4,800 bps is considerably faster than the carrier wave frequency. To fit the data onto the carrier wave, the carrier wave must be modulated in such a way that more than one bit is being transmitted at any time. To do this, V.27ter specifies two types of phase modulation.
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PSK at 2,400 bps

Data is sent two bits at a time. The phase of the signal is varied in accordance with the data. There are four possible signals, as shown in the following table. Two-bit value 00 01 11 10 Phase 0 90 180 270
PSK at 4,800 bps

Data is sent three bits at a time. The phase of the signal is varied in accordance with the data. There are eight possible signals, as shown below. Three-bit value Phase Three-bit value Phase 001 0 111 180 000 45 110 225 010 90 100 270 011 135 101 315 The two-bit and three-bit groups described above are known as Bauds. The Baud rate is the number of Bauds transmitted per second. Do not confuse the data rate with the Baud rate.
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Using V.27ter PSK, at a data rate of 2,400 bps, the Baud rate is 1,200 Baud, and at 4,800 bps, the Baud rate is 1,600 Baud. Note: In PM, the phase change is the actual change in the signal phase between a Baud and the Baud following it.
Summary
V.27 PSK modulation is summarized in the following table. Modem Type V.27 ter Data Speed 4800 bps Carrier Freq. 1800 Hz Baud Rate 1600 Baud Modem Type 8 PSK
135
010 011 000
Eye Pattern
90 45
111
001
180
110 101
100
225 270
315
Psk1.wmf
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Modem Type V.27 ter
Data Speed 2400 bps
Carrier Freq. 1800 Hz
Baud Rate 1200 Baud
Modem Type 4 PSK
Eye Pattern
90
01
11
00
180
10
270
Psk2.wmf
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V.29Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Overview
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a combination of amplitude modulation (AM) and phase modulation (PM). PM has already been described (see the previous section). In AM, the amplitude of the wave varies with the data signal. In the following example, a digital signal modulates the carrier. The amplitude is high when the digital signal is at 1, and low when it is 0. The frequency is kept constant. AM is a relatively simple technique, however, it is susceptible to noise. QAM under the V.29 specifications uses a carrier frequency of 1,700 Hz. V.29 specifies two types of modulation.
Am.wmf
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QAM at 9,600 bps

Data is sent four bits at a time. The phase and amplitude of the signal are varied in accordance with the data. There are 16 possible signals, as shown in the following table. Four-bit value 0001 0000 0010 0011 0111 0110 0100 0101 1001 1000 1010 1011 1111 1110 1100 1101 Phase 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 Amplitude 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 5 32 5 32 5 32 5 32
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QAM at 7,200 bps

Data is sent three bits at a time. There are eight possible signals. Three-bit value Phase Amplitude 001 0 3 000 45 2 010 90 3 011 135 2 111 180 3 110 225 2 100 270 3 101 315 2 The phase change in the above tables refers to the actual change in the signal phase between a Baud and the Baud following it. The amplitude in the above tables is a relative amplitude value. Note: V.29 also gives a recommendation for faxing at 4,800 bps. However, in fax machines, V.27ter modulation is used at this data rate.
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Summary
V.29 QAM is summarized in the following table. Modem Type V.29 Data Speed 9600 bps Carrier Freq. 1700 Hz Baud Rate 2400 Baud Modem Type 16pt QAM
135
1011
Eye Pattern
90
1010
45
1000
0010
0011 1111 0111
0000 0001 0101 1001
180
0110
0 3
1110 0100
2
1101
225
1100
32 315
270
qam1.wmf
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Modem Type V.29
Data Speed 7200 bps
Carrier Freq. 1700 Hz
Baud Rate 2400 Baud
Modem Type 8 QAM

135
Eye Pattern
90
010
45
111
011
000
001
180
101 110
0 2
225 270
100
315
Qam2 wmf
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V.17/V.32Trellis Code Modulation (TCM)

Trellis code modulation (TCM) uses QAM. However, part of the data signal is encoded, using Trellis Coding, for error correction purposes.
TCM at 9,600 bps

The data signal is divided into groups of 4 bits (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4). The first two bits of the group (Q1, Q2) are encoded into Y1 and Y2. The result of the encoding depends on the previous Y1 and Y2 bits. Y1 and Y2 are then encoded again. Y1 and Y2 emerge unchanged, but an extra 'redundant' bit Y0 has been generated. The original four bit group has been converted into a five-bit group. The algorithm for generating Y0, Y1, and Y2 is rather complex, and is known as Trellis Coding. Please refer to the ITU-T V.32 and V.32bis recommendations for full details. The five-bit group is then modulated by QAM in accordance with the following diagram (the array of dots is known as a signal constellation). The five-bit groups in the diagram are listed in the following order: Q4, Q3, Y2, Y1, Y0.
90
11111 00010 10100 01001 00000 10101
00011 01010
2 11001
00101 11000
11110 01000 01111
10110 01011
10011
10111
180
-4
11100
-2
10010 01100
2
11010
4
00100 10110
-2
00001 11101 10001 00110
01110 10000
-4
00111 11011
270
Tcm.wmf
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TCM at 12,000 bps (V.32 bis)

The data signal is divided into groups of 5 bits (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5). The first two bits of the group (Q1, Q2) are converted to three bits (Y0, Y1, Y2) in the same way as for TCM at 9,600 bps (see above). The original five-bit group is now a six-bit group. The six-bit group is then modulated by QAM in a similar way to that shown on the previous page for TCM at 9,600 bps. A similar diagram can be drawn, but for TCM at 12,000 bps, there are 64 points on the diagram.
TCM at 14,400 bps (V.32 bis)

The data signal is divided into groups of 6 bits (Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, Q5, Q6). The first two bits of the group (Q1, Q2) are converted to three bits (Y0, Y1, Y2) in the same way as for TCM at 9,600 bps (see above). The original six-bit group is now a seven-bit group. The seven-bit group is then modulated by QAM in a similar way to that shown on the previous page for TCM at 9,600 bps. A similar diagram can be drawn, but for TCM at 14,400 bps, there are 128 points on the diagram. Note: For all three data rates discussed in this section, the Baud rate is 2,400 Baud. Each Baud contains four bits (at 9,600 bps), five bits (at 12,000 bps), or six bits (at 14,400 bps). The redundant bit is not included as part of the Baud.
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V.8/V.34: Adaptive Bandwidth

Overview
ITU-T introduced the following recommendations for facsimile communication at higher speeds. V.8 (1994): Procedures for starting sessions. V.34 (1994): Specifications for modulation and protocol for modems operating at up to 28,800 bps (modified in 1996 to allow data rates of up to 33,600 bps) V.34 introduces a lot more technical changes compared with the previous speed upgrade from V.29 to V.17. Signals used in V.34 procedures include tone signals, and data signals at 300 bps, 600 bps, 1200 bps, and from 2.4 kbps to 33.6 kbps. T.30 (1996): This recommendation has been modified to include changes to protocol signaling as a result of V.8 procedure implementation (see Protocol V.8/V.34 Protocol for details).
The Protocol V.8/V.34 section contains more information on V.8/V.34 modulation, with an emphasis on protocol.
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Principal Characteristics
The principal characteristics of V.34 procedure are as follows: 1. The use of Error Correction Mode (ECM) is mandatory. 2. Facsimile machines with a V.34 modem must support V.8. If a communication is not started with V.8 procedures, V.34 protocol cannot be used. 3. If V.34 is selected for communication between two terminals, V.17, V.29, V.27ter are not applied. For best results, good line condition is required. Transmission time can be halved in these cases.
Bandwidth The theoretical maximum data rate for a telephone line of bandwidth 3000 Hz and S/N ratio of about 30 dB is about 30 kbps. For 26.4 kbps, a bandwidth of 3000 Hz is required. For 28.8 kbps, a bandwidth of 3200 Hz is required. For 33.6 kbps, a bandwidth of 3429 Hz is required. As we can see from this, V.8/V.34 modulation approaches the limits of what is possible on a conventional telephone line, and the highest data rates may only rarely be observed in the field.
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Noise Level
The bandwidth required for a certain data speed depends on signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) For 28.8 kbps, the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio must be 32-34 dB or better.
Summary of V.8/V.34 Technologies

The following is a list of the technologies used to implement V.8/V.34. This section will explain them in outline. V.8 Handshaking Line Probing Precoding Pre-emphasis Power Control Trellis Coding
V.8 Handshaking
V.8 handshaking is the first thing that happens in a V.8/V.34 communication. This procedure uses 300 bps V.21 signaling to establish whether the other party is V.8/V.34 compatible. If the other end is not compatible, then communication can drop back to a slower modem type, such as V.27ter.
Line Probing
The receiver sends out a complex series of signals to analyze the condition of the telephone line. The results of this process determine what the carrier frequency will be for the communication,
the bandwidth that is available (and thus the possible range of data speeds that can be used), and the pre-emphasis and power control parameters. Line probing is done at the start of every communication, and whenever retraining has to be done during a communication.
Pre-coding
V.8/V.34 modulation approaches the theoretical data capacity limit for a telephone line. Therefore, an adaptation of the most effective receiver equalization technique for analog voice grade modems is used. This technique is known as Decisions Feedback Equalization (DFE). However, this technique does not always work well with Trellis Coding. To get around this, the receiving terminal calculates the best equalizer parameters in the usual way, but sends them back to the sending terminal. The sending terminal then equalizes the signal before transmission, and can employ Trellis Coding on this signal without any problem. The term pre-coding refers to something that is done before Trellis Coding.
Pre-emphasis
Pre-emphasis corrects the signal for distortion by boosting signals in some parts of the waveband and attenuating others. The frequencies boosted and attenuated depend on the results of line probing.
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Power Control
High transmitting power leads to a good S/N ratio at the receiving end but can cause echo effects. Power control selects the best transmitting power based on the results of line probing, to attain the best possible receiving side S/N with minimal echoes.
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Trellis Coding
Trellis coding was introduced in V.17/V.32 modulation. V.34 uses a more complex form, known as four-dimensional trellis coding. (V.17 used two-dimensional trellis coding.) The signal constellation contains many more points than the ones for V.17/V.32, but the principle is similar. However, the signal constellation is intentionally warped to counter non-linear distortion (also known as harmonic distortion), which can cause a lot of problems with high-speed data communications, where the difference in phase and amplitude between different points in the signal constellation is quite small. The warping technique increases the distance between the points in the outer margins of the constellation (where the effects of non-linear distortion are the greatest), but brings those near the center closer together.
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Protocol
Protocol
Introduction
People often find it hard to relate to each other and exchange information without some kind of formal introduction. Fax machines have similar problems. Standard signalling procedures for fax machines have been developed so that any pair of fax machines can communicate with each other, regardless of their makers or countries of origin. Facsimile machine protocol allows handshaking between the two machines before and after data transmission. Handshaking allows the machines to exchange identification and information on what features they are equipped with. Also, the protocol allows the machines to determine the optimum transmission speed for the communication. The most commonly used signalling procedure is known as ITU-T Group 3. Protocol. This protocol was developed by the ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union Telecom) and implemented in 1980. The ITU-T was previously known as the CCITT (Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy).
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Protocol
ITU-T Protocol Categories

There are four types of facsimile protocol.
Group 1 (also known as G1)

This was implemented in 1972. It allows analog fax machines to send a letter-size or A4 page in about 6 minutes, with an optional 4-minute transmission speed. Group 1 transmits data using frequency modulation (FM). Group 1 protocol does not allow handshaking.

This was implemented in 1976. It allows analog fax machines to send a letter-size or A4 page in about 3 minutes, with an optional 2-minute transmission speed. Group 2 transmits data using amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and vestigial sideband modulation (VSB).

This was implemented in 1980, and is the most commonly used mode of facsimile communication world-wide. It allows digital fax machines to send a letter-size or A4 page in about 30 seconds to 1 minute. Group 3 transmits data using phase modulation (PM), frequency shift keying (FSK), quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and trellis code modulation (TCM). The Group 3 signals have a digital structure, so that information such as machine type and capabilities can be exchanged during the handshaking procedure.
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Protocol
Basic Group 3 uses V.21/V.27ter/V.29 modem standards to communicate at 9,600, 7,200, 4,800, and 2,400 bps. V.17/V.33 modem standards allow speeds of 12,000 and 14,400 bps. In addition, V.8/V.34 standards allow speeds up to 33,600 bps.

This was implemented in 1984. It allows digital fax machines to send a letter-size or A4 page in about 3 seconds. Group 4 was designed for use on high-speed data networks and ISDNs, allowing data communication at high speeds such as 56 kbps or 64 kbps. This manual will outline the Group 3 protocol system. For full details of ITU-T Group 3 protocol signalling, refer to the following ITU-T recommendations. T.30: Describes the various protocol signals, and their uses. T.35: Provides ITU-T member codes for various countries so that they can implement nonstandard features. This section will first describe the basic T.30 G3 protocol at speeds of up to 14,400 bps, without ECM. Examples of use will be given, showing how fax features such as Polling are implemented. Error Correction Mode (ECM) will then be described) After that, the modifications to T.30 that allow high speeds of up to 33,600 bps using V.8/V.34 will be described.
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Protocol
Standard Group 3 Protocol (Without ECM)

Phases A to E
The ITU-T T.30 recommendation divides facsimile communication into five phases.
Phase A: Call setup

This phase is from the start of the call until the fax machines have connected to the telephone line.
Phase B: Pre-message procedure
Proto-1.wmf
During this phase, the two machines exchange information on their capabilities, the transmission parameters selected for this communication, and confirmation of the parameters that both machines can accept. Modem training also takes place during Phase B. In addition, the use of optional features and non-standard features can be informed to the other end during Phase B.
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Protocol
Phase C: Data communication

This phase is divided into two parts. Signals from each of these parts are transmitted during Phase C. Phase C1: In-message procedure. This controls in-message signalling techniques, such as message synchronization and error detection. Phase C2: Message transmission. This controls the exchange of data.
Phase D: Post-message procedure

Signalling during this phase informs whether the data was received correctly, and whether or not there are more pages to follow.
Phase E: Call release

This phase ends when both machines have released the line.
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Protocol
This five-phase description can be illustrated best by a simple one-page transmission, as shown below. However, note that in more complex communications, the situation is not so straightforward. For example, between pages of a transmission, the procedure will go back to phase B or C after phase D.
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Proto 2 wmf
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Protocol
An Example Communication
In this section, we shall examine the G3 protocol procedure and introduce some of the signals by looking at a single-page transmission using Group 3 standard protocol. Step 1 The transmitting machine (TX) dials the other party. This happens either after the user has pressed Start (automatic dialling) or dialled the other party on an external handset (manual dialling). When the receiving machine (RX) has detected the incoming call, it connects itself to the line. Step 2 If the TX side is an automatic dialling fax machine, it will send out a 1100 Hz signal called CNG after dialling. CNG informs the receiver that a fax machine is calling. The tone has a cadence; it is on for 0.5 s and off for 3 s. CNG will be transmitted intermittently until the machine at the other end returns a signal. About 1.8 s after connecting to the line, the RX side sends out a 2100 Hz tone to the TX side. This is the CED tone; it informs the TX side that they have
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Step 7
Retraining One page of facsimile data RTC 75 ms V modem .21 (300 bps) V .27ter or V .29 modem (e.g., at 9,600 bps) 0.2 s - 3 s MCF Step 9 0.2 s - 6 s TX 'Start' key pressed RX
Step 1
Dialling Connects to the line Step 2 CNG 1.8 s CED 75 ms DIS Step 3 CSI 0.2 s - 3 s
Step 4 Step 5
DCS TSI 75 ms
Modem training TCF 0.2 s - 3 s CFR 0.2 s - 6 s
Step 6
Step 8
EOP
Step 10 DCN
End
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Protocol
connected to a fax machine. The CED tone lasts for 2.4 to 4.6 s.If the TX side is a manual dialler, the operator at the TX side will press the Start key and hang up the handset upon hearing CED, which is a continuous high-pitched tone. Step 3 After CED, the RX side pauses for 75 ms. Then it transmits two signals: DIS and CSI. Note that CSI is not a compulsory signal; some makers may not implement this signal in their products. DIS contains information about the RX side's capabilities, such as the types of modem installed, the maximum resolution, the printer paper width, and the data compression/reconstruction methods available. CSI contains the telephone number of the RX side, to identify itself to the operator at the TX side. The information in the DIS, CSI, and other protocol signals is digitally coded at 300 bps using a type of frequency modulation known as FSK; a '0' is represented by 1,850 Hz, and a '1' is represented by 1,650 Hz. Step 4 After about 200 ms, the TX side sends out DCS and TSI (TSI is not a compulsory signal). DCS informs the RX side of how the TX side is set up; it includes the resolution that will be used to send the message, the document width, the starting modem rate for facsimile data transmission, and the compression method that will be used. TSI contains the telephone number of the transmitting side, for identification purposes.
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Protocol
Step 5 After about 75 ms, the TX side begins modem training, to check that the V.27ter and V.29 modems in both machines are functioning normally; this training check prevents data from being sent out through a defective modem, which would cause the data to be garbled. Modem training starts at the maximum modem rate (normally 9,600 bps). During modem training, the TX side modem first transmits a standard test pattern to the RX side to synchronize the modems (the standard patterns are described in V.27ter for 2,400/4,800 bps training and V.29 for 7,200/9,600 bps training). The RX side's modem must be able to detect the standard pattern correctly from the received signal. Then the TX side modem sends a signal called TCF. TCF is a string of zeros lasting for up to 1.5 s. The RX side monitors 0.9 s of this signal, and checks if any of the zeros have been changed to ones. Step 6 After about 0.3 s, the RX side replies with the result of the modem training. If training was successful, the RX side sends a CFR signal. If training was unsuccessful (too many errors due to a malfunctioning modem or a noisy telephone line), the RX side sends an FTT signal. The procedure then resumes from step 4, at a lower data rate. If training fails at the lowest data rate (2,400 bps), the line is disconnected as fax communication is impossible. When CFR has been sent, the CSI is displayed on the TX side's machine, and the TSI is displayed on the RX side's machine. Note: Most machines have a pair of bit switch settings to specify how many bit errors are acceptable in the TCF signal (this setting is known as the training error tolerance).
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Protocol
Step 7 After about 0.2 s, the TX side is ready to send facsimile data. First, a short modem training pattern is sent to confirm modem synchronization (this signal is known as retraining). Then the facsimile data is sent at the modem rate for which modem training was successful. At the end of the data, an RTC code is sent. This consists of six consecutive EOL (000000000001) codes. RTC informs the other end that the page of data has ended. (For more about EOL codes, refer to "Compression Techniques".) Step 8 After transmitting the end of the page of data, the TX side pauses for about 75 ms. Then the TX side sends a post message command to the RX side, to inform it of what is going to happen next. In our example, there are no more pages, so the TX side sends an EOP signal. In other situations, the TX side might send MPS (indicating that there is another page to come, and it will be transmitted using the same settings as the previous page; the next page is sent from step 7) or EOM (indicating that there is another page to come, but it will be transmitted using different settings from the previous page; the procedure goes back to step 3). Step 9 After about 0.2 s, the RX side sends back a post-message response, to inform whether the page was received correctly or not. If the page was received correctly, the RX side sends out MCF. If the page was not received correctly, the RX side sends out RTN; an alarm sounds at the TX side and an error report may be printed.
Protocol
Step 10 After about 0.2 ms, the TX side sends a DCN signal to inform the RX side that it is going to disconnect from the telephone line. Both machines then return to standby mode. The communication is over. Notes: 75 ms interval - This interval is required whenever the machine has to switch between signals from the V.21 to the V.27ter/V.29 modems (or vice versa). 0.2 - 3 s interval - This interval occurs whenever communication is handed over to the other terminal in expectation of a command from the other end. If the terminal does not receive a command within 3 s (the value of the ITU-T T4 timer), it will resend the signal. However, after DIS/CSI or after EOP, if a reply is still not received at the third try, the machine will send DCN and a Line Fail will be detected. 0.2 - 6 s interval - This interval occurs whenever communication is handed over to the other terminal in expectation of a response to a command. If the terminal does not get a response within 6 s (the value of the ITU-T T2 timer), it will send DCN and a Line Fail will be detected.
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Protocol
Non-Standard Group 3 Protocol

Standard Group 3 protocol provides the framework for Group 3 facsimile communication, and a few features such as Free Polling. However, some manufacturers who wish to introduce new features consider that ITU-T standard Group 3 protocol is limited. Therefore, these manufacturers have used optional signals provided by the T.30 recommendation to implement their own additional features, such as Transfer Request and Confidential Transmission. Usually, these features only work between fax machines that TX RX were produced by the same maker. The use of these optional signals is illustrated in the protocol sequence on the right, which is for a singlepage transmission. The rest of the transmission (after TCF) is the same as for standard Group 3 protocol as shown in the previous section. The new signals are as follows. NSF: This informs the transmitting side of who the manufacturer is, and what non-standard features are available. NSS: This informs the receiving side of what nonstandard features will be used for the transmission. If the maker of the TX side is different from that of the RX
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NSS 75 ms Modem training TCF 'Start' key pressed Dialling Connects to the line CNG 1.8 s CED 75 ms NSF CSI DIS 0.2 s - 3 s
Proto-4.wmf
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Protocol
side, NSS will not be sent. DCS and TSI will be sent, and standard Group 3 protocol will be followed. Note: NSF is divided into two parts: NSF(S) first, then NSF(C). NSF(S) contains information on the machine's non-standard capabilities, and NSF(C) contains the RTI, which is an alternative to the CSI as a means of identification. Similarly, NSS is also divided into NSS(S) and NSS(C).
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Protocol
Protocol Signals
HDLC Frames
Protocol signals such as CED and CNG are just single tones transmitted for a certain period of time; these have no structure. However, signals that consist of digital information, such as DIS, NSF, and so on, have a frame-like structure known as HDLC (High-level Data Link Control). The basic HDLC frame structure consists of a number of frames, each of which is subdivided into a number of fields. An example is shown below, in which a block of four protocol frames (NSF(S), NSF(C), CSI, and DIS) is transmitted in sequence.
Proto-5.wmf
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Protocol
Each of the fields is described below. Preamble A preamble will be sent before any digitally coded signal if the direction of communication has just changed. The preamble assures that all elements of the communication circuit, such as echo suppressors, are properly conditioned so that the following data can be passed without being damaged. The preamble consists of a sequence of flags transmitted for about 1 s. Flag: Code 01111110 Flags show the start and end of each frame, and establish bit and frame synchronization. Address Field (AF): Code 11111111 This is intended to provide station identification in a multi-point network. For communication over the public telephone network, the address field is fixed at 11111111. Control Field (CF): Code 1100X000 If another signal immediately follows this one, X is 0. If this is the last signal, and a response is expected from the other end, X is 1. Facsimile Control Field (FCF) This eight bit code identifies the protocol signal. There is information on all the Group 3 protocol signals later in this section.
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Protocol
Facsimile Information Field (FIF) This field has bit assignments to show the settings of various features, such as resolution. This field is used in NSF, CSI, DIS, NSC, CIG, DTC, NSS, DCS, and TSI frames, and some of the ECM protocol signals. The bit assignments for some signals are given in the ITU-T T.30 recommendation. Assignments for NSF, NSS, and NSC will vary from maker to maker, and are confidential. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) This is also known as the Frame Check Field. This is a 16-bit checksum based on the contents of the AF, CF, FCF, and FIF fields. When receiving a frame, the receiver makes an identical checksum calculation based on the received data and checks the result with the received CRC code to determine whether there have been any errors. The method of calculating the CRC code is given in ITU-T recommendation T.30.
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Protocol
Table of Group 3 Protocol Signals

The following table shows all the Group 3 protocol signals and a brief description of what they do. Some examples will be shown in the following section. This section covers only the basic Group 3 signals; ECM signals are described later. Stage: At the start of reception
Name CED DIS Full Name Called Station Identification Digital Information Signal Non-standard Facilities FCF Code None 0000 0001 Use The machine is ready to receive. CED is a 2100 Hz single frequency signal. DIS informs the TX side of the RX side's capabilities (modem type, I/O rate, printer paper width, and so on). NSF is an optional signal. It informs the TX side of any features that the RX side's has that are not ITU-T standard (for example, confidential communication, transfer request). This contains the RX side's tel. number to identify itself to the TX side's operator.
NSF
0000 0100
CSI
Called Station Identification
0000 0010
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Protocol
Stage: At the start of transmission

Name CNG Full Name Calling Tone FCF Code None Use The machine is ready to transmit. CNG is an 1100 Hz tone with the following cadence: on for 0.5 s and off for 3 s. DCS tells the RX side what settings will be used to transmit the fax message (such items as modem rate resolution and document width are included). NSS is an optional signal. It informs the RX side of any non-standard features that the TX side will be using for the transmission. This contains the TX side's tel. number to identify itself to the RX side operator.
DCS
Digital Command Signal Non-standard Facilities Set-up Transmitting Station Identification
X100 0001
NSS
X100 0100
TSI
X100 0010
Stage: During polling reception

Name DTC NSC CIG Full Name Digital Transmit Command Non-standard Facilities Command Calling Station Identification FCF Code 1000 0001 1000 0100 1000 0010 Use Informs the called machine of the calling machine's capabilities and requests polling reception. The same as DTC except that it informs nonstandard features. This contains the calling side's telephone number to identify itself to the called side's operator.
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Protocol
Stage: During modem training

Name Full Name Modem training FCF Code None Use The TX side sends a standard test pattern to check whether both modems are functioning properly. The test pattern is described in ITU-T recommendations V.27ter and V.29. This modem training signal is a series of zeros lasting for 1.5 s. It is not a HDLC frame. This informs the TX side that modem training was successful. This informs the TX side that modem training was not successful.
TCF CFR FTT
Training Check Field Confirmation to Receive Failure to Train
None X010 0001 X010 0010
Stage: After transmitting a page of data

Name EOP EOM Full Name End of Procedure End of Message FCF Code X111 0100 X111 0001 Use This informs the RX side that there are no more pages to send. This informs the RX side that the settings for the next page (resolution, for example), will be different from those for the page that was just sent. This informs the RX side that the settings for the next page will be the same as for the page that was just sent.
MPS
Multi Page Signal
X111 0010
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Protocol
Stage: When making a voice request

Name PRIEOP PRIEOM PRIMPS Full Name Procedure Interrupt End of Procedure Procedure Interrupt End of Message Procedure Interrupt Multi Page Signal FCF Code X111 1100 X111 1001 X111 1010 Use This is the same as EOP, except that it indicates that a voice request has been made. This is the same as EOM, except that it indicates that a voice request has been made. This is the same as MPS, except that it indicates that a voice request has been made. Use This informs the TX side that the page of data and the post-message command were received correctly. This informs the TX side that the page of data was received correctly, but that additional pages can only be sent after NSS/DCS and training. This informs the TX side that the page of data was not received correctly. This informs the TX side that the page of data was received correctly, but further transmission is not possible without the presence of the operator. This informs the TX side that the page of data was not received correctly, and that the operator's presence is required.
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Stage: Response after receiving a page of data

Name MCF Full Name Message Confirmation FCF Code X011 0001
RTP
Retrain Positive
X011 0011
RTN PIP
Retrain Negative Procedural Interrupt Positive Procedural Interrupt Negative
X011 0010 X011 0101
PIN
X011 0100
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Protocol
Stage: At any time, whenever necessary

Name CRP DCN Full Name Command Repeat Disconnect FCF Code X101 1000 X101 1111 Use This requests retransmission of the previous signal. This informs that the machine is about to release the line.
Notes:
In the FCF code, X is 1 on the side that received DIS or NSF. The FCF as indicated in this table is transmitted from the left side first. Like NSF and NSS, NSC consists of two parts: NSC(S) and NSC(C). If more pages follow after a voice request, the protocol resumes from CED then NSF/DIS after the conversation.
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Protocol
Comparison of Standard and Non-standard Group 3 Signals

Capability information RX side TX side Polling rx requester NSF(S) NSS(S) NSC(S) DIS DCS DTC Identifier TX side NSS(C) TSI
RX side NSF(C) CSI
Non-std Standard
Polling rx requester NSC(C) CIG
The identifier in standard mode is the data programmed into the CSI. In non-standard mode, it is the data programmed into the RTI.
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Protocol
ITU-T Timers
ITU-T T1 Time
Just after transmitting side finishes dialling the other end, T1 time starts and the machine waits for a signal, such as identification (NSF/DIS/CSI), from the receiving end. If the T1 time runs out before a response is detected, the machine disconnects the line. For the receiving side, T1 starts when it has sent out NSF/DIS/CSI, and is waiting for a response. While waiting, the machine retransmits NSF/DIS/CSI. The ITU-T standard value of the T1 timer is 35 s 5 s.
ITU-T T2 Time
After sending a response to training (CFR or FTT) or a response to a received page (such as MCF), the T2 timer starts. If T2 runs out before image data or a command signal is received, the machine disconnects the line. The ITU-T standard value of T2 is 6 s 1 s.
ITU-T T3 Time
T3 starts when the machine calls the operator (after it has detected PIN, PIP, or PRI-Q; e.g., the other side made a voice request). If the operator does not answer within T3, the machine will continue with the facsimile communication procedure that was interrupted. The value of the T3 timer is 10 s 5 s.
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Protocol
ITU-T T4 Time
T4 starts when a machine sends out a command (such as NSF/DIS/CSI, TCF, or EOP). If the transmitting terminal does not receive a reply within T4, it will resend the signal. However, if waiting for a response to NSF/DIS/CSI or EOP/EOM/MPS, it will disconnect the line if a reply has not been received after the signal has been sent out three times. The values of the T4 timer are as follows: Automatic receiving fax machines: 3.0 s 15% Manual receiving fax machines: 4.5 s 15%
ITU-T T5 Time
This is used with ECM. The transmitting terminal starts T5 when it detects the first RNR and resets it when it detects MCF or ERR. If T5 runs out before MCF or ERR are detected, the transmitter sends DCN. Examples are shown later in this section. The value of the T5 timer is 60 s 5 s.
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Protocol
TX RX TX RX
Example Uses Of Group 3 Protocol Signalling

Two-page Transmission
The left side of the diagram shows what happens when the second page is transmitted with the same settings as the first page. However, the right side of the diagram shows what happens if the transmitter's operator changes the settings for the second page, for example, by selecting a different resolution. The diagrams begin half-way through the first page. Until that point, the protocol is the same as for one-page transmission.
Facsimile data Page 1
MPS MCF
EOM MCF 6s
Retraining Facsimile data Last page
NSF/ DIS NSS/ DCS Modem training MCF TCF
EOP
DCN CFR End Retraining Facsimile data Last page
EOP MCF DCN
End
Proto-6.wmf
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TX
Protocol
RX CED NSF DIS CSI
Automatic Fallback
The diagram shows how automatic fallback is achieved. Automatic fallback occurs if modem training cannot be done successfully, and the transmitter has to use a slower modem rate. In the example shown, training fails at 9,600 and 7,200 bps, but succeeds at 4,800 bps. The protocol is only shown up to the transmission of facsimile data.
NSS DCS TSI Modem training TCF (9,600 bps)
FTT DCS TSI Modem training TCF (7,200 bps) FTT DCS TSI Modem training TCF (4,800 bps) CFR Retraining One page of facsimile data (4,800 bps)
Proto-7 wmf
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Protocol
Polling side Polled side CED NSF/CSI/DIS NSC/CIG/DTC NSS Modem training TCF CFR Retraining Fax message data EOP MCF DCN
Proto-8.wmf
Polling
The diagram shows how polling is done. Polling will only work if: Both terminals have compatible polling features. The ID codes are the same, unless free polling has been selected. (Free polling is a ITU-T standard procedure, using DIS, DTC, CIG, and DCS. However, polling using ID codes is nonstandard, using NSF, NSS, and NSC, and can only be guaranteed between models produced by the same maker.) The polled side is ready for polling (it must have a document ready on polling standby).
Note how the direction of the communication changes after the polling side has sent out NSC or CIG/DTC.
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Protocol
The receiver operator responds to the voice request.
TX "V oice Request" key pressed Fax message data PRI-Q 3s PRI-Q Operator call tone rings for 2 s "Stop" key pressed PRI-Q Conversation CED NSF/ DIS NSS/ DCS
Last page PRI-EOP Operator call tone ringing for 10 s "V oice Request" key pressed
Voice Request
The following diagrams show how the transmitting side makes a voice request to the receiving side. Voice request does not work when the other end does not have the voice request function. PRI-Q refers to PRI-EOM, PRI-EOP, or PRI-MPS, whichever is applicable in the circumstances. PIP/PIN means either PIP or PIN. The diagrams are for ITU-T standard procedure. In nonstandard procedure, PRI-Q is sent up to 6 times. If there is still no response, Q is sent.
The receiver operator does not respond to the voice request.

TX "V oice Request" key pressed Fax message data PRI-Q Operator call tone ringing for 10 s RX
RX
"Stop" key pressed
Operator call tone ringing
PRI-Q
PRI-Q
PIP/PIN
MCF/RTN/RTP Fax communication continues TX RX
PRI-EOP
Proto-9.wmf
PRI-EOP
MCF/RTN/RTP DCN
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Proto-10.wmf
Protocol
Commonly Occurring Problems

- When the page is not received correctly Using MPS
TX RX
Using EOP
TX RX
Fax message data
Using EOM
TX RX
Fax message data
Fax message data
EOM
MPS RTN NSS/DCS Modem training TCF "Line Fail" blinks until the Stop key is pressed. Retraining Next page CFR (FTT)
EOP RTN DCN "Line Fail" blinks until the Stop key is pressed.
NSS/DCS Modem training TCF
RTN 6s NSF/DIS
Proto-12.wmf "Line Fail" blinks
until the Stop key is pressed. Retraining Next page
CFR (FTT)
Proto-13.wmf
9 August 2003
Proto-11.wmf
Page 672
Protocol
RTN may make older terminals release the line. Newer models continue as shown, even though "Line Fail" blinks. For example, if page 3 in a five-page transmission fails, the machine will continue to send pages 4 and 5. The fact that page 3 failed will be output on an error report. If the transmitting machine is using memory transmission (without ECM), and a page fails, the same page will be retransmitted using the above protocol procedure (or using EOP or EOM if required).
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Protocol
- When there is a copy jam or paper runs out during reception Using MPS or EOM
TX Fax message data RX
Fax message data
Using EOP
TX RX
Copy jam occurs 6 s max.
Copy jam occurs 6 s max.
MPS/EOM PIN Operator call rings for up to 22 s. NSS/DCS Modem training "Line Fail" blinks TCF until the Stop key is pressed. Flag
EOP PIN Operator call rings for up to 22 s. DCN "Line Fail" blinks until the Stop key is pressed.
Proto-15.wmf
Flag
DCN
Proto-14.wmf
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Protocol
If the RX side does not detect MPS/EOM/EOP within 6 s of the jam occurring, it will disconnect the line. The operator call rings for 22 s in non-standard mode, but only for 10 s in ITU-T standard Group 3 mode. The diagrams on the previous page show what happens when the receiving machine has no memory. If the receiving machine does have SAF memory, the incoming data can be stored in that memory using a process known as Substitute Reception. This is explained on the next page.
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Protocol
Substitute Reception
There are two procedures for substitute reception. Some models have a bit switch setting to select one or the other of these. Both procedures are shown. In the left-hand procedure, data is stored in memory as it comes in. So, if the printer has a problem, the data is already saved, and any more incoming pages are automatically saved to memory. In the right-hand procedure, the data is not stored during reception. If a problem occurs, the receiver sends out PIN and the communication stops; the last page of the communication is lost. Substitute reception only takes place from the next communication. The operator call rings for 22 s in nonstandard mode, but only for 10 s in ITU-T standard Group 3 mode.
TX
RX
TX
RX
Facsimile data Page 2 Jam
Jam
MPS MCF Retraining Facsimile data Last page
EOM PIN Flag
Operator call rings for up to 22 s.
NSS/DCS EOP MCF DCN Modemtrn. TCF DCN End Line is disconnected CED NSF/ DIS
Proto-16.wmf
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Protocol
AI Short Protocol
Overview
AI (Artificial Intelligence) Short Protocol reduces the time required for the protocol exchange between terminals. When the machine communicates with a particular fax terminal for the first time, protocol proceeds as normal. However, the communication parameters agreed during the protocol exchange are stored, and so is the modem rate that was used for sending the last page of the message. Then, when the same number is called again some time later, these parameters are immediately put into effect, eliminating most of the handshaking and training procedures. This feature is only available with numbers that are stored as Quick or Speed Dials. Notes: This feature may not be effective for international communication because of the line delay caused by satellite links. The delay means that the rx side may not be able to receive the AI Short Protocol trigger signal (800 Hz) before it has finished sending CED.
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Protocol
Basic Protocol Procedures

- First Communication Tx Rx Tx Rx 0.2 s 0.2 s
- Later
CED 800 Hz NSF(S)/NSF(C) CSI/DIS 0.5 s
CED
75 +/- 15 ms NSS(S)/NSS(C) TCF CFR CFR NSS(A)/NSS(C)
Image Data
Aipro1.wmf
Image Data
Aipro2.wmf
Communications 1. After it detects CED, the tx side will send out an 800 Hz signal for 0.5 s. Then, it will send NSS(A) and NSS(C). If the RTI is not programmed, NSS(C) will not be sent.
Protocol
2. When it detects 800 Hz, the rx side enters AI Short Protocol mode. It will stop sending CED 0.2 s after it detects the 800 Hz signal, and it will not send out NSF or DIS. 3. If the CRC data in the rx side's own NSF(S) signal is the same as that of the received NSS(A) signal, the rx side will send CFR. If the CRC is different, the rx side will send FTT and NSF. Then normal G3 protocol resumes with NSS(S). In this case, the overall communication time will be longer. 4. After receiving CFR, the tx side will send image data at the modem rate determined by the AI Short Protocol Algorithm (see below).
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Protocol
Communication Using AI Short Protocol

- First Recording The machine recognizes it as a first communication if the AI Short Protocol data for that Quick/Speed Dial contains no NSF(S) or RTI/CSI information. Data is recorded for use with AI Short Protocol if: The number is a Quick or Speed Dial The remote terminal has the AI Short Protocol feature (bits 1, 2, and 3 of NSF(S) must be on) NSF(S) was received correctly, even if the protocol failed elsewhere
In the first communication, data will not be recorded if a closed network transmission failed due to an ID Code mismatch. AI Short Protocol data can be recorded for any transmission mode (such as multi-page transmission, transfer request, and so on). During communication, the following takes place: Any modem rate data in the AI Short Protocol memory for that Quick/Speed Dial is deleted The CRC data of the received NSF(S) is stored
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Protocol
The modem rate for the final page is stored
- Later Communications AI Short Protocol takes place if: The remote terminal's number is stored as a Quick or Speed Dial AI Short Protocol data exists for that number A 2100 Hz signal (CED) is received<R> The machine at the other end has been replaced with a machine that does not have AI Short Protocol (if NSF indicates the absence of this feature, or if DIS is received) If the Quick/Speed Dial is reprogrammed The response to NSS(A) is NSF/DIS Multipage transmission, voice request, page retransmission
AI Short Protocol data is deleted from the memory if:
AI Short Protocol data is replaced if:
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Protocol
NSS(A) Frame Format

Flag HDLC AF CF FCF ITU-T Code Maker Code P. ID FIF ID Code NSS(A) FCS Flag
Protocol ID (P. ID) for NSS(A) = 04[H] ID Code = ID Code for Polling, Transfer Request, and so on NSS(A): CRC data and feature information (see below)
NSS(A) Frame Bit Assignment

Bits 1-8 9-16 17-40 Contents Contents of CRC in other terminal's NSF(S): Low byte Contents of CRC in other terminal's NSF(S): High byte Facsimile feature information
At the receiving terminal, the CRC data in the received NSS(A) signal is compared with the CRC data of its own NSF(S) signal. If these are the same, the receiving machine prepares to receive, without sending out NSF(S). If these are not the same, the receiving machine will send out FTT then NSF(S). At the transmitting side, the AI Short Protocol data for this machine will be replaced.
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Protocol
AI Short Protocol Algorithm

Notes: 1. This depends on a RAM address or dedicated transmission parameter setting. If line conditions are not constant, TCF should be added after NSS(A). 2. First Communication: If the communication fails due to third try fail or modem rate fallback failure, no modem rate history is stored for that number. However, in later communications, 800 Hz will be sent, because the NSF(S) and RTI/CSI data are present.
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Type 1 Tx Rx Type 2 Tx Rx
Protocol
CED 800 Hz NSS(A) TCF 9600 bps Retraining FTT NSS(A) CFR Retraining Image Data 7200 bps Image Data 800 Hz NSS(A)
CED
CFR 9600 bps
Aipro3.wmf
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Protocol
Short Preamble
If both communicating machines have the Short Preamble feature, the time required by the protocol procedure can be reduced, as explained below. In standard Group 3 protocol, there is a one-second preamble at the start of each signal or group of signals (see section 5 "Protocol Signals"). If Short Preamble is used, this is reduced to 0.2 second. Normally there is a minimum 0.2 pause in the signalling whenever communication is handed over to the other terminal (see section 3 "Standard Group 3 Protocol"). If Short Preamble is used, the minimum becomes 0.1 s.
As a result, about 4 seconds can be shaved off the protocol time during a one-page transmission.
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Protocol
Secure Transmission
With Secure Transmission, the data is scrambled before transmission. The two communicating machines check whether the Secure IDs are the same, and whether the machine can do Secure Transmission or Secure Reception.
TX CNG CED CNG NSF NSS NSF NSF NSS T raining TCF CFR Retraining Fax message NSS EOP MCF DCN
Proto-17.wmf
RX
If the Rx side is not equipped with this feature.

TX RX
CED DCN
If the Rx side does not have the same Secure ID as the Tx side.
TX CNG CED NSF RX
NSF DCN
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Protocol
Error Correction Mode (ECM)

Background
ECM is an optional extension to Group 3 Protocol. It was recommended in 1986 as a countermeasure to the frequent data errors that occur in areas that suffer from noisy telephone lines. Transmitters that have SAF memory are able to resend data without using ECM. However, as the whole page is resent, the communication takes a lot longer. With ECM, only the damaged parts of the data are resent, so although there is extra protocol overhead, time can be saved in areas where errors are frequent. Also, a large SAF memory is not needed for retransmitting data, as long as the machine has a small memory set aside for ECM (this is known as the ECM memory).
Principle
Data Structure
Without ECM, fax message data is sent as a continuous stream of bits, in units of a page. However, in ECM, a HDLC frame structure is used to send fax message data as well, as for the protocol signals. ECM works with four units: the octet, the frame, the block, and the page.
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Protocol
Each HDLC frame consists of 256 octets (8-bit groups) of facsimile data (64 octets is an optional size), and 8 octets for the other parts of the HDLC frame (flags, address field, control field, and so on). If a page of compressed data needs more than 256 frames, the page is divided into <B>blocks<D>. Each of these blocks, also known as "partial pages", consists of 256 HDLC frames. Each new page starts with a new block. An average compressed page takes up about 320,000 bits. Therefore, assuming a 256-octet frame size, an average page takes up about half a block. If halftone is used, a lot more bits will be generated, and more than one block may be required for a page.
Procedure
The page is sent in units of one block; each block is a sequence of up to 256 HDLC frames. After receiving the block, the receiver informs whether the block was received with or without errors. If there were errors, the receiver informs which HDLC frames contained the errors, and asks the transmitter to resend those frames.
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TX 'Start' key pressed Dialling RX
Protocol
Basic Protocol
The diagram shows the transmission of a one-page fax message, with no errors. The page is small enough to fit into 256 frames (or one block). The procedure is basically the same as for Group 3 without ECM, except for the HDLC frame structure of the fax message data, which will be explained soon, and the new signal PPS.EOP replacing EOP. The new signals PPS.EOP, PPS.EOM, PPS.MPS, and PPS.PRI-Q are equivalent to EOP, EOM, MPS, and PRI-Q as used in Group 3 protocol without ECM (see the previous pages). If the page requires more than 256 data frames and must be divided into more than one block, a signal called PPS.NULL is used instead.
Connects to the lin CNG CED NSF DIS CSI
NSS DCS TSI Modem training TCF
CFR Retraining Fax message
PPS.EOP MCF DCN
End
Ecm1.wmf
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Protocol
TX CNG CED NSF DIS CSI RX
If the receiver detects errors in the data, the protocol procedure begins to look quite different. This page shows what happens. In this example, the errors are corrected at the first attempt.
NSS DCS TSI Modem training TCF
CFR Retraining Fax message
PPS.EOP PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.EOP MCF DCN End
Ecm2.wmf
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Protocol
HDLC Data Frame Structure

When ECM is used, compressed facsimile data is sent in blocks made up of HDLC frames. The name of the data signal is FCD. The facsimile message data is transmitted in the Facsimile Information Field (FIF) of this FCD signal. The following diagram shows the structure of a block of ECM data, and the frames in that block.
Retraining FCD frame 0 FCD frame 1 ----Data FCD frame 255 Fax data RCP RCP RCP RCP
Flag
AF
CF
FCD FCF
Frame no. FIF
FCS
Flag
AF
CF
RCP FCF
FCS
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Protocol
Three consecutive RCP frames signify the end of a block. After RCP, error correction signalling is done, then error frames are resent or the next block is sent. The above diagram shows a full block of 256 full data frames. If the final block in a page is only partly full, or if the page does not need a full block, zeros are used to fill up the frame where the data ended. Then the three RCP frames follow. The data structure is as follows.
Retraining FCD frame 0 Flag AF FCD frame 1 CF Data ----RTC FCD frame N Frame no. Fax data FIF Denotes the end of image data Zeros RCP RCP RCP RCP
FCD FCF
RTC
Zeros
FCS
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Protocol
ECM Protocol Signals

Name CTC Full Name Continue to Correct FCF Code X100 1000 Use The TX side informs the RX side that it will continue attempting to correct this block of data after receiving CTR from the RX side. The RX side acknowledges receipt of CTC, and states that it is ready to receive. The TX side informs the RX side that it will not continue attempting to correct this block of data, and that it will go on to the next block after receiving ERR from the RX side. The RX side acknowledges receipt of EOR, and states that it is ready to receive. The FIF of this signal contains fax message data. Up to 256 of these frames can be sent consecutively as one block of data.
CTR
Response to CTC
X010 0011
EOR
End of Retransmission
X111 0011
ERR
Response to EOR
X011 1000
FCD
Facsimile Coded Data
0110 0000
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Group 3 Fax Communication Name PPS Full Name Partial Page Signal FCF Code X111 1101
Protocol Use This tells the RX side that a block of data has just been sent. PPS also informs the page number, block number, and the number of frames in the block. This informs the TX side that the block just received contained errors. It informs which frames contained the errors and asks for these frames to be retransmitted. This informs the RX side that there is no more data in the current block. The TX side asks the RX side whether it is ready to receive data. The RX side informs that it is not ready to receive data, perhaps because the ECM memory still holds some data.
PPR
Partial Page Request
X011 1101
RCP RR RNR
Return to Control for Partial Page Receive Ready Receive Not Ready
0110 0001 X111 0110 X011 0111
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Protocol
Notes:
MCF is only returned when the RX side has received a block without errors, or when all errors for the block have been corrected. MPS, EOM, EOP, and PRI-Q are not used between blocks. Instead, PPS and EOR have an extra Facsimile Control Field to carry a NULL, EOP, EOM, MPS, or PRI-Q signal. For example, PPS.NULL means that the page has not finished (at least one more block is needed), and PPS.EOP means that this is the last page of the fax message. Refer to the ECM protocol examples in this section to see the usage of this type of signal.
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Protocol
TX CNG CED NSS/DCS/TSI Modem training TCF CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR CTC CTR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL MCF NSF DIS CSI RX
Examples of ECM Protocol Procedures

We have already seen the simplest case. Now let us examine some more complex situations. NSF and NSS are not shown in these diagrams.
Error Correction
In this example, page 1 has more than 1 block, so PPS.NULL is used after sending data. After 4 attempts at 9,600 bps, CTC informs the RX side that the next attempt will be at 7,200 bps. This attempt succeeds immediately. This usage of CTC to indicate fallback varies from maker to maker.
Ecm3.wmf
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Protocol
TX CNG CED NSS/DCS/TSI Modem training TCF CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL PPR EOR.NULL ERR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 PPS.NULL MCF NSF DIS CSI RX
Page 1 has more than one block, and the first block cannot be sent. However, in this example, the machine does not use CTC to reduce the modem rate after four failures, and the TX side states to the next block. Instead of EOR.NULL, the TX side could send EOR.MPS and go on to the next page, skipping remaining blocks in page 1 completely.
Ecm4.wmf
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Protocol
TX CNG CED NSS/DCS/TSI Modem training TCF CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1 PPS.MPS PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.MPS PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.MPS MCF Retraining Fax message Page 2 PPS.EOP PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.EOP MCF DCN NSF DIS CSI RX
In this example, a two-page message is sent. Each page has only one block. Note the use of PPS.MPS and PPS.EOP, which is similar to the use of MPS and EOP in Group 3 protocol without ECM.
Ecm5.wmf
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Protocol
TX CNG CED NSS/DCS/TSI Modem training TCF CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL T4 PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL MCF Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 PPS.EOP MCF DCN Could not be received as a result of line noise. NSF DIS CSI RX
Here, the TX side sends a two-block page. While sending PPS.NULL, some noise on the line stops the RX side from detecting it. The TX side resends the signal if the ITU-T T4 timer expires before a reply is detected. The ITU-T timers are explained later in this section.
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Protocol
In this example, the TX side cannot detect PPR because of noise on the line. After T4 elapsed without detection anything the previous signal is sent out again.
NSS/DCS/TSI Modem training TCF
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL PPR cannot be received as T4 a result of line noise. PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL MCF Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 PPS.EOP MCF DCN PPR
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Protocol
In this case, line noise has damaged the data. If the data signal is totally destroyed, the RX side can check the block and page counters to see which part of the fax message is missing.
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL MCF Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 Data signal damaged by line noise PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.MPS MCF
PPS.MPS
and so on
Ecm8.wmf
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Protocol
Flow Control
On the transmitting side, data flow is controlled by sending consecutive flags before the first frame, or between frames as long as the ITU-T T1 timer is not exceeded. On the receiving side, flow is controlled using the RNR signal, as shown in the following examples.
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Protocol
The TX side starts the T5 timer when it first detects RNR. The TX side repeatedly asks the RX side whether it is ready to receive, using RR. If T5 runs out before the TX side detects MCR or ERR, the TX side sends DCN.
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL PPR Retraining Error frames resent PPS.NULL T5 starts RR RNR RR T5 reset Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 PPS.EOP MCF DCN MCF Memory busy RNR
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Protocol
In this example, T5 runs out so the TX side sends DCN. Also, if the TX side cannot detect any reply to RR comes after three attempts, the TX side will send DCN.
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 1 PPS.NULL MCF Retraining Fax message Page 1, block 2 PPS.MPS T5 starts RR RNR T4 starts RR Damaged by line noise Memory busy RNR
T4 reset
RR RNR RR
T5 runs out DCN
RNR
Ecm10.wmf
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TX CNG RX
Protocol
Procedural Interrupts
This shows what happens when the TX side operator makes a voice request.
CED NSF DIS CSI
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1 PPS.PRI-EOP (Operator intervention requested) Retraining Resend error frames PPS.PRI-EOP Operator alerted PRI-EOP Operator on-line Operator alerted PIP Operator on-line (Errors)
PPR
Ecm11.wmf
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Protocol
This shows what happens when the RX side operator makes a voice request.
CFR Retraining Fax message Page 1 (Errors) (Operator intervention requested)
PPS.MPS PPR Retraining Resend error frames PPS.MPS Operator alerted PRI-MPS Operator on-line PIP Operator alerted PIP Operator on-line
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Protocol
Flexible Implementation of ECM Protocol

The ITU-T standard for ECM allows some flexibility, and manufacturers may implement ECM in slightly different ways. The following notes explain how this manufacturer has implemented some of the more flexible rules.
Frame size
The machines are set up for a frame size of 256 octets. In receive mode, the machines adopt whichever of the two optional frame sizes (256 or 64) is being used by the sender. Some makers may use non-standard frame size options. This manufacturer's machines can communicate with terminals that use non-standard frame sizes lower than 256 octets. However, communication is impossible if the other terminal's non-standard frame size is higher.
Block size
This is always 256 except for the following cases A block at the end of a page When resending error frames When RNR was received partway through a block and then T5 runs out.
If a page needs two blocks, or if T5 runs out, the page is separated into two blocks.
Protocol
EOR vs CTC
This manufacturer's machines use EOR as little as possible. If all frames within a block cannot be corrected within four tries (this includes the original attempt and three retries), the machine will send CTC and modem rate fallback will be used. After fallback, if the block is sent correctly, the next block will be sent either at the original rate before fallback or at the successful rate (after fallback). There is an adjustment to select which method is used. If the modem rate is 2,400 bps and the data still cannot be sent correctly, the machine will send EOR, and will go on to send the next block of data.
Page printout timing

Normally, data is printed while it is received. However, if an error frame is received, printout stops at that point. When the error frames are resent, the page is printed again from the point where it left off. If one of this manufacturer's machines receives EOR, the block is printed up to the first error frame, then the line is cut.
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Protocol
SEP/PWD/SUB/SID Signals
The ITU-T recommendations were changed in 1996 to allow polling and confidential communications. Before, these could only be done between Ricoh-made terminals, using NSF/NSS. Now, these features can be used between any makers machines, using the SEP, SUB, and other new signals.
Secured Polling using SEP/PWD

SEP Signal: When the Rx terminal receives the SEP signal with the NSC or DTC signal, the Rx terminal switches over to secured polling transmission using the SEP ID. The SEP (Selective polling) signal must contain four digits as an ID. The Rx terminal automatically disconnects the line when any of the following conditions occurs (error code 0-15). When the SEP ID is other than four digits When anything other than numbers is included in the ID The communication becomes free polling when the SEP ID is 0000. PWD Signal: When the PWD (password) signal is transmitted together with the SEP signal, the PWD programmed is used as an ID code for stored ID override.
Tx
Rx
CED NSF DIS
SEP
NSC or DTC
NSS or DCS TCF
CFR
H551d501.wmf
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Protocol
Confidential ID Override using SUB/SID

SUB Signal: The SUB (sub-address) signal transmitted from the Tx terminal contains a confidential ID. A stored message can be printed using the SUB ID as confidential ID override. The SUB ID must contain four digits. The receiving terminal automatically disconnects the line when any of the following conditions occurs (error code 0-15). When the SUB ID is other than four digits When anything other than numbers is included in the ID When a confidential ID is not programmed in the Rx terminal and when the transmitted SUB ID is 0000 A stored message can be printed using the (normal) confidential ID stored in the machine when the SUB ID sent from the transmitter is 0000.
Tx Rx
CED NSF DIS
SUB
NSS or DCS TCF
CFR
H551d502.wmf
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Protocol
V.8/V.34 Protocol
Overview
New Recommendations
ITU-T modified T.30 in 1996 to include changes to protocol signaling as a result of V.8 procedure implementation. If V.8/V.34 signaling is used, ECM must also be used.
Phases Of The V.34 Procedure

The protocol procedure for a V.34 fax communication consists of 6 phases. The following explain the phases briefly. Phase 1: V.8 Sequence The calling and called terminals exchange available modulation modes (fax or data modem) and data transmission direction information, and decide a communication mode. Phase 2: Line Probing The receiving terminal determines the available bandwidth for the fax data transmission channel (known as the primary channel) based on the analysis of line probing signals sent from the transmitting terminal. This bandwidth is informed to the transmitting side as a symbol rate.
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Page 711
Protocol
Phase 3: Primary Channel Equalizer Training The receiving terminal adjusts its equalizer etc., while receiving training signals from the sender. The tx side uses the data transmission modulation parameters informed by the rx side at the end of phase 2. Phase 4: Control Channel Start-up Both terminals determine a data rate for the primary channel (in other words, for data transmission). Phase 5: Control Channel Both terminals exchange T.30 protocol signals (DIS/DCS, NSF/NSS) to determine transmission parameters (this equivalent to phases B and C of T.30 protocol) Phase 6: Primary Channel The sending terminal sends fax image data at the data rate that was determined with the receiver in phase 4. One ECM block is sent at a time. Post Message Procedure After the primary channel has finished, both terminals restart the control channel to exchange post message signals, as former fax machines do in phase E of T.30 protocol. If there is another ECM block to send, the machines then start the primary channel again, otherwise they disconnect the line.
9 August 2003
Page 712

V.8/V.34 Protocol Sequence (1 page/ 1 block)
TX
Dial Phase 1 (V.8 Procedure) 1100 Hz CNG ANSam 300 bps 300 bps CM CJ JM 300 bps 2100 Hz
Protocol
Protocol Overview This shows a one page fax transmission with no special features and no errors.
The time required for the communication (one ECM block) is approximately as follows: Until the end of phase 5: About 6 to 7 s Phase 6: About 3 s Post-message: About 2 s Total: About 11 to 12 s
RX
S S bar PP B1
TX
RX
A 1200 Hz Phase 2 (Line Probing) B A bar
2400 Hz 2400 Hz
75 ms
600 bps
INFO0c
INFO0a
600 bps
(Pix Data)
Primary Channel
1200 Hz Spectrum
B bar L1
Spectrum
L2 Turn-off
1200 Hz
A B INFOh
2400 Hz 70 ms 600 bps
Sh Sh bar 1200 bps ALT Sh Sh bar ALT 1200 bps Phase 4 (Control Ch. Restart) Phase 5 (Control Channel) Post Message
3429 33.6 31.2 28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
(Symbol Rate, etc.) 70 ms S S bar PP
Phase 3 (Primary Ch. EQ. Training)
1200 bps
E E PPSEOP Flag MCF Flag (Silence) Disconnect 1200 bps
TRN Flag DCN 70 ms PPh PPh 1200 bps 1200 bps ALT ALT MPh MPh MPh MPh 1200 bps E E NSF Flag CSI DIS NSS 1200 bps TSI DCS Flag 1200 bps
Data Rate (kbps)
Phase 4 (Control Ch. Start-up)
1's
1200 bps 1200 bps (Data Rate, etc.)
Disconnect
Symbol Rate (baud)
2400
2800
3000
3200
1200 bps
26.4 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8 2.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
31.2 28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
Phase 5 (Control Channel)
or
Flag
CFR Flag
1's (Silence) Higher Frequency 70 ms
You hear higher frequency signals in phases indicated with light gray. You hear lower frequency signals in phases indicated with dark gray.
Lower Frequency
Single-page-tx.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 713
Phase 6 (Primary Channel)
75 ms
Protocol
Basic Procedure
Phase 1: V.8 Sequence
Overview V.8 protocol establishes communication between the calling modem and the answering modem. The general communication functions and modulation modes are exchanged. The best modulation mode for the calling and answering modems is determined upon the exchange of call menu (CM) and joint menu (JM) signals. ANSam 2100Hz, amplitude modulated using 15Hz cosine wave, phase inverted every 450 ms CM (V.21L)/JM (V.21H) Full duplex Modulation mode Data direction CJ (V.21L) Phase 1 end
1100 Hz
Calling
CNG
Called
ANSam 300 bps (V.21L) 300 bps (V.21L) CM CJ JM
2100 Hz
300 bps (V.21H)
Full Duplex
Ph_1.WMF
9 August 2003
Page 714
Protocol
Signals
CNG (Call indicator) ANSam CM (Call menu signal) JM (Joint menu signal) CJ (CM terminator) Transmitted from the calling terminal to indicate the start of a communication. Amplitude-modulated, phase inverted 2100 Hz signal. Transmitted from the calling terminal primarily to indicate its available modulation modes, and to inform whether it is sending data or wishes to receive data by polling. Transmitted from the receiving terminal primarily to indicate the modulation modes available in both terminals. Acknowledges the detection of a JM signal and indicates the end of the CM signal. CJ ends this phase of the communication.
9 August 2003
Page 715
Protocol
Procedure
Calling Terminal After dialing, the machine sends CNG signal and waits for an ANSam signal. Called Terminal After ring detection, the called terminal sends ANSam signal for up to 3.2 s, while waiting for a CM signal from the calling terminal. (See the note after the table.) After CM detection, the machine sends JM, while waiting for a CJ. JM Settings
After ANSam detection, the machine sends CM, while waiting for a JM. CM settings: Normal transmission: 81 85 D4 Polling reception: A1 85 D4 After JM detection, the machine sends CJ.
Normal reception: 81 85 D4
Polling transmission: A1 85 D4
Both terminals go into phase 2 (line probing) 75 ms after CJ .
- ANSam After detecting CNG, the called terminal sends ANSam. This starts the V.8 sequence. The ANSam signal is a 2100 Hz tone signal that is amplitude modified with a 15Hz-cosine wave. Also, the signal phase of ANSam inverts every 450 ms. The frequency is the same as the CED tone. Some fax machines cannot detect the 15Hz cosine wave modulation and phase inversion, and think that ANSam is a CED tone.
9 August 2003
Page 716
Protocol
- CM, JM The exchange of CM and JM signals is next. These are sent in accordance with V.21 modulation. CM is sent with a low carrier frequency (V.21L), and JM is sent at a higher frequency (V.21H). Because of this, the CM/JM exchange is full duplex (the signals are sent at the same time, because they do not interfere with each other). Digital networks that have a sampling rate of 8 kbps cannot pass CM and JM. CM cannot reach the called terminal, so the called terminal falls back to V.17 mode. V.34 communication will not be possible. The machines inform what type of modem they have (fax modem or data modem). If a communication mode (e.g., V.34 fax communication to calling terminal to called terminal) is available at both terminals, the terminals communicate using that communication mode for the subsequent phases. If no communication mode is commonly available at both sides (for example, if a fax modem has called a data modem), both terminals disconnect the line after the JM and CM signals. The calling terminal informs whether it wants to send data or receive data. From this point, the data sender becomes the Tx terminal, and the receiver becomes the Rx terminal. Note that for polling, the calling terminal becomes the Rx terminal. The communication ends if the receiver of a polling request does not have files on polling standby.
9 August 2003
Page 717
Protocol
- CJ This signals the end of the CM/JM exchange. After 75 ms, phase 2 will begin Refer to Advanced Procedures Various V.8 Sequences for examples of various V.8 sequences. NOTE: The ITU-T recommendation for the ANSam length is 2.6 to 4.0 s. Ricoh uses 3.2 s (as of February, 1998). If no response to an ANSam signal is detected within the maximum signal duration, it is assumed that V.8 protocol is not supported, and communication takes place in accordance with recommendation T.30. Error Codes 0-70: Refer to Possible Errors Phase 1. 0-74: Refer to Possible Errors Phase 1. 0-75: Refer to Possible Errors Phase 1. 0-76: Refer to Possible Errors Phase 1. 0-77: Refer to Possible Errors Phase 1.
9 August 2003
Page 718
Protocol
Phase 2: Line Probing

Overview Phase 2 establishes the condition of the line, which decides the bandwidth available for the communication. INFO0c/INFO0a Modem capabilities Modulation parameters L1/L2 Probing tone L1>L2 (by 6dB) INFOh Symbol rate (carrier frequency) Pre-emphasis Power reduction
TX
600 bps INFO0c
RX
INFO0a A 600 bps 2400 Hz 2400 Hz
1200 Hz
A bar
1200 Hz Spectrum
B bar L1
Spectrum
L2
1200 Hz
A B INFOh
2400 Hz 600 bps
(Symbol Rate, etc.)

Ph_2.WMF
9 August 2003
Page 719
Protocol
The aim of phase 2 is to determine a set of modulation parameters that will be used in phase 6 (the primary channel) for image data transmission. Both modems exchange information about their capabilities and modulation parameters using INFO0c and INFO0a signals. Then the transmitting terminal sends L1 and L2, which are known as probing tones. These tones allow the receiving modem to analyze the network qualities, such as bandwidth and noise level. Based on its analysis of how well the network passed the probing tones, the receiving modem informs a set of modulation parameters, such as symbol rate, pre-emphasis, and power reduction, using the INFOh signal. Both modems then go into phase 3 (equalizer training) 70 ms after INFOh.
9 August 2003
Page 720
Protocol
Signals
INFO0c INFO0a B B bar A A bar L1 L2 INFOh A signal transmitted from the calling terminal to indicate its available modem capabilities and data mode modulation parameters. A signal transmitted from the receiving terminal to indicate its available modem capabilities and data mode modulation parameters. A modem control signal of 1200 Hz. The same as B, but with phase inverted. A modem control signal of 2400 Hz. The same as A, but with phase inverted. A line probing signal to analyze line characteristics. L1 is 6 dB higher than L2. This signal is used to check the amplitude distortion. A line probing signal to analyze line characteristics. This signal is used to check the amplitude distortion. A signal used by the receiving terminal to inform the results of line probing. The symbol rate is informed by this signal.
9 August 2003
Page 721
Protocol
Procedure
Sender Terminal 75 ms after the end of phase 1, the machine sends INFO0c. When the machine detects an INFO0a, it stops INFO0c and sends B and B bar tones. When the machine detects A bar, it sends line-probing signals (L1 and L2). Receiver Terminal 75 ms after the end of phase 1, the machine sends INFO0a. When the machine detects an INFO0c, it stops INFO0a and sends A and A bar tones. When the machine detects B bar, it starts waiting for line-probing signals (L1 and L2). After L2 reception has finished, the machine sends A tone again followed by INFOh signal
After L2 has finished, the machine sends B tone again. When the machine receives an INFOh signal, it stops B. Both terminals go into phase 3 (control channel start-up) 70 ms after above steps.
- INFO0c, INFO0a The two machines exchange their modem capabilities and the available modulation parameters. - A, A bar, B, B bar The two machines exchange 2400Hz and 1200Hz tones with phase reversals. V.34 provides for full duplex and half duplex modes for fax communication. In full duplex mode, these signals determine any delay to signal round trip time caused by line conditions.
Protocol
However, current fax machines use half-duplex only, so the round trip time calculation is not used. - L1, L2 The tx side transmits a series of tones, in a very short period of time, ranging from 150 Hz to 3750 Hz. These are known as probing tones. The table shows the range of frequencies that the tx side sends to the rx side in the L1 and L2 signals. As can be seen, the phase sometimes reverses. The rx side analyses how the signals are received. Based on the results, the rx side does the following: Decides the available bandwidth for data transfer, by specifying a symbol rate. The poorer the line, the narrower the bandwidth. Requests the tx side to adjust the preemphasis and power reduction parameters, so that the rx side can optimize reception across the bandwidth. The rx side informs the above to the tx side in the INFOh signal.
9 August 2003
cos (2ft + ) f (Hz) (degrees)
0 180 0 0 0 0 0 0 180 0 0
PROBING TONES.WMF
f (Hz)
150 300 450 600 750 1050 1350 1500 1650 1950 2100
(degrees)
180 0 180 0 180 180 180 180 0 0
2250 2550 2700 2850 3000 3150 3300 3450 3600 3750
Page 723
Protocol
- INFOh The receiving terminal informs the results of the line probing. 70 ms later, phase 3 begins. The results include pre-emphasis, power reduction, and symbol rate.
Symbol Rate The symbol rate is a baud rate. However, the data can be modulated in different ways using this symbol rate to achieve different data rates. If the line condition is good, a higher data rate will be selected. The data rate is selected in phase 4 (see the section on phase 4). This means that the actual data rate for fax communication has not been decided yet. The maximum data rate of 33.6 kbps is only possible if a symbol rate of 3429 can be used. ITU-T also lists 2743 as a possible symbol rate. However, at the time of writing, the two makers of V.34 modems (Panasonic, Rockwell) did not support this symbol rate. The following table and diagram show the required bandwidths for V.27, V.29, V.17, and the various V.34 symbol rates. Bandwidth is one of the important factors the modems use to select a symbol rate. As shown in the table, the faster the modulation, the wider the required bandwidth. This is because required bandwidth for a modulation depends on symbol rate and carrier frequencies.
Protocol
3674
3.5k Hz
3267 3000 2800 2600 2400 3000 3080
3500 3300
3429
3520
Modem
Symbol Rate (baud) 3429 3200
Carrier Low/High 1959/1959 Hz 1829/1920 Hz 1800/2000 Hz 1680/1867 Hz 1600/1800 Hz 1800 Hz 1700 Hz 1800 Hz 1800 Hz
Required Bandwidth (Hz) 245 - 3674 Hz 229 - 3429 Hz (L) 320 - 3520 Hz (H) 300 - 3300 Hz (L) 500 - 3500 Hz (H) 280 - 3080 Hz (L) 467 - 3267 Hz (H) 400 - 2800 Hz (L) 600 - 3000 Hz (H) 600 - 3000 Hz 500 - 2900 Hz 1000 - 2600 Hz 1200 - 2400 Hz
3k Hz
2900
V.34
2k Hz
3000 2800 2400
1200
1k Hz
1000
V.17
500 600 400 280 600 467 300 500 320 229 245
2400 2400 1600 1200
V.29 V.27 (4800) V.27 (2400)
0 V.27 V.27 (2.4k) (4.8k) V.29 V.17 V.34 (2400) V.34 (2800) V.34 (3000) V.34 (3200) V.34 (3429)
CARRIER FREQ TABLE.WMF
Other factors determining the symbol rate are signal to noise levels.
9 August 2003
Page 725
Protocol
Pre-emphasis This is a linear equalization method where the transmitted signal spectrum is shaped to compensate for attenuation distortion. Power reduction When the received signal is too strong, the rx side asks the tx side to reduce the tx level by up to 7 dB.
Error Codes 0-80: Refer to Possible Errors Line Probing and Training
9 August 2003
Page 726
Protocol
Phase 3: Primary Channel Equalizer Training

Overview The tx side sends training signals using the data transmission modulation parameters informed by the rx side at the end of phase 2. The fax data transmission channel is known as the primary channel. Tx side Sends training signals using the modulation parameters decided in INFOh. Rx side Modem equalizer training Data rate determination AGC adjustment
S S bar PP
TX
RX
TRN
Ph_3.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 727
Protocol
Signals
S, S bar PP TRN
Training signals
The receiver modem monitors the phase 3 signals and adjusts its equalizers and AGC (Automatic Gain Control). In addition, the receiving modem selects a data rate (bps) from the possible range specified by the agreed symbol rate this will be used in phase 6 (primary channel). However, at this point, the tx side still is not aware of the rate that has been decided - it is not informed until the next phase. Both modems then go into phase 4 (control channel start-up) 70 ms after TRN. Recovery Procedure If the receiving modem does not detect S within 2 seconds or if a TRN error is detected, the receiving modem goes back to the last part of phase 2 to restart sending signal A. After detection of signal B, the receiving modem sends INFOh and tries again to detect S.
9 August 2003
Page 728
Protocol
Error Codes 0-81: Refer to Possible Errors Line Probing and Training.
9 August 2003
Page 729
Protocol
Phase 4: Control Channel Start-Up

Overview The aim of control channel start-up is to decide the modulation parameters that will be used in the control and primary channels. Control channel: T.30 fax control protocol Primary channel: Fax data transmission MPh MPh from rx side determines modulation parameters Primary ch. data rate Control ch. data rate Type 0: Tx to Rx Type 1: Rx to Tx E Start of control channel
PPh PPh 1200 bps 1200 bps ALT MPh (Type 0) MPh (Type 0) 1200 bps E E Control Channel 1200 bps ALT MPh (Type 1) MPh (Type 1) 1200 bps
TX
RX
1200 bps (Data Rate, etc.)
Control Channel
Ph_4.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 730
Protocol
Signals
PPh ALT MPh PPh is a signal for control channel receiver initialization and resynchronization. A scrambled series of alternating 0s and 1s at 1200 bps. MPh contains the modulation parameters that will be used for data mode transmission, such as control channel data rate and primary channel data rate. The sender uses type 0 only., and the receiver uses type 0 or type 1. The type 1 MPh contains additional parameters to the type 0 MPh. E is a 20-bit scrambled signal to inform the beginning of the control channel (phase 5).
The sending terminal informs its of modulation parameter capabilities using a type 0 MPh signal. Using a type 0 or type 1 MPh signal, the receiver informs the set of modulation parameters that it decided while receiving training signals in phase 3. The MPh sent from the tx side is a Type 0 MPh, and from the Rx side it is a Type 0 or Type 1 MPh (mostly, it is Type 1). The Type 1 signal contains some coefficients that will be used for pre-coding (pre-coding is a non-linear equalization technique). If the initial transmission or reception data rate is changed by bit switches or dedicated tx parameters, the new setting is reported in the MPh signals. The signals in this phase use 1200 bit/s, 600 symbols/s QAM modulation.
9 August 2003
Page 731
Protocol
Procedure
Sender Terminal Receiver Terminal 70 ms after the end of phase 3, the machine After detecting a PPh from the sender, the sends PPh and ALT. machine sends PPh and ALT The machine sends MPh signals while waiting for The machine sends MPh signals while waiting MPh from the other machine. for MPh from the other machine. After detecting a MPh from the receiver, the After detecting a MPh from the sender, the machine stops MPh and sends E. machine stops MPh and sends E. Both terminals go into phase 5 (control channel).
- MPh The rx side informs the data rate that it decided as a result of phase 3. The data rate will be one of those possible with the previously agreed symbol rate (see the next page). The control channel rate is always set to 1200 bps. There is an option for 2400 bps, but it is not used at the moment. The final MPh from the rx side contains the data rate information. NOTE: 1) If the sender receives signal A while waiting for an MPh signal, it goes back to phase 2, and sends signal B and prepares to receive INFOh. 2) If either terminal fails to start up the control channel, it sends AC tone. Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up Error Recovery Using the AC Tone for details on the recovery sequence after the AC tone.
Protocol
Data Rates and Symbol Rates The above table shows the available data rates for each symbol rate. In the MPh signals, both terminals must inform a data rate that is available with the symbol rate which was decided in phase 2 (INFOh signal).
Symbol Rate (baud)
2400
2800
3000
3200
3429 33.6
28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8 Data Rate (kbps) 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8 2.4 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
31.2 28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
31.2 28.8 26.4 24.0 21.6 19.2 16.8 14.4 12.0 9.6 7.2 4.8
Error Codes 0-82: Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up/Restart. 0-84: Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up/Restart. 0-86: Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up/Restart.
Data and Symbol Rates.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 733
Protocol
Phase 5: Control Channel

Overview In the control channel, both terminals exchange T.30 protocol signals. However, the data rate is 1200 bps, as opposed to the 300 bps used with V.21 signaling. Since both terminals (modems) have determined a modulation mode and a set of modulation parameters in the previous phases, the machines do not repeat those settings in the NSF or DIS signals. 0000 is set in bits 11 to 14 of the DIS/DCS signals (initial modem rate). In this phase, a flag sequence is transmitted whenever there is no data to transmit (this applies to both Tx and Rx terminals). Silence (or the absence of flags) from the Rx side indicates the end of this phase.
1200 bps NSS or TSI DCS Flag E
TX
RX
E NSF
Flag
CSI DIS
1200 bps
Flag
CFR Flag
1's (Silence)
Ph_5.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 734
Protocol
Procedure The procedure in this phase is the same as phases B and C of T.30 protocol, except the following. The receiver terminal always responds with CFR. It never uses the training signal responses TCF and FTT. Modem type and speed are not included in the negotiated parameters. However, machine capabilities are exchanged (such as paper size, the availability of duplex printing, and so on). Both machines sends flags while they do not send data. When the tx side detects CFR, it starts to send 1's. When the rx side has detected 40 consecutive 1's, it stops flag transmission and prepares to receive fax data. When the tx side has detected silence from the other side, it starts the next phase
9 August 2003
Page 735
Protocol
Phase 6: Primary Channel

Overview
S, S bar, PP B1 Training signals A signal to inform the beginning of user data.
S S bar PP B1
TX
RX
The primary channel is used for image data communication. It uses the data rate which was determined in phase 4 (MPh) and the symbol rate that was specified in phase 2 (INFOh). One primary channel contains one ECM block. If a page is split into two blocks, it requires two primary channels to be transmitted. (Refer to Multi-page Control for details on how this is done.) Note that it is split up into ECM blocks, not pages.
(Fax Data)
Primary Channel
Turn-off
Ph_6.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 736
Protocol
An ITU-T chart takes about 3 seconds. This is from the S signal to the turn-off. Group 4 is also specified as 3 seconds for one ITU-T #1 chart, but the resolution is different. V.34 Group 3: Standard resolution 8 x 3.85 dots/mm Group 4: Detail resolution 200 x 200 dpi Group 4 sends twice as much image data in the same time. Error Code 0-87: Refer to Possible Errors Primary Channel.
9 August 2003
Page 737
Protocol
Control Channel Restart

Overview After an ECM block has been sent, the control channel restarts so that the terminals can exchange post-message signals. Signals
Sh, Sh bar Training signals, similar to S and S bar, but sent using the control channel modulation PPh is a sequence for control channel receiver initialization and resynchronization. This is used instead of Sh if a change in modulation parameters is desired for the next page. A scrambled series of alternating 0s and 1s at 1200 bps E is a 20-bit scrambled sequence of 1s at 1200 bps to signal the beginning of control channel data.
1200 bps Sh Sh bar ALT Sh Sh bar ALT 1200 bps E E Control Channel 1200 bps 1200 bps
TX
RX
PPh
Control Channel
PH_4_RESTART.WMF
ALT E
9 August 2003
Page 738
Protocol
This phase is similar to phase 4. The signals are similar to phase 4, except instead of using a PPh MPh sequence, an Sh sequence is used. During control channel restart, either terminal can request a change in the data rate. In such cases, the requesting terminal will send PPh instead of Sh, and MPh will be used to decide the new data rates for the next block of fax data. NOTE: Also, if an error occurs during control channel restart, a PPh MPh sequence is used instead of Sh. Procedure
Sender Terminal Receiver Terminal 70 ms after the end of phase 6, the After detecting a Sh from the sender, the machine sends Sh, Sh bar, and ALT. machine sends Sh, Sh bar, and ALT After detecting a Sh bar from the receiver, After detecting a Sh bar from the sender, the machine stops ALT and sends E. the machine stops ALT and sends E. Both terminals go into the post message procedure (control channel).
NOTE: If the sender receives signal A while waiting for an MPh signal, it goes back to phase 2, and sends signal B and prepares to receive INFOh. Error Codes 0-83: Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up/Restart. 0-85: Refer to Possible Errors Control Channel Start-up/Restart.
9 August 2003
Page 739
Protocol
Post Message Procedure (Control Channel)

Overview This phase is similar to phase 5. In this phase, both terminals use the control channel to exchange T.30 end-of-page or end-of-message signals (T.30 phase E protocol). Data communication errors are reported using ECM protocol, and retransmission of parts with errors is requested. When the sender detects silence, it stops sending the closing 1s and disconnects the line.
E PPSEOP Flag DCN 1's E Flag MCF Flag (Silence)
TX
RX
Ph_5_Post_Message.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 740
Protocol
Procedure Procedure in this phase is the same as phase E of T.30 protocol, except the following. Both machines sends flags while they do not send data. When the receiving terminal detects 40 consecutive 1s, it stops flag transmission. If there were errors, there is a PPS PPR exchange in accordance with T.30 ECM protocol, then the error frames are resent in the primary channel. Then the control channel is restarted and the line is disconnected (or the next ECM block prepared for). If there are no more ECM blocks to send, the sender terminal transmits DCN. Then the receiver stops flag transmission and disconnects the line. For the multi-block transmission sequences, using PPS-MPS and PPS-EOM, refer to Advanced Procedures Multi-page Control.
9 August 2003
Page 741
Protocol
Advanced Procedures
Various V.8 Sequences
Non-V.8 to V.8 TX RX The called V.8 terminal transmits ANSam until the 1100 Hz CNG Timeout 2100 Hz timer expires, then falls back to V.17 to transmit 3.2 sec NSF/CSI/DIS. ANSam max. The calling side (non-V.8) thinks that ANSam is NSF V.8 available CED, and waits for NSF/DIS as usual for T.30 CSI procedure. DIS V.8 available When the called side cannot detect JM in reply to NSS TSI ANSam within 3.2 s, it drops back to V.17/T.30 DCS and sends NSF/CSI/DIS. NOTE: The ANSam timeout can be anything Ph_1 (non-V8 to V8).WMF from 2.6 s to 4.0 s. Ricoh has decided on 3.2 s as a result of various evaluation and compatibility tests.
9 August 2003
Page 742
Protocol
If the calling terminal has a communication record for the receiver using AI short protocol, the communication can step down to V.17/T.30 more quickly. The Tx side sends an 800Hz tone immediately after detecting 2100Hz. The called V.8 terminal then stops ANSam to receive NSS(A), which follows immediately. NOTE: The machine needs 0.4 s to detect 2100Hz.
TX
1100 Hz CNG
400 ms min.
RX
2100 Hz ANSam
800 Hz NSS(A)
Ph_1 (AI to V8).WMF
V.8 to Non-V.8 The calling side checks the 2100Hz signal for amplitude modulation and phase inversion to see if it is an ANSam. If the calling side cannot detect ANSam within 2 s, it falls back to V.17 and waits for an NSF or DIS signal. NOTE: The machine needs 0.4 s to detect 2100Hz, then waits for 2 more seconds (2.4 s in total) while trying to detect ANSam characteristics (such as phase reversals).
1100 Hz CNG
TX
RX
2100 Hz about 2.4 s CED NSF CSI DIS
ANSam not detected.
NSS
TSI DCS
Ph_1 (V8 to non-V8).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 743
Protocol
If the calling V.8 terminal has a communication record for the receiver using AI short protocol, the communication can step down to V.17/T.30 more quickly. The calling V.8 terminal sends an 800Hz tone 500 ms after 2100Hz detection, instead of after 2 seconds. NOTE: The machine needs 0.4 s to detect 2100Hz, then waits for 0.5 more seconds (0.9 s in total) while trying to detect ANSam characteristics.
TX
1100 Hz CNG 900 ms ANSam not detected. 800 Hz NSS(A)
RX
2100 Hz CED
Ph_1 (V8 AI to non-V8).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 744
Protocol
Manual Tx (Non-V.8 to V.8) Manual transmission from a non-V.8 terminal is the same as former T.30 protocol.
TX RX
ANSam NSF CSI DIS CNG V.8 available T4 timer NSF CSI DIS NSS TSI DCS V.8 available 2100 Hz
Start
1100 Hz
PH_1 (MANUAL TX TO V8).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 745
Protocol
Manual Tx (V.8 to V.8) The calling side misses the first ANSam and the communication drops out of V.8 mode to V.17. However, if the calling side detects that V.8 is available (the V.8 bit in NSF/DIS is on), it asks the called side to restart V.8 from the beginning with a CI (Call Initiation) signal. NOTE: As of February 1998, Ricoh V.34 fax machines do not support V.8 in manual transmission. Fax machines from other manufacturers may support this sequence.
Start CNG
TX
RX
ANSam NSF CSI DIS T4 timer NSF CSI DIS
V.8 available
CI CM CJ ANSam JM
V.8 available V.8 restart
PH_1 (MANUAL TX V8).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 746
Protocol
Manual Rx (Non-V.8 to V.8) This is the same as non-V.8 to V.8 fax communication (described earlier) Immediately after the operator at the called side presses Start, the called side sends ANSam for 3.2 s, then drops back to V.17 communication because there is no V.8 response from the caller. NOTE: 1) The ITU-T recommendation of the ANSam length is 2.6 to 4.0 s. Ricoh uses 3.2 s (as of February 1998). 2) V.8 sequence in manual reception is a machine specific function (as of February 1998). Refer to the machines service manual for the availability of V.8 in manual reception
TX
CNG Start CNG 3.2 sec max. ANSam NSF CSI DIS NSS TSI DCS Timeout
RX
PH_1 (MANUAL RX NON-V8).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 747
Protocol
Manual Rx (V.8 to V.8) Immediately after the operator at the called side presses Start, the called side sends ANSam. The calling side immediately sends CM if it is a V.8 terminal, and V.8 signalling can continue. NOTE: V.8 sequence in manual reception is a machine specific function (as of February 1998). Refer to the machines service manual for the availability of this function.
TX
CNG
RX
Start CNG ANSam CM CJ JM
PH_1 (MANUAL RX V8).WMF
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Page 748
Protocol
Polling
In phase 1, the calling terminal uses the CM signal to indicate polling reception, and the receiving terminal acknowledges it in the JM signal. Then the direction of communication is reversed (the called side becomes a transmitter and the calling side becomes a receiver). In phase 2, the called terminal (sender) transmits line-probing signals, L1 and L2, and the calling terminal (receiver) transmits INFOh. All other signals go in the same direction as normal V.34 communication. In phases 3 and 6, the data goes from the called terminal to the calling terminal. Note that polling is the only fax feature to be informed in phase 1. All the others (confidential tx, etc.) are informed in phase 5. If polling with ID is to be used, this is informed in phase 5.
Dial CNG ANSam CM CJ JM
RX
INFO0c B B bar
TX
INFO0a A A bar L1 L2 Spectrum Spectrum
B INFOh (Symbol Rate, etc.) S S bar PP TRN

Polling.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 749
Protocol
Multi-Page Control
Strictly speaking, this is multi-ECM-block control, as each primary channel transmission sends one ECM block. If a page requires more than one ECM block, it will be divided into two primary channels. PPS-MPS If the sender does not want to use new settings for the next block, it sends PPS-MPS in the control channel. The receiver then responds with MCF or PPR (see below). Then, both terminals close the control channel restart phase. Then, the Tx side restarts the primary channel.. - MCF (Message Confirmation) If the receiver received previous the ECM block completely (with no errors), it sends MCF. Image data in the next primary channel will be the next ECM block. - PPR (Partial Page Request) If the receiver did not receive the previous ECM block completely, it sends PPR. Image data in the next primary channel will be retransmitted error frames from the same ECM block.
9 August 2003
TX
Primary (Fax Data) Channel Turn-off Sh Sh bar ALT E PPSMPS Flag 1's
RX
Sh Sh ba ALT E Flag MCF Flag
S S bar PP B1 (Next page) Primary Channel

P t (PPS MPS) WMF
Page 750
Protocol
PPS-EOM If the sender terminal has another block and wants to change the settings, it sends PPS-EOM in the control channel. The receiver then responds to the sender with either of the following. - MCF (Message Confirmation) If the receiver received the previous ECM block completely, it sends MCF. After the T2 timer (6 s) expires, the receiver sends T.30 phase B signals (NSF/DIS) to exchange new communication settings again. The following procedure is the same as phase 5. Image data in the next primary channel will be the next block. - PPR (Partial Page Request) NSS
TX
Primary (Pix Data) Channel Turn-off Sh Sh bar ALT E PPSEOM
RX
Sh Sh bar ALT E Flag MCF Flag

6s timeout
Flag
NSF CSI DIS Flag CFR Flag
If the receiver did not receive the previous ECM block completely, it sends PPR. The receiver then goes back to the primary channel to resend the error frames. There is no change of communication settings at this time.
or
TSI DCS Flag 1's
(Silence)
Primary channel (Phase 6)

Post message (PPS-EOM).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 751
Protocol
Data Rate Change Request

Overview According to ITU-T recommendations, either the sender or the receiver can initiate a rate change request in the control channel restart phase using a PPh MPh sequence, during a communication. However, the recommendation does not specify any request conditions. So, the conditions depend on each manufacturer. NOTE: This section explains how either terminal requests a rate change, but does not explain request conditions. Refer to the machines service manual for the condition in which the machine requests a rate change.
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Protocol
Request from Receiving Terminal This is an example of a one-step shift-down request from the receiving terminal due to several partial page requests (there were a lot of errors in the received data). The sender restarts the control channel using an Sh sequence. Then, the receiver responds to it with PPh instead of an Sh. This signifies that a rate change request is coming up. The sender can then start a PPh MPh sequence. The MPh signals from the rx side determine the new data rate. Both terminals then exchange modulation parameters again to decide a new data rate for the next primary channel. The new rate must be available using the same symbol rate as the previous data rate. (The line conditions have not been tested again with L1 and L2, so it is unsafe to try a wider bandwidth.)
TX
Fax Data Primary (e.g., 33.6kbps) Channel Turn-off Sh Sh bar ALT PPh ALT MPh MPh E PPSMPS Flag 1's S S bar PP B1 Fax Data Primary (e.g., 31.2kbps) Channel
RX
PPh ALT MPh MPh E Flag PPR Flag Rate change request
RATE CHANGE (RX TO TX).WMF
9 August 2003
Page 753
Protocol
Request from Sending Terminal This is an example of a one-step shift-up request from the sender terminal. The sender restarts the control channel using a PPh sequence instead of an Sh. Then, the receiver responds to it with PPh, which enables the sender to start a PPh MPh sequence as both terminals did in phase 4. Both terminals then exchange modulation parameters again to decide a new data rate for the next primary channel. The new rate may be higher or lower, depending on how previous blocks were received. It must be available using the same symbol rate.
TX
Fax Data Primary (e.g., 19.2kbps) Channel Turn-off PPh ALT Rate change request MPh MPh E PPSMPS Flag 1's S S bar PP B1 Fax Data Primary (e.g., 21.6kbps) Channel
RX
PPh ALT MPh MPh E Flag MCF Flag
RATE CHANGE (TX TO RX) WMF
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Page 754
Protocol
Possible Errors
Phase 1 (V.8)
Error Code 0-70 NOTE: This error code can be generated by either the calling or called terminal. If the communication modes specified in CM and JM do not match, both terminals disconnect the line after the V.8 sequence. This error can occur in the following cases. A V.34 fax terminal called a V.34 data terminal, or vice versa. (JM = C1 05 10 10 for a data terminal) The calling terminal requested polling reception, but the called terminal did not have a polling transmission file (or document).
Calling
CNG
Called
ANSam CM CJ JM
Hang up
0-70.wmf
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Page 755
Protocol
Error Code 0-74 NOTE: This error code can be generated by the calling terminal only. Because the calling terminal could not receive the first ANSam, or the called terminal could not receive CM, the called terminal fell back to T.30 mode. After detecting in the NSF or DIS signal that V.8 is enabled, the calling terminal transmitted CI (Call Initiation) to restart the V.8 sequence. But, the called terminal could not detect CI signals, and finally the calling terminal also fell back to T.30 mode. CM, CJ and CI signals from the sender use V.21(L) modulation. If the network cannot pass these signals, this problem could occur.
Calling CNG
Called
ANSam DIS CI ANSam DIS T.30 Fallback DCS TCF V.8 Available V.8 Available
CI
0-74.wmf
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Page 756
Protocol
Error Code 0-75 (ANSam Timeout) NOTE: This error code can be generated by the called terminal only. The called terminal restarted the V.8 sequence after receiving a CI signal. However, it could not detect a response to ANSam within 3.2 s. As a result, the called terminal then transmits NSF and DIS using T.30/V.17, signalling that V.8 is disabled. The receiver may have a problem detecting ANSam, or the network may have a problem transferring ANSam.
Calling CNG
Called
ANSam DIS CI ANSam DIS DCS TCF ANSam Timeout T.30 Fallback V.8 Not Available V.8 Available
0-75.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 757
Protocol
Error Code 0-76 (CM Timeout) NOTE: This error code can be generated by the calling terminal only. The calling terminal sent CM in response to ANSam, but it could not detect a JM within 3 s, so it fell back to V.17/T.30 mode. The receiver may have a problem detecting CM, or the network may have a problem transferring V.21(L) signals.
CM Timeout T.30 Fallback
Calling CNG
Called
ANSam CM JM DIS DCS TCF

0-76.wmf
V.8 Available
9 August 2003
Page 758
Protocol
Calling CNG ANSam CM JM JM Timeout T.30 Fallback V.8 Not Available Called
Error Code 0-77 (JM Timeout) NOTE: This error code can be generated by the called terminal only. The called terminal sent JM in response to CM, but it could not receive CJ within 3 s, so it fell back to V.17/T.30 mode.
DIS DCS TCF
0-77.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 759
Protocol
Line Probing and Training

Error Code 0-80 (Phase 2 Timeout) The line probing sequence was not completed within 35 s from the start of phase 2. Error Code 0-81 (Phase 3 Timeout) Equalizer training was not completed within 35 s after the start of phase 3. In phase 3, if the rx level has almost reached the 20dBm threshold for ACG to switch on, the modem adjusts the gain control to amplify the signal. But the resulting rx level may become too high for rx to continue. So, phase 3 cannot be completed, and the process goes back to the end of phase 2. There is an A - B exchange, and the rx side sends INFOh and goes back to phase 3. But the same error occurs again, and we are stuck in a loop. A protocol dump list shows repeated INFOh signals. Error code 0-81 prevents this repetitive cycle. To solve the problem, the tx level at the sender should be increased by 1 or 2 dB.
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600 bps
TX
INFO0c
RX
INFO0a A 600 bps 2400 Hz 2400 Hz
1200 Hz
A bar
1200 Hz Spectrum Spectrum
B bar L1 L2
1200 Hz
A B INFOh
2400 Hz 600 bps
(Symbol Rate, etc.)
Page 760
Protocol
Control Channel Start-up/Restart

Error Code 0-82 The sender terminal could not start the control channel within 10 s, or the receiver terminal could not start the control channel within 35 s. A relatively low signal reception level or a high signal-to-noise ratio could cause this problem. Normally, this occurs at the receiving terminal. If this occurred, check the reception level using technical data print on the TCR/Journal, and ask the sender to adjust the signal transmission level.
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Protocol
Error Code 0-83 The sender terminal could not restart the control channel within 10 s, or the receiver terminal could not restart the control channel within 11 to 35 s. The timer setting for Rx depends on the data rate and data re-send status. A relatively lower signal reception level or a high signal-to-noise ratio could cause this problem. Normally, this occurs at the receiving terminal. If this occurred, check the reception level using technical data print on the TCR/Journal, and ask the sender to adjust the signal transmission level. Error Code 0-84 The modem did not finish transmitting a signal within 10 s (during phase 4 control channel startup). Try switching the machine off/on to reset the modem. Upgrading the modem's firmware may be necessary in some cases. Error Code 0-85 The modem did not finish transmitting a signal within 10 s (during control channel restart). Try switching the machine off/on to reset the modem. Upgrading the modem's firmware may be necessary in some cases.
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Protocol
Error Code 0-86 The other terminal specified a data rate that is not supported by the current symbol rate. The other terminal is not behaving in accordance with V.8/V.34 standards.
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Protocol
Error Recovery using AC Tone If one of the modems could not detect a response to the control channel restart signals, it can send an AC tone to ask the other modem restart the control channel. In the example diagram, the tx side could not detect control channel signals, so it sends AC. If the other modem detects an AC tone for more than 100 ms, it responds with a PPh ALT MPh sequence even in the control channel restart phase (normally, an Sh sequence is used in the restart phase, not PPh). If there is no PPh in response to the AC tone, the AC tone transmitter disconnects the line. If AC tone is frequent to (or from) a certain terminal, adjust the transmission level or equalizer settings. The AC tone may occur on noisy lines.
PPh ALT MPh MPh E Control Channel MPh MPh E Control Channel
TX
Sh Sh bar
No response
RX
Sh Sh bar ALT
ALT
AC
more than 100 ms

Control channel retrain
PPh ALT
AC TONE WMF
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Page 764
Protocol
Primary Channel
Error Code 0-87 NOTE: This error code is generated by the receiving terminal. If the rx side cannot receive primary channel data (fax data), it drops back into the control channel and waits for control channel signals (Sh or PPh) from the sender. This error could have been a temporary carrier drop, for example. When the control channel restarts, the rx side requests all frames to be sent again in the PPR signal. Note that the rx side may receive all the frames properly after this, but error code 0-87 is still generated.
Flag 1's
TX
RX
CFR Flag (Silence)
(Fax Data) Primary Channel
No data received
Control channel Turn-off Sh Sh bar ALT E PPS-Q Flag Sh Sh bar ALT E Flag PPR Flag
0-87.wmf
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Protocol
Error Code 0-88 When nine PPRs have been sent back to the tx side within the same ECM block, the line is disconnected. PPS-Q means any of the PPS signals (such as PPSEOP, PPS-MPS, and PPS-NULL). It is standard notation for T.30 ECM protocol. NOTE: Line disconnection after nine PPRs is a Ricoh-specific function. N eor = No. of PPRs before EOR is sent.
Neor
TX
RX
Neor
9 (default)
9 (default) Fax data PPS-Q 8 Fax data PPS-Q 7 Fax data PPS-Q 6
PPR
PPR
PPR
Fax data PPS-Q 0 EOR-Q DCN PPR DCN

0-88.wmf
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Faxing From a PC
Faxing From a PC
Fax Modems
Overview
This section deals with boards installed in fax machines to allow a fax application package on a PC to send a fax through the fax machine to the telephone line. EIA/TIA (Electronic Industries Association/Telecommunications Industry Association) has two modem standards for PCs to interface with fax machines. These are known as Class 1 and Class 2. Class 1 is a bare-bones standard, providing just enough support to allow a PC to send a fax. Class 2 adds a wide range of modem commands based on the Hayes modem signaling standards. These commands are known as AT commands (AT is short for Attention).
AT Commands
The AT commands that are implemented depend on the model.
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Faxing From a PC
Internet/LAN Fax Boards

Overview
What is an Internet fax?
If a fax machine contains a network interface board and is connected to a LAN, the machine can send faxes over the Internet as well as using PSTN G3. This section explains how a fax machine can send fax messages to PCs and fax machines over a LAN or the Internet. An Internet fax machine is also known as a NIC Fax or an IFAX. Using the Internet for faxing can reduce telephone line charges and paper consumption. The drawing outlines some of the network operations that a typical Internet fax can support (see the next page for an explanation).
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Japan
G3 Fax Machine
011-1-212-555-3456#8888 name@abcd.com
USA
PSTN
NIC Fax
Laser Printer
Router
Server
03-3123-4567
nicfax@abcd. com nicfax@abcd.com
Ethernet
nicfax@abcd. com Personal Code 8888 = name@abcd.com
NIC Fax
Router
name@abcd.com
nicfax@xyz.co.jp
Laser Printer Server
Ethernet
Internet
Paper Paper
Paper PC display
H132V551.WMF
Page 768
Faxing From a PC
The NIC Fax at nicfax@xyz.co.jp can send a G3 fax message to a G3 fax machine inside Japan (at the top of the diagram), by dialing a telephone number. The NIC Fax can also send a fax message over the Internet by specifying an e-mail address (nicfax@abcd.com) instead of the telephone number. The NIC fax can also send the message to a PC (name@abcd.com). Depending on the type of protocol used for reception, the received message will be either: Stored in the network server at the remote end, until the PC picks it up (this is reception using POP or IMAP) Sent to the destination directly without being stored in a server at the receiving end (this is reception using SMTP)
How is it done? Protocol and Standards

IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) and ITU-T have standardized procedures for sending fax messages over the Internet as e-mail attachments. The message is sent as a TIFF-F format image file attached to a MIME format e-mail message. (Some older models can also send DCX image files, depending on a user setting). To receive a fax by e-mail, a MIME-compatible mail reader is needed. To view the fax, a TIFF-F viewer is needed. (For some models, the viewer should also be able to view DCX files.) The NIC fax must be connected to a LAN and set up correctly in order to use Internet fax functions. There is no need to set up a special server. Existing servers on the LAN can be used. TCP/IP
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Faxing From a PC
protocol is used. There must be an SMTP server to send mail, and either a POP3, IMAP4, or DNS server to receive mail. For people that do not have servers, the H535 model has an optional PDU unit that allows the mail transmission and reception to be done using servers at the Internet Service Provider. Software installed on the PC (such as a Web Browser) can be used to check the settings and status of a NIC fax from a PC.
Limitations An Internet fax does not contact the other party directly when sending a fax by e-mail. It only communicates with the local server, which passes the message through the network to a server at the other end, and the remote terminal picks it up from the server.
Except for errors during SMTP procedures, information about errors during e-mail communication will not be fed back to the sending Internet fax. Users have to confirm with the other end that important messages have got through. Users are recommended not to send confidential material over the Internet. The level of security for Internet communications is low. The Internet can get congested at times. If the message is time sensitive, use PSTN G3. Voice communications are not supported over a LAN. The next few sections explain in outline what functions are available with an Internet fax. They will be explained in more detail after sections describing some basics concerning e-mail and networks.
Faxing From a PC
LAN Fax
G3 Fax Machine PC Fax Application
name@abcd.com
G3 F a
x Mes
sage
PSTN
NIC Fax
G Me 3 Fa ssa x ge
PC to Fax Machine
NIC Fax
H132V552.WMF
The PC can use a fax application send a G3 fax message to G3 and Internet destinations through the Internet fax (also known as a NIC fax). Internet transmission is not shown in the diagram, but it can be done.
Faxing From a PC
The NIC fax will then send the fax message to the destination, which could be either a PSTN G3 fax or an e-mail address. Points to note about this feature are: When sending a fax using the Internet, the receiving party can be another Internet fax or a computer. The user inputs an e-mail address as the destination instead of a telephone number. Received faxes can be sent directly to a PC by e-mail. Fax messages can be sent from any PC (by e-mail or by Group 3 PSTN) on the same network as the fax machine. (The machine is like a shared fax modem, with G3 PSTN and Internet capability.) No paper is required at the transmitting side. Software required on the PC depends on the model
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Faxing From a PC
IP Fax
This feature allows you use TCP/IP to communicate with fax machines. The other party can be on the same TCP/IP network as your machine, or it can be on the Internet anywhere in the world. It can also be on a PSTN, if your intranet has a Gateway to interface with the PSTN. No e-mail server is required (compare with internet fax). Use the IP address (or host name) to dial the destination machine, instead of the fax number. If there is a Gatekeeper on your intranet, you can use the alias number stored in the gatekeeper. The gatekeeper stores a look up table of alias fax numbers and actual IP addresses.
Faxing From a PC
Autorouting
G3 Fax Machine
SUB Code: 8888 name1 @abcd.com name2 @abcd.com
G3 Fa
xM
ess a
ge
Laser Printer
PSTN
NIC Fax
G Me 3 Fa ss x ag e
Server
Personal Code 8888 = name1@abcd.com Personal Code 5555 = name2@abcd.com SUB Code: 5555
Fax Machine to PC
NIC Fax
H132V555.WMF
The NIC fax routes incoming fax messages to client PCs on the same network, using the code included in the SUB signal.
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Faxing From a PC
1. The sender must specify a code when sending a fax message. This code is transmitted using the SUB protocol signal (see Protocol for more details on this signal). 2. Personal codes must be stored in the receiving NIC fax in advance, and associated with e-mail addresses on the same LAN. To do this, the machine uses the SUB code that is received, and the Personal Box and Transfer Box features. Personal Box: If the code in the received SUB signal specifies a Personal Box, the NIC fax routes the incoming message to the address that is stored with that Personal Box. Example: In the above diagram, if a received message has a SUB code of 5555, it is forwarded to name2@abcd.com Transfer Box: If the code in the received SUB signal specifies a Transfer Box, the NIC fax routes the incoming message to all the addresses that are stored with that Transfer Box. 3. The client PC receives the fax as an e-mail message with an image file attached. If a machine cannot send a SUB code, the Forwarding feature must be used for that machine (this is the next feature to be described). Advantages of this are: Fax messages are delivered directly to the mail server for the client PC to pick up. No paper is used.
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Faxing From a PC
Forwarding
G3 Fax Machine
TSI: 1234 name1@abcd.com name2@abcd.com
PSTN
NIC Fax
Server
Laser Printer
Forwarding by TSI: For 1234, send to name1@abcd.com Forwarding by RTI: For FRED, send to name2@abcd.com
RTI: FRED
G3 Fax Machine
Fax Machine to PC
H132V556.WMF
The NIC fax routes incoming fax messages to client PCs on the same network, based on the contents of the RTI or TSI. In this way, a message from a certain sender can always be forwarded to a certain location.
Faxing From a PC
1. The sender must have a TSI or RTI programmed. 2. RTIs and TSIs of expected senders must be stored in the receiving NIC fax in advance, and associated with e-mail addresses on the same LAN. If the received RTI or TSI is the same as one of those stored, the NIC fax routes the incoming message to the associated address. Example: In the above diagram, if a received message has an RTI of FRED, it is forwarded to name2@abcd.com 3. The client PC receives the fax as an e-mail message with an image file attached. Advantages of this are: No SUB code is required for forwarding (some machines cannot send SUB codes). Fax messages are delivered directly to the mail server for the client PC to pick up. No paper is used.
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Faxing From a PC
Internet Fax (Paper to Paper)
USA
Ethernet
fax1@abcd.com
NIC Fax
Router
NIC Fax
To: fax1@abcd.com
Router
Ethernet
Internet
Japan
H132V557.WMF
1. Instead of a PSTN telephone number, an e-mail address is specified when sending a fax message. 2. The fax message goes through the Internet to the receiver, and is printed.
Faxing From a PC
NOTE: The time required to send a fax over the Internet depends on the traffic conditions at the time of transmission. Also, the sending machine has no way to know whether the message arrived intact at the other end. The advantage of this is that it is cost-saving.
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Faxing From a PC
Internet Fax (Paper to PC)
USA
name@abcd.com
Ethernet NIC Fax

NIC Fax
To: name@abcd.com
fax1@abcd.com
Router
Router
Server
Ethernet
Laser Printer
Internet
Japan
H132V558.WMF
1. An e-mail address is specified when sending a fax message. 2. An e-mail message is sent to the client PC with the fax message attached.
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Faxing From a PC
The PC must have: E-mail software to pick up the e-mail from the server A TIFF-F or DCX file viewer to read the image The advantages of this are: Cost-saving No paper is used
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Faxing From a PC
Transfer Request through the Internet
USA
G3 Fax Machine
206-936-1234 PSTN
Ethernet
NIC Fax
To: Quick Dial 01 stored in fax1@abcd.com

Router
NIC Fax (Transfer Station)

fax1@abcd.com Quick dial #01= 206-936-1234
Router
Ethernet
Internet
Japan
H132V559.WMF
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Faxing From a PC
A fax message can be transferred over the Internet and then forwarded to a G3 facsimile, using the NIC fax as a transfer station. 1. The sender specifies the end receivers using the quick dials, speed dials, and group dials that are stored in the transfer station. 2. The fax message is sent to the transfer station over the Internet and the LAN at the remote location. Then it is transferred to the destination over the local PSTN. It can also be transferred by e-mail over a LAN or the internet, if the transfer station is a NIC fax. This saves costs for long-distance communications.
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Faxing From a PC
LAN Basics
Before we look at Internet fax features in more detail, it is important to know a bit about Local Area Networks (LANs) and e-mail. This section will deal with LANs, and the following section will deal with e-mail.
LAN Configurations
Overview A LAN (Local Area Network) links computers within an installation such as a building or factory. It consists of communications hardware such as interface boards and cables, and software for the computers that are to be connected. Basic Types The following three configurations are available for linking computers. The different wiring configurations are often referred to as topologies With all three topologies, signals sent from one computer go to all other computers. An address is included at the start of the data so that it is ignored by all computers except the destination.
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Faxing From a PC
Bus Configuration One central cable is installed, with computers connected to it in branch fashion. All data is sent via the central cable. Network Topology
a) Bus Connection
H132X501.WMF
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Faxing From a PC
Star Configuration A central hub is used, with computers connected around it. All data is sent from the central hub.
b) Star Connection
H132X502.WMF
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Faxing From a PC
Ring Configuration Computers are connected in a ring.

c) Ring Connection
H132X503.WMF
Because the data sent by one computer reaches all the others, only one computer may send data at any one time, or there will be a collision of data on the circuit. If one computer continues sending data, it will occupy the LAN to the exclusion of all others. To prevent this problem, data is limited to a length of a few kbytes. These small units of data are referred to as packets or 'frames'.
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Faxing From a PC
Avoiding Data Collision

Collisions occur when data is sent from a number of computers simultaneously. Two methods are employed to prevent this. (a) The computers detect whether there is any data on the LAN, and only send when the LAN is free. There are several ways to do this. A typical method is CSMA/CD, which is used with Ethernet applications. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sensing Multiple Access/Collision Detection) A method by which multiple computers have access to the transmission route (referred to as multiple access). The computers monitor the transmission route for data (carrier sensing), and send data if none is currently being sent. If a data collision is detected, the data is resent after a randomly determined wait time. (b) Token passing, in which collision of data is avoided before the event. Tokens ensure that the data only goes to the intended computer. The various connection configurations and ways of avoiding data collision have resulted in a number of different types of LANs. The different types are incompatible when directly connected to each other, thus requiring the use of relay devices.
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Faxing From a PC
Main LAN Types and Their Characteristics

Type Cable Transmission connection speed configuration Bus Bus Star Star Ring and star Daisy chain 10 Mbits/s 10 Mbits/s 10 Mbits/s 4 Mbits/s or 16 Mbits/s 100 Mbits/s 230 kbits/s Cables Access control (collision avoidance) CSMA/CD Remarks
10Base-5 Ethernet 10Base-2 10Base-T Token ring FDDI Local Talk
Thick coaxial Thin coaxial Twisted-pair Twisted-pair Optical fiber, twisted-pair Twisted-pair
The original Ethernet configuration A simplified CSMA/CD version of 10Base-5 Currently the CSMA/CD main type in use IBM standard Token passing LAN Token Used primarily appending for trunk lines Fitted as Proprietary standard to Macintosh PCs
* The NIC fax uses 10Base-T.
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Faxing From a PC
Ethernet
Overview Ethernet is currently the commonly-used LAN. It was originally developed by DEC, Intel, and Xerox. The original Ethernet standard incorporated what is now known as the 10Base-5 specialized Ethernet coaxial cable. The IEEE802.2 standard was based on the Ethernet standard. Specifications for hardware components such as cables, were revised. IEEE802.3 was then developed for use with media other than 10Base-5. 10Base-2, 10Base-F, and the most widely used 10Base-T, were subsequently developed. In contrast to the Ethernet standard data transfer speed of 10 Mbps, IEEE802.3 allows data transfer at speeds between 1 and 20 Mbps.
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Faxing From a PC
Ethernet Frame Structure Ethernet frames consist of the addresses of the source and destination computers, an identifier for the type of protocol used, the data, and finally the FCS (which is used to check whether or not the data has been correctly sent and received). Compare the Ethernet frame type and the IEEE802.3 frame type in the following diagram.
Ethernet frame Data (46 ~ 1,500 octets) Frame Type (2 octets) Source Address (6 octets) Destination Address (6 octets) IEEE802.3 frame LLC Frame (Data, 46 ~ 1,500 octets) LLC Data Length (2 octets) Source Address (6 octets) Destination Address (6 octets) FCS (4 octets)
H132X551.WMF
FCS (4 octets)
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FCS (Frame Check Sequence): A CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) is employed to check whether or not the received data is correct. The receiving device (receiving node) reconstitutes the FCS from the received data. If it does not match the sent FCS, that frame is discarded as corrupted. Identifier: Indicates the type of data that follows. The identifier is referenced by the receiving node to determine the type of protocol used to send the data. Octet: A unit employed to indicate network data size. 1 octet is 8 bits (1 byte). The term is used to make a clear division into 8-bit units from a continuous stream of 1s and 0s with no inherent division into bytes. LLC (Logical Link Control): The name of the data frame defined in IEEE802.3. Node A computer or printer connected to the network.
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MAC Addresses To allow each node in the network to communicate with others, it must have a unique identifier. In the Ethernet standard, a 48-bit address known as the MAC (Media Access Control) address is assigned to each computer. Each data frame contains the MAC addresses of the source and destination computers. The MAC address is a fixed physical address that is set on the network card. It is six bytes in length for the Ethernet standard. The first three bytes are a header code which is controlled and allocated by the IEEE, and the last three bytes are a code independently controlled with each header (to prevent duplication). This ensures that the physical address of each Ethernet card is unique. Under the Ethernet standard, frames are sent and received using these addresses (see Ethernet Frame Structure).
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LAN Hardware
Overview The basic LAN configuration consists of four hardware items. Interface boards - also known as LAN boards or Network Interface Cards (NICs): Convert digital data into electrical signals, prevent data collision, and transmit data on cables Cables: Primarily unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and optical fiber cables Hubs: Distribute signals Relay devices: Connect LANs for the transmission of data to remote locations LAN devices are regulated by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) standards. In addition to hardware, the following types of software are also needed. Transmission protocol software that can transmit data via a variety of relay devices Applications (database, e-mail), to provide the data in a format usable by the operator
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Relay Devices Relay devices are required to expand LANs. These devices do the following. Extending the Connection Distance LANs allow high-speed transmission of data, achieved by sending high frequency signals over the cables. High frequency signals are considerably attenuated when transmitted over the cables, and signal waveforms are easily distorted, resulting in difficulties when transmitting over long distances (the maximum distance for transmission using twisted-pair cables to connect the hub and terminals with 10Base-T is 100m). When expanding a LAN, relay devices are used to amplify the attenuated signals. Distorted signals are first converted back to digital format and regenerated to remove the distortion. To cover even more remote locations, telecommunications companies provide dedicated lines, PSTN lines, and ISDN lines for connection to remote LANs.
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Connection between Networks of Different Standards As the types of cable used, and the signal and data format differ between different LAN systems, such systems cannot be connected directly. When a LAN system has to be connected to a different system, a relay device that can convert between the two systems is employed. Conversion between different LAN systems involves first converting the signals back to digital format, and resending them in a format appropriate for the destination LAN. Control of High-speed Transmission Routes As the network grows, the number of connected computers increases, and so does the volume of data transmitted. There is a limit to the amount of data that can be transmitted on the network. When this is exceeded, the flow of data is impeded and communications are no longer possible. There are a number of ways to increase the speed of data transmission on a LAN. A high-speed LAN may be used to prevent network congestion when the amount of data to be transmitted is large. When connecting LANs of different transmission speeds, relay devices are required that can convert between the two LAN types. By-pass circuits may be installed when connecting LANs with relay devices. When there is a complex web-like interconnection of networks, there are a number of routes to the destination, so that busy parts of the network can be by-passed.
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Filtering There are also relay devices that can check the data on the network and remove all except that which is necessary. This is referred to as 'filtering'. Controls which pass only specific protocols (used for the transmission of data and voice between terminals on networks such as TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, AppleTalk) are used to alleviate congestion in the relay circuits. As the number of users increases, the network is used for greater variety of purposes, resulting in the entry of data through illegal access. Relay devices to limit access and to maintain security become necessary.
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Types of Relay Devices and Gateways

Relay devices may be of various types - repeaters, bridges, switches, routers - depending upon their purpose and principles of operation. Types of Relay Devices and their Functions
Function Cable extension Connection with remote sites Connection with different LAN types Avoiding congestion Restricting access Repeater Bridge Switch Router
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Repeaters A repeater amplifies signals. It is normally connected to a number of LANs, and amplifies signals from one LAN (one segment) and outputs it to another LAN (another segment). It is considerably cheaper than a bridge or router, and does not require special setup. After power is switched on, the repeater connects to the two networks. As distortion occurs when signals are amplified, the number of repeaters is limited to two with Ethernet. Repeaters have no ability to store data, and are unable to prevent collisions when sending signals. Therefore, they have no effect on relieving congestion in a network.
Signal Becomes weaker
LAN Repeater Amplifies the signal
LAN
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Bridges In the same way as a repeater, a bridge converts received electrical signals back to digital format, and then regenerates the original electrical signals for transmission, thus preventing signal distortion. Bridges can also filter out unnecessary data, and can act to alleviate congestion on the network. The bridge records the source MAC address in the header of the arriving data packets. In this way, the bridge builds up a picture of the location of each node (PC and printer). In the example shown below, data sent from A to B also reaches the bridge. The bridge automatically records this data and remembers that A is located in the left-hand segment. When data is subsequently sent from B to A the bridge does not relay it to the right-hand segment. This process is referred to as filtering. The bridge does not require special setup. After power is switched on, the bridge connects to the two networks.
A B C
A B A B
Signals to node B are not transferred to the right-hand side.
Bridge
A C A C Left Side A B Right Side C Signals to node C are transferred to the right-hand side.
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Switches Switches have the same filtering function as bridges, however they also support simultaneous connection of multiple LANs, and allow parallel relaying. Relay processing time is reduced in comparison to bridges, and operation is therefore faster.
Switch
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Routers A router checks the destination information in the headers of the data packets on the network and determines which LAN it has to be sent to. The router contains a table which records the destinations.
Data going to LAN segment A is transferred to the upper route. Data going to LAN segments B or E is transferred to the left-hand route. Data going to LAN segments C or D is transferred to the right-hand route. A B C D E Up Left Right Right Left
A Router B Router Router
Router E
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In contrast to repeaters and bridges, simply switching power on and connecting to the networks does not make ready the router for operation. Software appropriate for the communications protocol must first be installed, the network configuration checked, and the setup completed. While filtering with bridges is implemented primarily by the checking of addresses, filtering with a router is implemented by the communications protocol. Depending upon the application protocol, the router may be set to pass e-mail data, but not to transfer files. Routers support considerably more sophisticated functions than bridges. For example, they may be set up to allow high priority data to be passed more quickly (priority control). Different LAN types have different formats for the destinations. The router makes sure that the destination is in the correct format for the next network. When there are multiple routes to the destination, bridges and switches cannot be employed to reduce congestion since the data is sent via all routes. Routers, on the other hand, employ a number of routes set beforehand in accordance with the amount of data to distribute the load throughout the network (while bridges divide up the network with MAC addresses, routers achieve this, in the case of a TCP/IP protocol, by analyzing IP addresses and sub-nets). The router is a device central to the configuration of the network, and as such router functions are implemented in software in PC LAN servers and UNIX machines.
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NOTE: In the NIC fax, the device setting the IP address as the default gateway is in practice a default router. When data is sent from the network belonging to the local machine to other networks, the device at the exit from the network is referred to as the default router. Gateways While repeaters, bridges, and routers are available as dedicated hardware for network use, gateways are available as server and client software packages. They analyze all network communications protocols, and convert data, thus allowing connection of different networks. The Netware Gateway Service supplied with the Windows NT Server is an example of this software.
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Network Protocols
Overview Network protocols are standard procedures for transmitting data over a network. There are different protocols for different stages of the communication. Data Transmission Data is sent using the following procedures. (1) Finding the destination (2) Determining the route to the destination (3) Sending the data A number of protocols must be used in combination in order to execute each procedure. The TCP/IP protocol used with the Internet, the Netware IPX/SPX protocol, and the Macintosh AppleTalk protocol, are combinations of protocols designed to achieve various specific procedures. Protocols used for steps (1), (2), and (3) listed above are referred to as (1) the name service protocol, (2) the routing protocol, and (3) the transfer protocol respectively.
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The roles of the protocols
Target PC
Transfer protocol
Network
Name Server Directory Server Router
Routing protocol
Name service protocol Sending PC
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Name Service Protocol A computer name is normally assigned to the computer. However, for the purposes of transmitting data, the name is converted to an address indicating its location on the network. The name service protocol provides lists of all names when the destination computer name is unknown. The address is an identifier used in distinguishing between terminals and nodes on the network. The most common addresses are IP addresses and MAC addresses. An IP address consists of a network address (to identify the network to which the terminal belongs) and a host address (to identify the terminal within the same network), both of which are set by the user. A MAC address is registered in the memory of the network interface board by the manufacturer. Each MAC address is unique (no two are alike throughout the world). Routing Protocol The routing protocol is used in determining the route used to transmit the data. A preset network route may be necessary, or it may be determined automatically by communication between routers. If relay devices are to be added or moved, it is convenient to have a method of automatically determining new routes. The routing protocol provides this ability.
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Transfer Protocol The transfer protocol is used in the transmission of data. It first checks for errors in the received data, and resends it if an error is detected. It also controls the rate at which data is transmitted, by communication between the source and destination. In addition to these basic protocols, there are also various other protocols which provide for notification of network congestion, notification of errors, and so on.
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Protocols Used with Different LAN Types

Name Service Protocol
Protocols used with the Internet (TCP/IP) Protocols used with Netware (IPX/SPX) Protocols used with Macintosh (AppleTalk) DNS SAP NDS NBP ZIP
Routing Protocol
RIP OSPF RIP NLSP RTMP
Transfer Protocol IP TCP UDP IPX SPX DDP ASP
DNS: Domain Name Service RIP: Routing Information Protocol OSPF: Open Shortest Path First IP: Internet Protocol TCP: Transmission Control Protocol UDP: User Datagram Protocol SAP: Service Advertisement Protocol NDS: NetWare Directory Service
NLSP: NetWare Link State Protocol IPX: Internetwork Packet Exchange SPX: Sequenced Packet Exchange NBP: Name Binding Protocol ZIP: Zone Information Protocol RTMP: Routing Table Maintenance Protocol DDP: Datagram Delivery Protocol ASP: AppleTalk Session Protocol
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TCP/IP
Overview TCP/IP is the standard Internet protocol, and is supported as a standard by Windows 95. It allocates 32-bit network addresses (IP addresses) to the nodes. As the addressing system does not depend upon physical media, TCP/IP provides for considerable flexibility in selection of routes. The use of TCP/IP is not limited to Ethernet, but allows use of a variety of physical media. TCP/IP is a combination of the TCP protocol and IP protocol. Communications with IP protocol The IP protocol divides data into packets. When the destinations may be on several different LANs, the router selects the appropriate route for each packet before it is sent. This process is repeated until all data arrives at the destination network.
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IP Address Communications with IP protocol requires that network devices such as PCs and routers using TCP/IP be assigned a 32-bit IP address as a means of identification. When used in a single closed network, the IP addresses (referred to as private addresses in this case) may be used freely. However, when connected to the Internet, global addresses which are unique throughout the world must be used. Global addresses are managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), and are assigned upon receipt of an IP address. IP Address Format IP addresses are 32 bits in length, and are normally converted to decimal notation in four 8-bit blocks as shown below. Example of IP Address Notation 133. 139. 212. 11 Host portion (16 bits) Network portion (16 bits) The IP address consists of host and network blocks as shown above. The network block represents a logical collection of hosts (a network), and the host block specifies a unique host within the network.
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In the example above, a maximum of 65,534 (the maximum number of combinations of 16 bits) hosts may be allocated to that particular network block. As TCP/IP involves the routing of packets using the address in this network block, the network block must be unique (no two can be alike throughout the world). On the other hand, the address within the host block is up to the user. Subnet and Subnet Masks Subnet masks divide the host block into sub-nets. In the example above, there are 65,534 possible host addresses, and it is difficult to manage all with one network. The host address block is therefore subdivided into the upper and lower 8 bits, with the upper 8 bits handled as a logical group address. In this way, the IP addresses assigned to a company for its networks can be divided up into sub-nets of about 250 hosts for ease of management (each department of the company can be allocated a different logical group number, for example). Example: Sub-net 133. 139. 212. 11 1 ~ 254 ... 254 hosts Logical group Host block (8-bit)
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The final part of the IP address (the host block) cannot be 0 or 255. The dividing is done using a parameter known as the subnet mask. The subnet mask blocks off addresses, only permitting certain addresses to be used in a subnet. A logical AND operation is done using the subnet mask to find the range of allowed sub-net addresses. If your computer has the IP address 210.145.159.11, and the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, the server can recognize that machines with an IP address of 210.145.159.* are on the same LAN, so messages are sent to it directly. Any IP address with a different value at the start has to be accessed through a router. The following diagram shows how the AND operation can be used to limit the size of the subnet to a few IP addresses.
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IP address and Subnet mask IP Address (4 octets) 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 210 Subnet mask 28 bits 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 255 255 Logical Network Address
14 hosts are available The address "0000" and "1111" cannot be used
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145
159
11
255
240
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TCP and UDP While data is formatted into packets and sent to the desired node on the Internet using IP, communications applications (eg e-mail) do not control data transmission in packets. The host requires a procedure for passing IP packets to the desired application. This requirement is satisfied with TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
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E-Mail Basics
Principles
Overview Electronic mail (E-mail) is a system by which messages in the form of digital data are sent and received between computers. A variety of types of electronic mail are available - Internet e-mail, Microsoft Mail as used with the exchange client under Windows95, and Lotus Notes Mail. E-mail works as follows. Messages are stored at some location. Users generally have equal privileges, and are able to both send and receive messages. A telephone system requires that users are able talk to each other simultaneously. In the case of email, the user first receives the message, and may then read it at any time, and send a reply if necessary.
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Sending And Receiving E-mail generally supports the following functions. A UA (User Agent) for creating e-mail and displaying received mail. An MTA (Message Transfer Agent) to handle transfer of messages. The mail created by the sending UA is sent from the sending MTA to the receiving MTA, and displayed by the receiving UA.
User Agent Message Transfer Agent
Message Transfer Agent
User Agent
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The simplest e-mail system is one in which messages are stored at a location accessible by all users. Each user has his/her own mailbox, and the sender puts messages in the recipients mailbox. The recipient checks his/her mailbox to receive mail.
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The mailboxes are normally at one location, often referred to as a post office, and the process of sending e-mail approximates that of sending mail at the post office. When the post office is accessible from all computers connected to the network, the system constitutes an e-mail system. Microsoft Mail as used in Windows95, and Lotus Cc: Mail employ this system, as does the UNIX local mail system (i.e., not connected to the Internet, etc.). E-Mail Networks As the number of users increases, and geographically distant users are connected to the network, multiple post offices must be established, and users are no longer able to use the same post office for sending and receiving mail. A system which connects post offices for the purpose of exchanging mail (a transfer system) then becomes necessary. In this case, the destination of mail is checked at the post office, separated into the various destination post offices, and passed it to the transfer system. The transfer system then communicates with the transfer systems of other post offices, and transfers the mail to the appropriate post offices. Mail sent from other post offices is sorted into the appropriate mailboxes at the receiving post office. The above is a general description of an e-mail system. These functions are implemented with the exchange server software packages for Microsoft Mail and CC: Mail using optional gateway software. The fundamental principles of Internet mail are the same, and are implemented in the UNIX SendMail program under UNIX.
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The following diagram shows what happens when somebody sends mail from a PC to a receiver with an account in the same post office and to a receiver with an account in another post office. Machines A and B both have accounts in mail server 1. Machine C has an account in mail server 2. When machine A sends the message, it goes to the local mail server using SMTP protocol. SMTP is based on TCP/IP. The post office transfers the message to receiver Bs mail box. Receiver B picks the mail up from there, using POP procedures (POP is also based on TCP/IP). To get to receiver C, the server sends the mail to mail server 2, using SMTP procedures. Mail server 2 puts the incoming mail into receiver Cs mail box. Receiver C picks it up using POP procedures.
SMTP Procedures SMTP Procedures
Receiver C Client mail software
POP Procedures
Sender A Client mail software
POP Procedures
Mail server 2
Mail server 1
Receiver B Client mail software
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SMTP and POP are both procedures for Internet mail based on TCP/IP. If there is no SMTP server on the LAN, the fax machine cannot send e-mail. If there is no POP server on the LAN,
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the fax machine cannot receive e-mail. Some more detail on SMTP and POP follow later in this section.
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Internet Mail
Overview Internet e-mail (hereafter referred to as Internet mail) is a system for creating text messages in accordance with a set of standards, the messages then being sent to destinations using SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). NOTE: SMTP is a protocol for sending and receiving mail as defined in RFC821. It was originally developed for sending and receiving mail between servers. However it is currently used for sending mail from client environments using POP (Post Office Protocol discussed in a separate section). Character Codes Messages consist of a header and the main text, both being subject to restrictions on usable character codes. Specifications for data exchanged on the Internet are determined within the organization of the Internet, and do not necessarily conform to ISO (International Standards Organization) requirements. However, these organizations have codified these specifications to the extent that they are now the default standards organizations. For example, the main text of a message created Japanese using JIS character codes must satisfy a particular set of requirements for transmission on the Internet. However, if it is to be sent on a
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network within a particular company, the unique requirements of that system may mean that the JIS codes are not always used. Message Address Notation The UA attaches the required header to the main text and sends it to the MTA. The MTA then adds to or changes the header as required to ensure that the message transfer route is recorded, and that the addresses of the destination and sender are correct. Internet mail employs an 'address' to specify the message destination. The address format is generally as follows. user name @ domain name The mailbox name is generally employed as the user name. The MTA uses the domain name to check the destination IP address with the DNS, and then sends the mail using SMTP. NOTE: DNS (Domain Name System) is a service which enables the IP address to be obtained from the host name under the TCP/IP network environment.
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DNS and Domains The IP address allows destinations within the Internet to be identified. This IP address is, however, a string of numbers not easily remembered by the user. To resolve this problem, a corresponding name is added so that the user need only specify the name in order to identify the destination. DNS was developed for this purpose. Internet domain names are distributed among organizations in a hierarchical manner, with lower order domains being managed by the higher order domain. All organizations participating in the Internet have a domain name. The domain name first identifies countries, and is subsequently further divided in a tree structure to identify organizations. The name server (DNS server) located in each domain holds the information about the domains and hosts under its management. When the client communicates using a host name or domain name, an inquiry is made to the DNS to obtain the destination IP address. Note that this domain name structure is independent of the physical structure of the network. The items in brackets below are examples of domain and mail addresses.
bbb DNS model aaa
(jp domain)
ccc
(co domain)
ddd
fff eee
(ricoh domain)
ggg
host-1
host-2 host-2.eee.ccc.aaa (f64g@ricoh. co. jp)
host-3
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Internet Fax and DNS A NIC fax can use the Domain Names for the SMTP and POP3/IMAP4 server instead of the actual IP addresses, if there is a DNS server on the same LAN as the SMTP server, POP3/IMAP4 server, and the NIC fax. If the NIC fax does not support DNS, the user must input the actual IP addresses of the SMTP and POP3/IMAP4 servers. Transfer Of Incoming Mail In some cases, incoming mail may be transferred to another server using SMTP and then stored on another mail server. The UA used by the user receiving this mail detects its arrival (e.g., by monitoring the contents of the directory designated to contain mail) and informs the user. The UA then extracts the mail in accordance with instructions from the user and displays it. The mail stored on the server is transferred to the user's PC using POP.
E-mail transration name@aaa. ccc. ddd
user name domain name
DNS DNS
MTA
SMTP
MTA SMTP
MTA
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The mail address consists of a host name (mailbox name) and domain name. Mail is distributed by first finding the IP address of the destination with the DNS, and then transferring the message using SMTP. 1. The mail destination within the relevant domain is checked using the domain portion of the mail address. 2. The MTA then connects to the destination mail server using the mail address thus obtained. 3. The mail is transferred to the destination MTA using SMTP. 4. Depending upon the size of the organization, the message may be further transferred to an internal MTA (not visible from outside the domain). NOTE: POP (Post Office Protocol) is a protocol used to read the content of the mail spooler using TCP/IP protocol. It is specified in RFC1725 (see a later section for more details). Verifying Incoming Mail Arrival of mail at the intended destination on the Internet is not guaranteed. In the worst case, it may disappear at some unknown location. Furthermore, it is impossible to verify whether sent mail has been read or not. Mail sent on the Internet passes through multiple servers and networks, and computers used within the Internet are of a variety of architectures. The network therefore contains a wide variety of hardware environments, in addition to the wide variety of software employed for mail transfer. While there are no problems in most cases, it is obvious that arrival of mail cannot be completely guaranteed within this complex environment.
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Message headers
Requests for Comments The basic protocols used for transmission of messages on the Internet are defined in RFC822. RFC822 primarily defines the header information for e-mail, with the details of the main text of the message being defined in MIME (RFC2045 - 2047). NOTE: 1) An RFC (Request For Comments) is a document formally released by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IETF has released a wide variety of RFCs on technical matters (e.g., network protocols) related to the Internet environment. 2) MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a protocol which removed such restrictions as the number of characters per line, and the maximum size of an e-mail transmission. It also made possible the transmission of non-character data (e.g., programs and bitmaps). Header Format The header of an e-mail message consists of a header and the main text. A blank line is inserted between this header and the main text (the blank line is not included in the header). The header is defined as a collection of fields, with the field format as follows. field name : content
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An example of the To field, indicating the destination, is as follows. To:XXX@ricoh.com Header Example:
Received: from F64G.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp ([133.139.167.30]) by bb.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp (4.1/2.8Wb-91Jan07) id AA15193; Sun, 15 Feb 98 14:53:50 JST Return-Path: <f64g@shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp> Message-Id: <9802150553.AA15193@bb.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp> Date: 15 Feb 1998 14:54:06 +0900 X-Mailer: ICFAX Version 1.0 Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary = --ICFAX_60670AE6CB-- To: hanako@shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp From: f64g@shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp Subject: Fax Message NO.0003 from +81454771786 (RICOH SERVICE)
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Header Types While a number of header fields are possible, the following three must be present. Date From To Message Header Table (fields defined in RFC822)
Field
Date Person submitting mail
Field name
Date From Sender Reply-To
Meaning Date that the mail was created Person submitting mail
Person sending mail Destination when a reply is sent Mail destination Destination of carbon copy
Description Date and time in specified format Syntax: <address> Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address>
Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address> Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address> Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address> Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address>
Address To Cc
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Group 3 Fax Communication Field

Address
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Field name
Bcc Message-Id In-Reply-To References Keywords Subject Comments Encrypted ReturnPath
Reference
Other
Meaning Destination addressees not covered by To and CC Message ID Source of reply Referenced mail Keywords for search purposes Mail title (summary) Mail comment Encryption algorithm specification Route for return of mail
Transfer record added by MTA Fields defined by user
Description Mail address (including comments) Syntax: <address>

Message identification Message ID of original mail Message ID of referenced mail Any character string Any character string Any character string Defined word (defined in separate RFC) Mail address Describes transfer destination, transfer source, and protocol etc with From, By, With, etc Field names beginning with X-. May be any character string, definition is up to the user.
Route Received
User defined
* Other fields are available defined by separate RFCs (e.g., MIME).
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Fields for Sending E-Mail - From Field The From field indicates the person sending the mail. The difference between the From and Sender fields is that between the person creating the message and the person actually sending the message. These two fields are used when the two differ. When the From field is omitted, the Sender field is added automatically. When a error occurs, a error notification is sent to the destination in the Sender field. When the Sender field has been omitted, the notification is sent to the destination in the From field. Fields containing mail addresses may also include real names as a comment (the same applies to the Person Sending Mail and Addressee fields). In both cases below , IC FAX is handled as a comment, and f64g@ricoh.com is recognized as the address. Example 1 From: IC FAX <f64g@ricoh.com> Example 2 From: f64g@ricoh.com (IC FAX) Multiple mail addresses may be delineated by commas, and both address formats may be used together. - Reply-To Field Reply-To clearly specifies the address to which the reply is to be sent. As this field may be omitted, it is possible that mail may be sent with this field blank. In such cases, the mail is returned to the address in the From field.
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When both the From and Reply-To fields are used, the latter has priority. The Return-Path field appears to have a similar function at first glance. However it is not for return of mail, but is automatically added by the transfer system to specify the person submitting the mail, and is used to investigate the mail route when an error occurs. Addressee Fields - To Field The To field specifies the addressee for the mail. As with the From field, multiple mail addresses may be delineated with commas. The To field differs from the Cc field in that only the name of the person sending the message is specified. - CC Field Mail is sent to the addresses in the Cc (carbon copy) field in the same way as to the address in the To field. The difference only with the To field is whether the name is in the To field or the Cc field of the received mail. - BCC Field Bcc means Blind Carbon Copy. The Bcc field is deleted in mail sent to the addressees in the To and Cc fields. It is most commonly used when the address of the person sending the mail (the user in the From field) is to be entered in order to leave a copy of the sent mail. As some mail software saves a copy of the sent mail, it may not be possible to specify the Bcc field in some cases.
Faxing From a PC
Exceptions The addressee fields do not always contain the addressees name when mail is received. This is because since the actual addressee for the mail is specified by the MTA, when an alias is used to create a virtual addressee (in a local system, for example), the virtual address remains in the To field. This also occurs in cases such as mailing lists in which mail is sent to all on the mailing list. NOTE: 1) An alias is a group address. Mail sent to the group address is sent to all members in the group. 2) A mailing list is a form of electronic conference using e-mail. E-mail sent to a mailing list is transferred to each member of the list. As such, it provides the same service as available with a PC-based centralized host-type bulletin board system in a distributed network environment. Date The Date field indicates the date on which the mail was created (not the date it was sent). The date is in the following format. Day, date month year hour: minute: second zone Zone indicates the local time used in the system in which the mail was created, and is expressed as GMT+/-hhmm.
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Miscellaneous - Received Field The Received field is used by the MTA sending the mail, to record the status of the mail. This field shows the route over which the mail was sent, and the computers which handled it prior to delivery. In addition to information showing when and where the mail originated, and where it was sent to, some systems add further information (e.g., host IP address, software version) as a comment. - Message-ID Field Internet mail adds an internationally unique message ID. This ID is created automatically, and is normally a combination of the time the message was sent and the name of the mail server.
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SMTP
Overview SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used as the protocol for communication between Internet mail MTAs. It is defined in RFC821, which covers 8-bit data communications and message size negotiation, etc. SMTP is expanded upon in RFC1651 and RFC1653 as ESMTP. SMTP uses text-based commands and responses between the client and server. In practice, it is a protocol used under TCP/IP, and data is therefore sent and received under TCP. Retry processing with communications errors is therefore handled at the TCP/IP level, and SMTP therefore needs only to handle sending and receiving of data, and command errors.
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SMTP Commands SMTP commands are sent, and responses received, between the client and server when sending Internet mail. This communication involves sending of the domain name, sender's name, destination name, and main text etc to the server, and user verification.
SMTP Procedures SMTP Procedures
Receiver C Client mail software
POP Procedures
Sender A Client mail software
POP Procedures
Mail server 2
Mail server 1
Receiver B Client mail software
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POP
Overview E-mail on the Internet was originally transferred between hosts using SMTP, with the computer receiving the mail being operated all day long under the control of SMTP. In practice, the use of dial-up IP connections to connect to the mail server via telephone lines, and the fact that the power supply may be switched off when the user returns home in the case of PC clients, means that mail cannot be transferred until the user connects to the server. POP (Post Office Protocol) servers are used in such cases, i.e., when the connection is not permanently established. Pop Server Configuration The POP server is a computer which receives user mail using SMTP. The mail for the user includes a setting to ensure that it is directed to the POP server. Following connection to the Internet, the user receives e-mail directed to the server with POP procedures. As with SMTP, POP is text-based, and as such sends command lines and receives responses, as well as sending instructions for user identification by clients, transmission of passwords, acquisition of mail, and deletion of mail on the server.
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MIME
Overview Audio messages and image files cannot be sent without further processing, if mail is restricted solely to characters. MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) is a specification for the inclusion of various types of data in e-mail, and currently supported by almost all e-mail software for attachment of files. MIME is defined in RFCs 2045 - 2049. Mime Functions MIME supports the following functions. Inclusion of multiple objects in e-mail. other than text, each able to be handled at the receiving end. Binary encoding. Insertion of non-ASCII code characters (eg names in Japanese) in the header. As MIME is a set of conventions which dictate how the main text of the message is to be handled, it employs a character string, referred to as the MIME header, to specify the content and method of encoding used, and to identify whether or not MIME is used in the mail. Mime Header
Faxing From a PC
Messages using MIME contain a header field as follows. MIME-Version: 1.0 The use or not of this field determines whether or not the main text of the message follows the MIME conventions. Currently, only Version 1.0 of MIME exists. MIME Header
Header MIME-Version Content-Type Format MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: Type/Subtype [;parameter] Content-Transfer- Encoding method used when sending Content-Transfer-Encoding: Encoding data Encodingtype Content-ID A unique data ID. Uses the message ID. Content-ID: Message ID ContentData description Content-Description: Description This is MIME Data ContentMIME header for future expansion Meaning Indicates that the message uses MIME Message data type
[Content-Type] is added to the header to indicate that a message is in MIME format. The [ContentTransfer-Encoding] header is also added as necessary to indicate how the data has been encoded. As some types of data do not require encoding, the [Content-Transfer-Encoding] header is not always required.
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The [Content-Description] header is used when including comments. The content of this header is interpreted as comments referring to the content of the message, and has no effect on operation of the software. Data Types Supported with Mime The following data types may be specified in the [Content-Type] header. Text: Information consisting of characters. The ISO-2022-JP character code set is used in Japan, while US-ASCII is used for ASCII codes. Image: Still images such as GIF and JPEG data. Audio: Audio information. Video: Digital animation such as animation and MPEG. Application: Various application files and standard data formats. Multipart: Main text which includes multiple objects. A MIME header is also added within the message to record other messages. Use of this data type allows sound, animation, and messages to be included in the same e-mail message. Message: Text message information.
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Multipart Multipart is a data type which allows inclusion of multiple data items (objects). It allows for the inclusion of text and attached files in messages, and is the most commonly used type. Multipart indicates the inclusion of multiple parts (data) in the main text, while the Contents-Type header indicates how the individual parts are handled. Multipart supports the following sub-types to indicate the relationship between the individual parts. Mixed: The message consists of multiple independent parts. Alternative: The message consists of multiple parts of the same content, but in different format. Parallel: The message consists of multiple parts which are reproduced and displayed simultaneously. Digest: A collection of RFC822-format messages in digest format.
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Example: Received Multipart Mail Header

Received: from f64g.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp ([133.139.167.30]) by bb.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp (4.1/2.8Wb-91Jan07) id AA15193; Sun, 15 Feb 98 14:53:50 JST Return-Path: <f64g@shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp> Message-Id: <9802150553.AA15193@bb.shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp> Date: 15 Feb 1998 14:54:06 +0900 X-Mailer: ICFAX Version 1.0 Mime-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/mixed; boundary = --ICFAX_60670AE6CB-- To: taro@shinyoko.ricoh.co. From: f64g@shinyoko.ricoh.co.jp Subject: Fax Message NO.0003 from +81454771786 (RICOH SERVICE) text message here ----ICFAX_60670AE6CB-Content-Type: image/tiff; name = FAX.TIF Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64 Content-Discription: FAX.TIF
Mail header
Part header
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SUkqAAgAAAARAP4ABAABAAAAAgAAAAABBAABAAAAwAYAAAEBBAABAAAAggQAAAIBAwABAAAAA QAAAAMBAwABAAAAAwAAAAYBAwABAAAAAAAAAAoBAwABAAAAAgAAABEBBAABAAAA6gAAABUBA wABAAAAAQAAABYBBAABAAAAggQAABcBBAABAAAA7FwAABoBBQABAAAA2gAAABsBBQABAAAA4gA AACQBBAABAAAABAAAACgBAwABAAAAAgAAACkBAwACAAAAAAABADEBAgAEAAAAICAgIAAAAADIA AAAAQAAAGQAAAABAAAAAICWUG1JAYCWUG1JAYA6XQlVNAqxa5L5Sa8AgEktODg4IWwuCCGOPMJQp VUFgSUU0risFhyDBBMRXPRSM0czZRVlJhLoRid2yafCjODgCNYmUCHEpR8AgEmxOC7H5ThDwcdZLzHXqpfk 9bOjWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZA YCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBgLJZA YCyWQGAslkBgLJZAYCyWQGAslkBAA== ----ICFAX_60670AE6CB----
A Multipart message contains multiple parts, with the strings which delineate these parts being specified with the boundary parameter. Each part is delineated with --boundary_string and the final part is indicated with --boundary_string--
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Binary Data Encoding The binary data must be encoded as character strings in order to insert a binary file into a text message. In Internet mail, non-ASCII data such as single-byte Katakana in Japanese is not sent correctly. This encoding method is indicated in the [Content-Transfer-Encoding] field in the MIME header. The following encoding methods may be specified in the [Content-Transfer-Encoding] field. 7-bit: 7-bit code (8th not used) 8-bit: Full 8 bits used Binary: Binary data Base64: Encoding of binary data in base64 notation Quoted Printable: Encoding of character subject binary data Of the above, only 7-bit, Quoted Printable, and Base64 are normally used with e-mail. Other encoding methods cannot be used unless they are supported over the network.
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BASE 64 Base 64 is commonly supported in e-mail application software for the transmission of binary data. This method of encoding takes each six bits of the original binary data and converts it to numbers between 0 and 63, each of these numbers being assigned to one of 64 characters (26 upper case characters of the alphabet, 26 lower case characters of the alphabet, the numbers 0~9, and the + and / symbols). Now that we have covered e-mail basics, we can look at some of the features of an Internet fax in more detail. All examples are taken from the Internet fax option for model H551. This following sections show how the fax machine communicates with other terminals using G3 and e-mail.
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Mail Protocol
SMTP Commands
Command HELO (Hello) Syntax
HELO <domain>
Responses
MAIL (Mail)
S:250 <domain> E:500,501,421 This command is used to identify the sender-SMTP to the receiver-SMTP. The argument field contains the host name of the sender-SMTP. The receiver-SMTP identifies itself to the sender-SMTP in the connection greeting reply, and in the response to this command. This command and an OK reply to it confirm that both the sender-SMTP and the receiverSMTP are in the initial state, that is, there is no transaction in progress and all state tables and buffers are cleared. MAIL FROM:<reverse-path> S:250 F:552, 451, 452 This command tells the SMTP-receiver that a new mail transaction is starting and to reset all its state tables and buffers, including any recipients or mail data. It gives the reverse-path which can be used to report errors. If accepted, the receiver-SMTP returns a 250 OK reply. The <reverse-path> can contain more than just a mailbox. The <reverse-path> is a reverse source routing list of hosts and source mailbox. The first host in the <reverse-path> should be the host sending this command.
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command RCPT (Recipient) Syntax RCPT TO:<forward-path>
Faxing From a PC
Responses S:250, 251 F:550, 551, 552, 553, 450, 451, 452 E:500,501,503 This command gives a forward-path identifying one recipient. If accepted, the receiver-SMTP returns a 250 OK reply, and stores the forward-path. If the recipient is unknown the receiverSMTP returns a 550 Failure reply. This second step of the procedure can be repeated any number of times. The <forward-path> can contain more than just a mailbox. The <forward-path> is a source routing list of hosts and the destination mailbox. The first host in the <forward-path> should be the host receiving this command.
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command DATA (Data) Syntax
Faxing From a PC
DATA
Responses I:354 F:451, 554 E:500, 501, 503, 421 after transmitting data; S:250 F:552, 554, 451, 452 If accepted, the receiver-SMTP returns a 354 Intermediate reply and considers all succeeding lines to be the message text. When the end of text is received and stored the SMTP-receiver sends a 250 OK reply. Since the mail data is sent on the transmission channel the end of the mail data must be indicated so that the command and reply dialog can be resumed. SMTP indicates the end of the mail data by sending a line containing only a period. A transparency procedure is used to prevent this from interfering with the user's text.
NOTE: The mail data includes the memo header items such as Date, Subject, To, Cc, From [2].
The end of mail data indicator also confirms the mail transaction and tells the receiver-SMTP to now process the stored recipients and mail data. If accepted, the receiver-SMTP returns a 250 OK reply. The DATA command should fail only if the mail transaction was incomplete (for example, no recipients), or if resources are not available.
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command SEND (Send) Syntax SEND FROM:<reverse-path>
Faxing From a PC
SOML (Send or mail)
SAML (Send and mail)
Responses S:250 F:552, 451, 452 E:500, 501, 502, 421 The SEND command requires that the mail data be delivered to the user's terminal. If the user is not active (or not accepting terminal messages) on the host a 450 reply may returned to a RCPT command. The mail transaction is successful if the message is delivered the terminal. SOML FROM:<reverse-path> S:250 F:552, 451, 452 E:500, 501, 502, 421 The Send Or Mail command requires that the mail data be delivered to the user's terminal if the user is active (and accepting terminal messages) on the host. If the user is not active (or not accepting terminal messages) then the mail data is entered into the user's mailbox. The mail transaction is successful if the message is delivered either to the terminal or the mailbox. SAML FROM:<reverse-path> S:250 F:552, 451, 452 E:500, 501, 502, 421 The Send And Mail command requires that the mail data be delivered to the user's terminal if the user is active (and accepting terminal messages) on the host. In any case the mail data is entered into the user's mailbox. The mail transaction is successful if the message is delivered the mailbox.
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command RSET (Reset) Syntax
Faxing From a PC
VRFY (Verify)
EXPN (Expand)
Responses S:250 E:500, 501, 504, 421 This command specifies that the current mail transaction is to be aborted. Any stored sender, recipients, and mail data must be discarded, and all buffers and state tables cleared. The receiver must send an OK reply. VRFY <user name> S:250, 251 <full name of user> F:550, 551, 533 E: 500, 501, 502, 504, 421 This command asks the receiver to confirm that the argument identifies a user. If it is a user name, the full name of the user (if known) and the fully specified mailbox are returned. This command has no effect on any of the reverse-path buffer, the forward-path buffer, or the mail data buffer. EXPN <mailing list> S:250 F:550 E: 500, 501, 502, 504, 421 This command asks the receiver to confirm that the argument identifies a mailing list, and if so, to return the membership of that list. The full name of the users (if known) and the fully specified mailboxes are returned in a multiline reply. This command has no effect on any of the reverse-path buffer, the forward-path buffer, or the mail data buffer.
RSET
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command HELP (Help) Syntax HELP [command]
Faxing From a PC
NOOP (No operation)
QUIT (Quit)
Responses S:211, 214 E: 500, 501, 502, 504, 421 This command causes the receiver to send helpful information to the sender of the HELP command. The command may take an argument (e.g., any command name) and return more specific information as a response. This command has no effect on any of the reverse-path buffer, the forward-path buffer, or the mail data buffer. NOOP S:250 E:500, 421 This command does not affect any parameters or previously entered commands. It specifies no action other than that the receiver send an OK reply. This command has no effect on any of the reverse-path buffer, the forward-path buffer, or the mail data buffer. QUIT S:221 E:500 This command specifies that the receiver must send an OK reply, and then close the transmission channel. The receiver should not close the transmission channel until it receives and replies to a QUIT command (even if there was an error). The sender should not close the transmission channel until it send a QUIT command and receives the reply (even if there was an error response to a previous command). If the connection is closed prematurely the receiver should act as if a RSET command had been received (canceling any pending transaction, but not undoing any previously completed transaction), the sender should act as if the command or transaction in progress had received a temporary error (4xx).
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command TURN (Turn) Syntax
Faxing From a PC
TURN
Responses S:250 F:502 E:500, 503 This command specifies that the receiver must either (1) send an OK reply and then take on the role of the sender-SMTP, or (2) send a refusal reply and retain the role of the receiverSMTP. If program-A is currently the sender-SMTP and it sends the TURN command and receives an OK reply (250) then program-A becomes the receiver-SMTP. Program-A is then in the initial state as if the transmission channel just opened, and it then sends the 220 service ready greeting. If program-B is currently the receiver-SMTP and it receives the TURN command and sends an OK reply (250) then program-B becomes the sender-SMTP. Program-B is then in the initial state as if the transmission channel just opened, and it then expects to receive the 220 service ready greeting. To refuse to change roles the receiver sends the 502 reply.
Remarks: S: Successful E: Error F: Failure I: Intermediate
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SMTP Response Commands

Reply codes 211
214 220 221 250 251 354 421 450 451 452 500 501 502
Meaning
System status, or system help reply Help message [Information on how to use the receiver or the meaning of a particular non-standard command; this reply is useful only to the human user] <domain> Service ready <domain> Service closing transmission channel Requested mail action okay, completed User not local; will forward to <forward-path> Start mail input; end with <CRLF>.<CRLF> <domain> Service not available, closing transmission channel [This may be a reply to any command if the service knows it must shut down] Requested mail action not taken: mailbox unavailable [E.g., mailbox busy] Requested action aborted: local error in processing Requested action not taken: insufficient system storage Syntax error, command unrecognized [This may include errors such as command line too long] Syntax error in parameters or arguments Command not implemented
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Group 3 Fax Communication Reply codes 503 504

550 551 552 553 554
Faxing From a PC
Meaning
Bad sequence of commands Command parameter not implemented Requested action not taken: mailbox unavailable [E.g., mailbox not found, no access] User not local; please try <forward-path> Requested mail action aborted: exceeded storage allocation Requested action not taken: mailbox name not allowed [E.g., mailbox syntax incorrect] Transaction failed
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POP Commands
Command USER Syntax USER <name> Responses +OK name is a valid mailbox -ERR never heard of mailbox name To authenticate using the USER and PASS command combination, the client must first issue the USER command. If the POP3 server responds with a positive status indicator ("+OK"), then the client may issue either the PASS command to complete the authentication, or the QUIT command to terminate the POP3 session. If the POP3 server responds with a negative status indicator ("-ERR") to the USER command, then the client may either issue a new authentication command or may issue the QUIT command. The server may return a positive response even though no such mailbox exists. The server may return a negative response if mailbox exists, but does not permit plain text password authentication. PASS <password> +OK maildrop locked and ready -ERR invalid password -ERR unable to lock maildrop When the client issues the PASS command, the POP3 server uses the argument pair from the USER and PASS commands to determine if the client should be given access to the appropriate maildrop. Since the PASS command has exactly one argument, a POP3 server may treat spaces in the argument as part of the password, instead of as argument separators.
PASS
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command QUIT Syntax
Faxing From a PC
STAT
Responses +OK -ERR some deleted messages not removed The POP3 server removes all messages marked as deleted from the maildrop and replies as to the status of this operation. If there is an error, such as a resource shortage, encountered while removing messages, the maildrop may result in having some or none of the messages marked as deleted be removed. In no case may the server remove any messages not marked as deleted. Whether the removal was successful or not, the server then releases any exclusive-access lock on the maildrop and closes the TCP connection. STAT +OK nn mm The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line containing information for the maildrop. This line is called a "drop listing" for that maildrop. In order to simplify parsing, all POP3 servers are required to use a certain format for drop listings. The positive response consists of "+OK" followed by a single space, the number of messages in the maildrop, a single space, and the size of the maildrop in octets. This memo makes no requirement on what follows the maildrop size. Minimal implementations should just end that line of the response with a CRLF pair. More advanced implementations may include other information. Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in either total.
QUIT
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command LIST Syntax LIST [message number]
Faxing From a PC
RETR
DELE
NOOP
Responses +OK scan listing follows -ERR no such message If an argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive response with a line containing information for that message. This line is called a "scan listing" for that message. If no argument was given and the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the response given is multi-line. After the initial +OK, for each message in the maildrop, the POP3 server responds with a line containing information for that message. This line is also called a "scan listing" for that message. If there are no messages in the maildrop, then the POP3 server responds with no scan listings--it issues a positive response followed by a line containing a termination octet and a CRLF pair. Note that messages marked as deleted are not counted in either total. RETR <message number> +OK message follows -ERR no such message If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the response given is multi-line. After the initial +OK, the POP3 server sends the message corresponding to the given messagenumber, being careful to byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-line responses). DELE <message number> +OK message deleted -ERR no such message The POP3 server marks the message as deleted. Any future reference to the messagenumber associated with the message in a POP3 command generates an error. The POP3 server does not actually delete the message until the POP3 session enters the UPDATE state. NOOP +OK The POP3 server does nothing, it merely replies with a positive response.
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command LAST
Faxing From a PC
RSET
Syntax Responses LAST +OK nn The POP3 server issues a positive response with a line containing the highest message number which accessed. Zero is returned in case no message in the maildrop has been accessed during previous transactions. A client may thereafter infer that messages, if any, numbered greater than the response to the LAST command are messages not yet accessed by the client. RSET +OK If any messages have been marked as deleted by the POP3 server, they are unmarked. The POP3 server then replies
TOP <message number> +OK top of message follows <number of lines> -ERR no such message If the POP3 server issues a positive response, then the response given is multi-line. After the initial +OK, the POP3 server sends the headers of the message, the blank line separating the headers from the body, and then the number of lines of the indicated message's body, being careful to byte-stuff the termination character (as with all multi-line responses). Note that if the number of lines requested by the POP3 client is greater than the number of lines in the body, then the POP3 server sends the entire message.
TOP
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Group 3 Fax Communication Command APOP Syntax APOP <name> <digest>
Faxing From a PC
Responses +OK maildrop locked and ready -ERR permission denied Normally, each POP3 session starts with a USER/PASS exchange. This results in a server/user-id specific password being sent in the clear on the network. For intermittent use of POP3, this may not introduce a sizable risk. However, many POP3 client implementations connect to the POP3 server on a regular basis -- to check for new mail. Further the interval of session initiation may be on the order of five minutes. Hence, the risk of password capture is greatly enhanced. An alternate method of authentication is required which provides for both origin authentication and replay protection, but which does not involve sending a password in the clear over the network. The APOP command provides this functionality.
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Mail Transmission
Sending Terminal IFAX E-mail Router LAN Internet LAN
Reception using POP or IMAP
SMTP Server
POP/IMAP Server E-mail E-mail
IFAX
Router
IFAX
Reception using SMTP
DNS Server
H132D551.WMF
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Procedure
Scanned documents are sent as electronic mail (e-mail). All messages are sent using memory transmission. When a backup mail address (Bcc address, also known as Blind carbon copy) has been stored with the NIC Fax user settings, the machine also sends the message to all the Bcc address. All e-mail transmissions are controlled using Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) procedures. There must be an SMTP server on the same LAN as the sending machine, or the machine will not be able to send e-mail (it is not necessary to set up an SMTP account). NOTE: IFAX is the same as NIC FAX. Some models use the name IFAX. Others use the name NIC FAX.
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Mail Transmission using a PDU (PSTN Dial-up Unit)

As explained above, you cannot send e-mail using the NIC fax if you do not have an SMTP server on your LAN. A customer using the H535 model can send mail without an SMTP server if you install the optional PDU kit. The PDU controls protocols for communication between then Internet Service Provider (ISP) and the fax machine. The PDU also converts scanned image data to MIME format for e-mail.
Sending Terminal IFAX E-mail LAN Internet Service Provider Router SMTP Server
Internet
POP/IMAP Server E-mail
IFAX
Router LAN
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The fax machine sends the mail to the ISP, and the SMTP server at the ISP sends the mail over the internet to the destination. During transmission, the FCU detects a dial tone and then dials the telephone number for the ISP. After connecting to the ISP, the NCU changes the data line relay from the FCU to the PDU. This connects the PDU to the PSTN line.
Data Formats
The scanned data is converted into a TIFF-F formatted file (only MH compression can be used). Some models also allow DCX; in these models, the file format depends on a user setting (for more on image file formats, see Image Files). The fields of the e-mail and their contents depend on the model (see below). Example: H551
Field From Reply-To To Bcc X-Mailer Subject Content Mail address of the sender Mail address to be replied Mail address of the destination Blind carbon copy address (backup mail address) ICFAX Version 1.0 (ICFAX is a Ricoh mail utility - IC means Image Communication) Fax message no. xxxx (file number) from the TSI (see the notes below this table)
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Group 3 Fax Communication Field Content-Type Content-Transfer-Encoding Message Body Content Multipart/mixed Attached files: image/tiff, application/octet-stream Base 64 MIME-converted DCX or TIFF-F (MIME standards specify how files are attached to e-mail messages)
Faxing From a PC
NOTE: 1) The message no. will exist in the subject field if no TSI or RTI is registered. 2) The label of the personal code and RTI will appear at the end of the subject field, if the personal code is entered. 3) The file number can be checked on the TCR/Journal.
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Errors
An error report will be generated if an error occurs during the communication between the machine and the SMTP server. However, it is possible that the sender will not receive notice of errors that occurred between the SMTP server and the receiving terminal. For what happens when an error occurs when the machine is receiving, refer to the Mail Reception section.
Secure Internet Transmission

To transmit e-mail via the Internet more securely, use SMTP authentication, and POP before SMTP for IFAX. SMTP Authentication. SMTP Authentication requires user authentication before they can access the server. This prevents unauthorized access to the server. To use SMTP authentication, your server must support CRAM-MD5, PLAIN, or LOGIN. The account name and password specified in the Mail Server settings are used for SMTP authentication. Other account names and passwords cannot be specified. POP Before SMTP. Prevents unauthorized access to the SMTP server and requires users to access and log onto the POP3 server before sending e-mail.
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Faxing From a PC
Mail Reception Overview

Internet fax machines support three types of e-mail reception: POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3.) IMAP4 (Internet Messaging Access Protocol Version 4) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). POP3 picks up the mail from a POP3 server and deletes it from the server. The machine can be adjusted to keep the mail on the server. IMAP4 also picks up the mail from a server, but does not delete the mail from the server. Concerning the deletion of mail after reception, the servers settings may take priority over the machines settings. With SMTP, a mail server is not needed. However, the network administrator must register the NIC fax machine as an SMTP server in the MX record of the DNS server. Then the NIC fax will receive the mail automatically without the machine having to pick it up from a server. The machine can be adjusted to select one of these types of reception. However, if SMTP is selected and the machine is not registered in the MX record of the DNS server, then either IMAP4 or POP3 will be used. Some older models only support reception using POP3.
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Mail Reception POP3

NIC Fax E-mail Router LAN Internet POP Server E-mail Router LAN
H132D562.WMF
SMTP Server
Receiving Terminal NIC Fax
Procedure
In order for the fax machine to receive e-mail, 1) there must be a POP3 server on the same LAN as the NIC Fax, and 2) an account must be set up for the fax machine. There are two ways to receive mail from the server: automatic, and manual.
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Automatic E-Mail Reception The machine calls the POP server at a regular interval to check if any e-mail has come in. The interval is adjustable. The default setting is normally 3 minutes. Manual E-mail Reception The manual e-mail reception function can be stored in a Quick Operation Key. When the key is pressed, the machine calls the POP3 server immediately. The timer for automatic e-mail reception is not reset when the machine calls the POP3 server manually. Here is an example of the sequence Automatic e-mail reception interval: 30 minutes. The machine calls the POP3 server (automatic e-mail reception) 10 minutes later, the user calls the POP3 server (manual e-mail reception) The machine will call the POP3 server again automatically after 20 minutes. Reception Process When new e-mail is detected, the server receives the mail. If the POP server is holding several e-mails for the NIC fax, the machine picks up the e-mails one at a time, in the order of arrival at the server. Mail is not picked up if memory is low. The machine will wait until sufficient memory is free. E-mail reception is done in accordance with Post Office Protocol version 3.0 (POP3) procedures.
Faxing From a PC
Mail Reception using a PDU (PSTN Dial-up Unit)

As explained above, you cannot receive e-mail using the NIC fax if you do not have a POP server on your LAN. A customer using the H535 model can receive mail without a server if you install the optional PDU kit The PDU controls protocols for communication between then Internet Service Provider (ISP) and the fax machine. The PDU also converts scanned image data to MIME format for e-mail.
IFAX E-mail Router LAN Internet POP Server Internet Service Provider Receiving Terminal IFAX E-mail Router LAN SMTP Server
For more about the PDU kit, please refer to Mail Transmission using a PDU.
Faxing From a PC
Characteristics of POP3/IMAP4 Reception

Here are some general characteristics of POP3 receiving. They also apply to reception using IMAP4. No MX record registration. There is no need to register the machine in the MX record of the DNS server. Power can be switched off. As long as the machine is not receiving mail, mail stored in the mail server is not lost when the power is switched off. With SMTP reception, if the machine is switched off, the SMTP server sends an error report back to the sender, and the machine will not receive the mail unless the sender sends it again after the machine is switched on. Dial-up compliance. POP3 can be accessed spontaneously, making it ideal for dial-up operation.
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Mail Reception IMAP4

The descriptions in the previous section (Mail Reception - POP3) also apply for reception using IMAP4, except for the following. E-mail reception is done in accordance with IMAP4 procedures. There must be an IMAP4 server on the same LAN as the fax machine. IMAP4 does not automatically delete the mail from the server after picking it up.
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Mail Reception SMTP

IFAX E-mail Router LAN Internet E-mail LAN DNS Server Receiving Terminal IFAX SMTP Server
Router
SMTP Mail Reception Procedure

By registering the IFAX as an SMTP server in the MX record of the DNS server, you can enable direct receiving of mail from the SMTP server. The fax machine does not call the server to pick up the mail (as is done in the POP/IMAP protocol using either automatic or manual e-mail reception). Also, with SMTP, the received mail can be routed to another fax (this is known as delivery). NOTE: IFAX is the same as NIC FAX. Some models use the name IFAX. Others use NIC FAX.
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Required Settings The IFAX must be registered as an SMTP server in the MX record of the DNS server, and the address of the received mail must specify the IFAX. SMTP reception must be enabled on the fax machine (normally a user tool). However, if SMTP reception is selected and the machine is not registered in the MX record of the DNS server, then either IMAP4 or POP3 is used, depending on the setting:
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SMTP Reception Characteristics Delivery of received mail. The Off Ramp Gateway feature allows expansion for RX mail delivery to a G3 fax. The machine transfers incoming mail is sent to the G3 fax specified by the local part. For example, in a destination address specified as: fax=0454778907@cl01.dom1.ricoh.co.jp
the local part is 0454778907. A POP3/IMAP4 server is not required. For example, in an environment where there is only a UNIX server or in an intranet environment where Notes is used for mail, mail received from outside is handled via the SMTP gateway. Immediacy of response is slightly better. There is no interval in the acquisition of mail as with POP3/IMAP4, thus slightly improving the response time. Easier error handling. When an error occurs with POP3/IMAP4, the receiving terminal sends an error mail back to the sender in order to inform them that an error has occurred. With SMTP mail reception, however, in almost all cases the SMTP server sends the error mail to the sender. Disadvantage: If the machines power is switched off when mail comes in, the SMTP server receiving the mail will send an error report back to the sender and delete the mail. It will not keep it for the machine to pick up next time it switches on. The sender has to resend the mail. The user may be able to check a log on the SMTP server to see if any mail came in and was sent back during the night. Nothing can be done on the NIC fax machine. With POP3 and IMAP4, the user can switch the machine off and the server keeps the mail.
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Delivery: Transferring Mail Received With SMTP (Off Ramp Gateway)

Overview If the address of the mail received with SMTP contains the following information, it can be delivered to another G3 fax: Fax = Delivery Number@IFAX Host Name.Domain
DNS SMTP
SMTP
IFAX
Router Internet/ Intranet Router SMTP DNS
(Address: fax = 045477459@ Cl01.dom1g.ricoh.co.jp)
IFAX
R
Switching Station
PST N SMTP IFAX (SMTP Receive Setting: cl01@ dom1g.ricoh.co.jp)
T elephone Line T ransmission Switching Station
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How to Set Up Mail Delivery The sender must set the mail address in the following format: 1) When dialing using a fax number
fax=<Delivery Destination Fax Number>@<IFAX Host Name>.<Domain Name>
Example: fax=0454771459@cl01.dom1g.rico h.co.jp
Delivers to fax number 0454771459
2) When dialing using a Quick dial destination

fax=<# Quick Dial Number>@<IFAX Host Name>.<Domain Name>
Example: fax=#001@cl01.dom1g.ricoh.co.jp
Delivers to the number registered for Quick Dial key 001.
3) When dialing using a Group destination

fax=<#**Group Dial Number>@<IFAX Host Name>.<Domain Name>
Example: fax=#**05@cl01.dom1g.ricoh.co.jp
Delivers to numbers registered for Group dial key 05.
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Mail Delivery Conditions 1) The machine must be set up for SMTP mail delivery: 2) If the user wishes to limit this feature so that the machine will only deliver mail from designated senders, the machines Auth. E-mail RX feature must be selected 3) If SMTP reception has been disabled, and if there is mail designated for delivery, then the machine responds with an error. 4) The fax= setting does not distinguish between upper and lower case letters. 5) More than one destination cannot be specified in the mail address. A Group counts as 1 destination. 6) If the quick dial, speed dial, or group dial entry is incorrect, the mail transmission is lost, and the Internet fax machine issues an error to the SMTP server and outputs an error report.
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Authorized E-mail Reception Authorized e-mail reception prevents all except certain specified senders from using your NIC fax machine. To limit access to mail delivery, the addresses of senders must be limited using the Access Limit Entry. 1) Access Limit Entry For example, to limit access to @ifax.ricoh.co.jp: gts@ifax.ricoh.co.jp gts@ifax.abcde.co.jp ifax@ricoh.co.jp Matches and is delivered. Does not match and is not delivered. Does not match and is not delivered.
2) Conditions If the Access Limit Entry address and the mail address of the incoming mail do not match, the incoming mail is discarded and not delivered, and the SMTP server responds with an error. However, in this case an error report is not output. If the Access Limit Entry address is not registered, and if the incoming mail specifies a delivery destination, then the mail is delivered unconditionally.
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Other Points Concerning E-Mail Reception

Errors during reception
Errors during POP3/IMAP4 procedures When an error of this type occurs, the machine stops receiving and the message stays in the server. An error report is output. After a prescribed interval, the machine calls the server and starts to receive, starting with the interrupted message. If there is an incomplete received message in memory, it will be erased. Abnormal Files When an error of this type occurs, the machine stops receiving and commands the server to erase the message. Then the machine prints an error report out and sends information about the error by e-mail to the senders address (in the From or Reply-to field of the message). If there is an incompletely received message in the machines memory, it will be erased. The machine prints an error message when it fails to send a message after a certain number of attempts.
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Abnormal files are as follows: 1. The e-mail has an unsupported MIME header. Supported types of MIME header depend on the model. Example: H551
Header Content-Type Charset Content-Transfer-Encoding Supported Types Multipart/mixed, text/plain, message/rfc822 Image/tiff, application/octet-stream US-ASCII, ISO-2022-JP, Others are determined to be US-ASCII. Base 64, 7-bit, 8-bit
2. MIME decoding error 3. The machine cannot recognize the file format as TIFF-F (some older models also accept DCX). 4. The resolution, document size, or compressed type cannot be accepted. Remaining SAF Capacity Error The machine CALLS the server but does not receive e-mail if the remaining SAF capacity is less than a certain value (the value depends on a bit switch setting). The e-mail will be received when the SAF capacity increases (for example, after substitute reception files have been printed). Also, if the capacity of the SAF memory goes down to zero during reception, the machine acts in the same way as when receiving an abnormal file (refer to Abnormal files).
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Paper Size
1. If the incoming message is wider than the maximum paper width specification for the machine, an error is generated. The procedure is the same as when receiving an abnormal file. 2. When the machine receives a message that is wider than the paper currently in the paper trays (but within machine specs for image width), the machine reduces the data to fit on the paper in the tray and prints it.
Printing
When a line of text is longer than the paper width, the excess data will be deleted.
Multi-part
When a multi-part e-mail message contains several text parts and binary files, the message will be divided with boundaries. Then, each part will be printed separately. If the machine cannot determine where the boundary is, it will generate an error report and print, then send error information e-mail back to the sender.
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Secure Internet Reception

APOP. Passwords are encrypted when e-mail is received, making it safer than POP3 authentication (clear text), which is not encrypted. APOP requires a POP server that supports APOP. IMAP-AUTH (Mail Reception). If the IMAP Server supports the AUTHENTICATE command (CRAMMD5, PLAIN, or LOGIN confirmation), then higher-level security confirmation can be implemented for users logging in. These features can be enabled with user tools. Security is needed for reception using POP/IMAP, because the mail is stored in the POP/IMAP server and the machine must call and pick it up. Security ensures that the mail goes to the correct machine. For reception using SMTP, the mail goes directly to the destination address (it is not held on a server), so this type of security is not needed.
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Mail Broadcasting (e-Mail and G3 FAX are combined)

G3 Transmissions (PSTN) E-mail Transmissions (LAN/Internet)
NIC Fax
E-mail transmission LAN
SMTP Server
H132D552.WMF
The machine can send the same message to several destinations in one operation. Some destinations can be G3 fax and some can be e-mail. For the G3 fax transmissions, each address has to be dialled separately. However, all the e-mail addresses can be sent with the message to the SMTP server in one transmission. The SMTP server then sends the message to each destination.
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The following example for broadcasting to three e-mail destinations and two G3 fax destinations shows how G3 fax messages are each sent individually, but the e-mail destinations are all sent to the server at the same time. Order of inputting the addresses at the operation panel G3 fax (1) - mail (1) - G3 fax (2) - mail (2) - mail (3) Order of transmission G3 fax (1) - mail (1), (2), (3) [these 3 sent to the server at the same time] - G3 fax (2) The SMTP server cannot broadcast the message if a feature included individual information for each terminal in the transmitted data (such as label insertion). If this type of feature was used, the machine sends the e-mails to the server one by one. To send the messages to the server at the same time, the batch transmission feature must be enabled in the Internet fax machine. The maximum number of e-mail destinations in a broadcast depends on the mail servers limits.
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Transfer Request
Operation at the Transfer Requester
Making a Transfer Request by E-Mail
Transfer Requester
NIC Fax E-mail LAN R SMTP Server R: Router Individual G3 Transmissions (PSTN)
Transfer Station
POP Server E-mail NIC Fax LAN
E-mail End Receivers
R SMTP Server Individual E-mail Transmissions
E-mail (several destinations, one transmission) G3 End Receivers
E-mail (one transmission for each destination)
H132D553.WMF
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The requesting terminal dials the transfer station, and requests it to transfer the message to end receivers stored as quick dials, speed dials, and group dials in the transfer station. A quick dial number is indicated by a # and two or more digits, a speed dial is indicated by #, *, and two or more digits, and a group dial is indicated by # and ** and two or more digits. This is the same as for transfer request in a normal fax machine. The destinations can be a mixture of e-mail and G3 fax addresses. However, only an Internet fax can be specified as a transfer station if the end receivers include e-mail addresses. The transfer request goes to the SMTP server as an e-mail message. The quick/speed/group dials (and the ID code) are included in the mail body field of the e-mail as text. The message arrives at the POP server of the transfer station. The transfer station then does the following (see Operation at the Transfer Station for details). The transfer station picks up the transfer request. The transfer station sends the message to the G3 destinations one-by-one. The transfer station sends the message to its SMTP server once. The SMTP server sends the message to the e-mail destinations one-by-one. The transfer station sends back a transfer result report. The original may be attached to the transfer result report, depending on the G3 settings of the fax machine. For transmissions to e-mail end receivers, the transfer result report only indicates whether the message was successfully transmitted from the transfer station to its SMTP server. The transfer station sends an error report to the requester if it fails to transfer the message to an end receiver. However, if the selected transfer station cannot handle transfer requests, or cannot handle e-mail, no error report is returned to the transfer requester.
Faxing From a PC
The fields of the e-mail and their contents depend on the model. Example: H551
Field From To Bcc X-Mailer Subject Content-Type Content E-mail address of the requesting terminal Destination address (transfer stations address) Blind carbon copy address (backup mail address) ICFAX version 1.0 Fax Message No. xxxx (file number) from theTSI
Multipart/mixed Text/Plain (for a text part), image/tiff or application/octet-stream (for attached files)
Base 64 RELAY-ID-: xxxx (xxxx: 4 digits for an ID code) RELAY: #01#*01#**01. MIME-converted TIFF-F or DCX
Content-Transfer-Encoding Mail body (text part) Message body
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Making a Transfer Request by G3 FAX The procedures are the same as for a normal G3 fax machine. The requesting NIC fax contacts the transfer station by G3 over the PSTN. The requesting terminal dials the transfer station, and requests it to transfer the message to end receivers stored as quick dials, speed dials, and group dials in the transfer station. Using NSF, the machine sends an ID code and the machines own telephone number. Up to 30 end receivers can be requested.
G3 End Receivers
G3 Transmission (Transfer Request) NIC FAX PSTN G3 Transmission (Report)
Requesting Terminal
SMTP Server E-mail
NIC FAX
Transfer Station
LAN
H132D554.WMF
End receiver destinations can also be selected using tonal signals, in the same way as for other recent fax models. E-mail address can also be selected in this way, as end receivers and as the destination for receiving the transfer result report. The receiving NIC fax machine receives the transfer request on the PSTN connection. It then handles the transfer request in the same way as explained in Making a Transfer Request by E-Mail.
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Operation at the Transfer Station

Handling a Transfer Request Received by E-Mail
Transfer Requester
NIC Fax E-mail LAN R SMTP Server R: Router Individual G3 Transmissions (PSTN)
Transfer Station
POP Server E-mail NIC Fax LAN
R SMTP Server Individual E-mail Transmissions
E-mail (several destinations, one transmission) G3 End Receivers
E-mail (one transmission for each destination)
H132D555.WMF
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The NIC fax polls the POP server at regular intervals, as mentioned in a previous section. If the server has received a transfer request, the fax machine receives it from the server in the form of an e-mail message. The end receivers are included in the text part of the message. The machine then sends the message to the end receivers by G3 fax or e-mail, depending on the type of end receiver address, in the same way as described for Broadcasting. The NIC fax sends each G3 fax as an individual transmission. However, for the e-mail, the NIC fax sends the message to the SMTP server once, and the server broadcasts the message to the e-mail end receivers one at a time. The transfer station sends back a transfer result report to the address in the From field of the received e-mail. If an administrator's address is registered, the result report is also sent to that address. The original may be attached to the transfer result report, depending on the G3 settings of the fax machine. For transmission to e-mail end receivers, the transfer result report only indicates whether the message was successfully transmitted from the transfer station to its SMTP server (the transfer station does not know if the messages were received successfully at the end receivers). The transfer station prints an error report if it cannot send the result report to its SMTP server.
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Handling a Transfer Request Received by Fax

G3 End Receivers
G3 Transmission (Transfer Request) G3 FAX PSTN G3 Transmission (Report)
Requesting Terminal
SMTP Server E-mail
NIC FAX
Transfer Station
LAN
When the machine receives a transfer request by G3 fax, it sends the message to the various e-mail and G3 end receivers in the same way as for a request received by e-mail. The machine sends back the transfer result report to the requesting terminals telephone number, which it specified in the NSF signal. If the machine cannot send this report back to the requesting terminal, it prints the report itself, so that the user can contact the other party. The NIC Fax can accept end receiver destinations and transfer result report destinations that were sent from the requester as DTMF tones. This applies for e-mail or PSTN G3 addresses.
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Transfer Result Reports for Multi-step Transfer

If All Links Are By E Mail After it has passed on the transfer request to the next transfer station, each transfer station sends a transfer result report back to the previous transfer station in the chain by e-mail. The main point is that the reports are only sent back one link in the chain. The requesting terminal has no idea what happened further along the chain. The bottom part of the drawing shows details of the route from Transfer Station A back to the requesting machine.
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Requesting Terminal (NIC Fax) e-mail Transfer Station A (NIC Fax) e-mail Transfer Station B (NIC Fax) e-mail
Faxing From a PC
Transfer Station C (NIC Fax)
Requesting Terminal
NIC FAX e-mail LAN Transfer result report POP Server POP Server LAN SMTP Server Transfer result report NIC FAX SMTP Server
Transfer Station A
Transfer result report
H132D557.WMF
The procedure is as follows. 1. The requesting terminal requests transfer station A to transfer a message. 2. Transfer station A passes the request on to transfer station B. 3. Transfer station A sends a transfer result report back to the requesting machine. 4. Transfer station B passes the request on to transfer station C. 5. Transfer station B sends a transfer result report back to transfer station A.
Faxing From a PC
6. The broadcasting station (transfer station C) sends the message to its SMTP server (e-mails) and to the G3 destinations. 7. Transfer station C sends a transfer result report to transfer station B (for e-mail end receivers, it only indicates whether the message was successfully passed on to transfer station Cs SMTP server). NOTE: The requesting machines own telephone number is not included in a transfer request message by e-mail, so the transfer station at the end of the chain cannot send a report back directly to the requesting machine. The requesting terminal only receives a report of how the communication went between transfer stations A and B.
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If Some Links Are G3 Fax This example shows that even if there is only one e-mail link in the chain, the transfer result report from the final transfer station cannot get back to the requesting terminal. (The bottom part of the drawing shows details of the route from Transfer Station A back to the requesting machine.)
Requesting Machine (G3 Fax) PSTN Transfer Station A (NIC Fax) e-mail Transfer Station B (NIC Fax) PSTN Transfer Station C (NIC Fax)
Requesting Machine
G3 Fax PSTN
Transfer result report (G3 tx) SMTP Server NIC Fax
Transfer Station A
LAN
The procedure is exactly the same as for a request by e-mail, as described on the previous page. However, if there are two or more consecutive PSTN links in the chain, the transfer station at the end of the PSTN chain will be able to send a transfer result report back to the machine at the start of the PSTN chain. For example, if only the link between transfer stations B and C is e-mail, transfer station B will be able to send a report all the way back to the requesting terminal. If there is even one e-mail link, continuity is broken. The requesting terminal can only get a report from the final transfer station if all links are G3.
Faxing From a PC
Example of a Transfer Request and Result Report

Error mail E-mail Server 1 (SMTP/POP)
G3 FAX 1
PSTN Transfer result report
NIC Fax 1
[A]
Japan
[B]
Router LAN
[D]
Europe
Transfer result e-mail
Internet
Error mail
[C]
LAN
G3 Fax 2
PSTN
NIC Fax 2
E-mail Server 2 (SMTP/POP)
Router
H132D559.WMF
The steps of the transfer request are as follows: 1. G3 Fax 1 sends a transfer request to NIC Fax 1 by G3 fax ( in the diagram). 2. NIC Fax 1 sends e-mail to E-mail Server 1 ( in the diagram). 3. E-mail Server 1 sends e-mail to E-mail server 2 ( in the diagram). 4. E-mail server 2 sends e-mail to NIC Fax 2 ( in the diagram).
Faxing From a PC
NOTE: Steps 2 to 4 assume that NIC Fax 1 sends the transfer request to NIC Fax 2 by e-mail, and not G3 fax. 5. NIC Fax 2 sends a G3 fax message to G3 Fax 2 ( in the diagram).
The steps for sending the transfer result report and any mail reporting errors is as follows: 1. NIC Fax 1 sends a transfer result report [A] to G3 Fax 1 after in the diagram. 2. When an error occurs at , e-mail server 1 sends e-mail reporting an error [B] to NIC Fax 1. Error mail is also sent to the administrator if the address has been registered in NIC Fax 1. 3. When an error occurs at , e-mail server 2 sends e-mail reporting an error [C] to NIC Fax 1. Error mail [C] is also sent to the administrator if the address has been registered in NIC Fax 1. 4. NIC Fax 2 send a transfer result report [D] to NIC Fax 1 through e-mail server 1 and e-mail server 2 after transferring the message to the end receivers (after in the diagram).
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Autorouting
G3 Transmission with SUB code G3 Fax PSTN
SMTP Server
NIC Fax Forwarding by e-mail LAN

H132D560.WMF
The sending G3 fax machine appends a code to the telephone number. This code is sent in G3 protocol to the NIC Fax in the SUB code. When a G3 fax message is received with a SUB code, the machine compares the SUB code with the personal codes stored with Personal Boxes and Transfer Boxes in the machine. If there is a match, the machine routes the message to the e-mail address in the Personal Box by e-mail. (If the SUB code corresponds to a Transfer Box, the machine routes the message to all the addresses in the Transfer Box). A communication failure report will be printed if a transmission error occurs between the machine and the SMTP server.
Faxing From a PC
Conditions 1. E-mail addresses for autorouting must be registered in the machine with personal codes in Personal Boxes and/or Transfer Boxes. 2. If the received SUB code specifies confidential reception, the message at the NIC fax can be received using confidential reception. However, when this message is forwarded by e-mail, the confidential attribute is not passed on you cannot specify confidential reception by e-mail. 3. The RTI or CSI of the forwarding machine is indicated in the subject field of the forwarded e-mail. 4. Autorouting only works for incoming G3 faxes. It does not work for incoming e-mails, because there are no SUB codes in the e-mail protocol.
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- Example G3 Transmission G3 Fax SUB code: 1111
[A]
PSTN
SMTP Server e-mail
NIC FAX Personal Code 1111: abc@ricoh.com LAN
Client PC E-mail address: abc@ricoh.com

H132D561.WMF
1. The sending terminal sends a fax message with a SUB code 1111 to the NIC Fax. 2. Personal code 1111 in the receiving NIC fax has been allocated to a PC on the network. The NIC fax makes an e-mail out of the incoming fax message, then sends the e-mail to that PC.
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Forwarding
Forwarding is a similar feature to autorouting, useful when the sending machine cannot send SUB codes. The sending machine must have the RTI and CSI programmed. The receiving machine must have already specified a destination PC e-mail address for messages received with that RTI/CSI. The message can only be forwarded to one destination.
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LAN Fax Transmission

PC fax application installed Client PC Request to send fax NIC Fax G3 Transmission PSTN
e-mail SMTP Server
LAN
This section shows how a PC on the same network can: Send a document created with a PC application, through the NIC fax, to another fax machine by G3 or by e-mail. The destination fax machine does not need a NIC fax card, because the message goes out over the PSTN. Print out a document created with a PC application, using the NIC fax as a printer. Normally, this is not so effective as installing a printer controller option. There are fewer features and resolution settings available with the LAN fax driver. This feature is known as LAN Fax. The following items and settings are required to use this feature: A NIC Fax and a PC connected to a LAN. The initial settings set up correctly on the NIC FAX (such as the IP Address, Subnet Mask, and Default Gateway settings). Refer to the documentation for the model. Software installed on the PC (depends on the model) Example: H231: SmartNet Monitor for Client, the LAN Fax driver, and an Address Book
Faxing From a PC
IP-Fax
What is IP-Fax?
This feature allows you use TCP/IP to communicate with fax machines. The other party can be on the same TCP/IP network as your machine, or it can be on the internet anywhere in the world. It can also be on a public telephone network, if your intranet has a Gateway to interface with the public telephone network. Modem speed in this case is below V.17. If the other fax machine is connected directly to a TCP/IP network, it must use T.38 protocol. IP-Fax uses a Group 3 style fax protocol, but in packets to conform to TCP/IP. No e-mail server is required (compare with internet fax). Use the IP address (or host name) to dial the destination machine, instead of the fax number. If there is a Gatekeeper on your intranet, you can use the alias number stored in the gatekeeper. The gatekeeper stores a look up table of alias fax numbers and actual IP addresses.IP-Fax is faster than PSTN. Direct connection with the other partys machine is possible, so function capability information can be exchanged and transactions can be confirmed.
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The diagram below shows the three methods of data transmission.
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Note how cases
, and
operate in the illustration above:
Case : The NIC Fax, connected to the Internet/Intranet via a VoIP gateway connected to telephone network, sends a transmission through the Gateway (address: 192.168.1.64) to the destination fax number (212 123 5678). (The Host Name can be substituted for the IP Address.) Case : The NIC Fax, connected to the Internet/Intranet using a VoIP gatekeeper, sends a transmission to the destination with the alias fax number 212 333 6666 through VoIP gatekeeper 192.168.1.20. Case : The NIC Fax, connected to the Internet/Intranet, sends a transmission to IP Address 192.168.1.10 or to Host Name IPFAX1 (192.168.1.10). The IP Address and Host Name must be previously registered on the DNS server. Note the difference between the gateway and the gatekeeper. A gatekeeper contains a list of IP addresses of destinations, and an alias number for each one. The alias numbers allow you to use telephone numbers instead of IP addresses when sending a message. This may be more convenient for many people. When you specify one of these alias numbers as the destination, the gatekeeper wakes up and passes your fax to the destination over your LAN or the Internet. To set up your machine for using a gatekeeper, do the following: 1. Store the gatekeepers IP address in the NIC fax machine. 2. Store your own fax number. This will be your NIC fax machines alias number. It is convenient to use the machines telephone number, but any number will do.
Faxing From a PC
3. Make sure that your NIC fax machines IP address is stored already in the NIC fax machine with the user tools. 4. Your machine will then automatically contact the gatekeeper, and your machines IP address and alias number will be registered with the gatekeeper. This works even if the gatekeeper is on a different LAN, or over the internet, as long as the gatekeepers IP address is input correctly. To set up an alias number network of NIC fax machines on different LAN segments or internet locations, all machines will have to register with the gatekeeper using the above procedure. There only needs to be one gatekeeper in this network. The gatekeeper system will not work if there are any firewalls in the network. A VoIP gateway interfaces your LAN with the public telephone network. If you input the IP address of the gateway and the destination fax number, the gateway will handle things from there, converting the TCP/IP frames into T.30 fax protocol. VoIP: Voice over IP. This allows voice frequency tones to be send out over TCP/IP. Internet telephones use this technology. However, with the NIC fax, voice message transmission is not possible.
9 August 2003
Page 905
Faxing From a PC
Features of IP-Fax
IP-Fax provides these features: Compliance with ITU-T T.38 Standards. Employs TCP/IP communication protocols. Allows destinations to be identified by the IP Address, Host Name, or an Alias Telephone Number. The main advantages of IP-Fax are: Costs are reduced as the main method of communication is over the Internet. All transactions can be confirmed because the machine is connected directly to the other party. Extremely high speed because IP-Fax can operate over a 10/100Base LAN. The disadvantages of IP-Fax are: Communication through firewalls is not possible. Communication via gateway is the only method of transmission. High visibility (poor security). NOTE: The transmission speed of IP-Fax is affected by the condition of the network (distance of wiring, packet loss, etc.). IP-Fax operates in real time, so IP-Fax must occupy one line until the other partys machine breaks communication. IP-Fax can use all G3 fax features except the following: Sending: Memory file transfer, batch transmission Receiving: Batch reception
9 August 2003
Page 906
Faxing From a PC
T.38 Transmission Protocol

The T.38 transmission protocol handles data in packets in order to allow IP-Fax to transmit with a T.30 G3 fax protocol network. (1) Transactions in an Intranet (2) Transactions Between PSTN and Intranet
NIC FAX
NIC FAX
G3FAX
GATEWAY
NIC FAX
T.30 IND: Flags

Flags
T.30 IND: Flags
V21: HDLC :CSI/FCS DIS/FCS-Sig-End
CSI DIS
V21: HDLC :CSI/FCS DIS/FCS-Sig-End
H231D923.WMF
H231D924.WMF
9 August 2003
Page 907
Faxing From a PC
Packet Format
Fax communications are conducted with T.38 IFP (Internet Fax Protocol) packet exchange via the Internet. TCP or UDP (protocols that employ two different packet formats) can be selected for transmission. TCP is selected by default for NIC Fax; you can change this to UDP with a bit switch adjustment. TCP Packet Format TCP requires more time because it requires a confirmation response. However, TCP is more reliable because it always demands an affirmative response and requests a retry in response to an error.
Packet 1 Comfirm Response
IP + TCP Header
T.30 ID Extension
T.30 Data
Packet 2 Resend Request
H231D926.WMF
Packet 2
H231D925.WMF
9 August 2003
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Faxing From a PC
UDP Packet Format

Receive
Packet 2 Packet 3 Packet 4 Packet 5
Send
Packet 0 Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 3 Packet 0 Packet 2 Packet 3 Packet 4 Used for Error Correction
H231D927.WMF
UDP is output without establishing the session. The UDP protocol does not correct errors or attempt re-sending. While it is much faster, generally its reliability is lower. However, on the receiving side with IP-Fax the speed is forced lower to prevent data overflow, making UDP slower than TCP. NOTE: As a general rule, UDP is faster than TCP but slightly less reliable. On the other hand, TCP is more reliable than UDP but slightly slower.
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Faxing From a PC
IP + UDP Header
Sequence Number
T.30 ID Extension
T.30 Data
Redundant Packet
Redundant Packet
H231D928.WMF
UDP appends a redundant packet to the data packet and sends both. At the NIC Fax, the redundant packet is attached to only Phase C and the post message. The number of redundant packets can be changed as shown below. However, increasing the number of redundant packets increases the size of the data and slows down the speed of the transmission. UDP Related Adjustments IP FAX Delay Level Raise the level by selecting a higher setting if too many transmission errors are occurring on the network. If TCP/UDP is enabled on the network, raise this setting on the T.30 machine. Increasing the delay time allows the recovery of more lost packets. If only UDP is enabled, increase the number of redundant packets. Level 1~2: 3 Redundant packets Level 3: 4 Redundant packets
Page 910
9 August 2003
Faxing From a PC
E-Mail Options
Subject and Level of Importance
You can enter a subject message with a user tool. The Subject entry for the mail being sent is limited to 64 characters. The subject can also be prefixed with an Urgent or High notation.
E-mail Messages
After entering the subject, you can enter a message with a user tool.
9 August 2003
Page 911
Faxing From a PC
Message Disposition Notification (MDN)

Ro uter Server Server
Internet
Server Router Modem
IFAX Reception Confirmation O ptioin On SF2@ dom1g.ricoh.co.jp
R
Mail (Request receive respone)
IFAX
s_tadasi@ abcde.ne.jp
* * * JO URNAL * * * Time 10:17AM ADDRESS s_tadasi@ abcde.ne.jp Mode MailSMQ T ime 0'09" PAG E 2 RESULT --
IFAX T X Management Report Confirmation (TX Management Report)
Confirm Mail (Answer to Reception Confirmation Request)
IFAX
* * * JOURNAL * * * Time 10:18AM ADDRESS Mode 0'09" T ime 2 PAG E -RESULT
SF2@ dom1g.ricoh MailSMA
* * * JOURNAL * * * Time 10:17AM ADDRESS s_tadasi@ abcde.ne.jp Mode MailSMQ Time 0'09" PAG E 2 RESULT OK OK
9 August 2003
Page 912
Faxing From a PC
The network system administrator can confirm whether a sent mail has been received correctly or not. This confirmation is done in four steps. 1. Send request for confirmation of mail reception. Enable or disable this request with a user tool. 2. Mail reception (receive confirmation request) 3. Send confirmation of mail reception 4. Receive confirmation of mail reception The other partys machine will not respond to the request unless the two conditions below are met: The other partys machine must support MDN (Message Disposition Notification). The other partys machine must be set up to respond to the confirmation request. To do this: 1) The Disposition Notification To field is in the received mail header (automatically inserted in the 4th line in the upper table on the previous page, if MDN is enabled), and 2) Sending the disposition notification must be enabled. The content of the response is as follows:
Normal reception: Optional response (bit switch adjustment) Error: Return Receipt (dispatched) in the Subject line Return Receipt (displayed) in the Subject line Return Receipt (processed/error) in the Subject line
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Page 913
Faxing From a PC
Handling Mail - Handling Mail on the Send Side When mail is sent, a Disposition Notification To notation is included in the header as a request for confirmation that the mail was received.
X-Mozilla Status X-Mozilla Status2 Message-ID Disposition-Notification-To Date From X-Mailer X-Accept-Language MIME-Version To Subject Content-Type Content-Transfer-Encoding : 0001 : 00000000 : <3A23379A.81BE0ABD@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp> : T.Suzuki <s_tadashi@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp> : Tue, 28 Nov 2000 13:4203 +0900 : T.Suzuki <s_tadashi@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp> : Mozilla 4.73 [ja]C-CCK-MCD BDP jm-Sony 3 (Win95: U) : ja : 1.0 : fuser_01@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp : Mail Request for Reception Confirmation : text/plain: charset=iso-2022-jp : 7bit
9 August 2003
Page 914
Faxing From a PC
- Handling Mail on the Receive Side Return Path: <> Received : From fuser_01 ([133.139.157.20]) by dom1g.ricoh.co.jp (post office MTA V1.9.3 ID# 0100110-37392) with SMTP id AAA163 for<S_tadasi@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp> 28 Nov 2000 13:4236 +0900 ICFAX Version 1.0 1.0 multipart/report: report-type=disposition-notification: boundary=ICFAX_000000EF48 T.Suzuki <s_tadashi@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp> <20001128133423664.ICFAX-XFC9BE-X26986@133.139.157.20]> fuser_01@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp From @81454771459(RICOH GTS)(Return Receipt)(dispatched) 8001 00000000 20001128044713447.AAA163@fuser_01
Date X-Mailer MIME-Version Content-Type To Message-ID From Subject X-Mozilla-status X-Mozilla-Status2 X-UIDL
: : : : : : : : : : :
This is a Return Receipt for the mail that you sent to fuser_01@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp Final Receipt: rfc822:fuser_01#dom1g.ricoh.co.jp Original Message ID: <3A23379A.81BE0ABD@dom1g.ricoh.co.jp Disposition: automatic action/MDN-send-automatically: dispatched Respond Mail Text
9 August 2003
Page 915
Faxing From a PC
Image Data Path

TIFF-F format
Reception
NIC FCE
[D]
TIFF-F [A] Compression and Decompression Module Software
QPCR30
QPCR30
[B]
Memory
[C]
DCR Buffer
[E]
Line Buffer SAF
MH
BITMAP
MMR
H132D564.WMF
The software module [A] receives TIFF-F data from the memory [B] on the NIC board. After decompression, the directory information for the data (resolution, file size) and image data are transferred to the DCR buffer [C] in blocks. The data is then MH compressed. The MH compressed image data in the DCR buffer is decompressed to bitmap data in the QPCR30 [D] and transferred to the line buffer [E]. The data is MMR compressed in the QPCR30 then stored in the SAF.
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Page 916
Faxing From a PC
Transmission
NIC FCE TIFF-F Compression and Decompression Module Software QPCR30 QPCR30
Memory
DCR Buffer
Line Buffer
SAF
MH
BITMAP
MMR
H132D565.WMF
Data from the SAF data is decompressed into bitmap data in the QPCR30 and stored in the line buffer. Then, it is MH compressed in the QPCR30 and transferred to the DCR buffer. The software module makes a TIFF-F formatted file with directory information from the image data, then transfers this file to the memory on the NIC board. NOTE: The TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) was developed by Aldus and Microsoft as an extensible common file format for the exchange of image files. In order to increase the portability of TIFF files, various classes of TIFF files have been defined in order to clarify the requirements of readers and writers to ensure compatibility. Class F TIFF files are used for the exchange of fax images and are a subset of Class B (bilevel or black & white) TIFF images. MH, MR, and MMR compressions can be used to make a TIFF-F file.
9 August 2003
Page 917
Faxing From a PC
DCX format
Reception
NIC FCE QPCR30 DCX [A] Compression and Decompression Module Software
[B]
Memory
[C]
Line Buffer
[D]
SAF
BITMAP
MMR
H132D566.WMF
The software module [A] receives DCX data from the memory [B] on the NIC board. The DCX file is divided into PCX images (one PCX image for each page). The data is decompressed into bitmap data, then transferred to the line buffer [C]. The data is MMR compressed in the QPCR30, and stored in the SAF [D].
9 August 2003
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Faxing From a PC
Transmission
NIC FCE DCX Compression and Decompression Module Software QPCR30
Memory
Line Buffer
SAF
BITMAP
MMR
Data from the SAF is decompressed into bitmap format in the QPCR30, and stored in the line buffer. The software module makes PCX and DCX data and headers and transfers these to the memory on the NIC board. NOTE: The DCX format was developed by Microsoft. It is an enhancement to the PCX format which allows multi-page images.
9 August 2003
Page 919
Faxing From a PC
Troubleshooting Procedures
Overview
To resolve problems, a basic understanding of networking is required.
G3 FAX
NIC FAX Overview

NIC FAX Mail Server
The drawing shows the route used for the various features used by this machine. $-# LAN fax tx: 200-dpi printer: $ 200-dpi scanner: &-% #-&-% Autorouting: #-&-% Forwarding: Internet fax (paper to paper): Internet fax (paper to PC): IC Fax Monitor: IC Viewer:
#
NIC FAX
PSTN
Client PC
&
Mail Server
Internet
&-( &-( $ On PC only
Client PC
H132T511.WMF
9 August 2003
Page 920
Faxing From a PC
Troubleshooting procedures
Use the following procedures to determine whether the machine or another part of the network is causing the problem.
Communication Item Route General LAN 1. Connection with the LAN
Action Check that the LAN cable is connected to the machine. Check that the LEDs on the NIC board and the hub are lit. Check that other devices connected to the LAN can communicate through the LAN.
Remarks
2. LAN activity
# G3
Refer to G3 fax communication troubleshooting
9 August 2003
Page 921

Communication Item Route $ Between NIC 1. Com Redirector Fax and PC Action Check the modem settings in Windows 95 Check the port setting in Windows 95 Make sure that the IP address registered in the machine is the same as the address stored in Com Redirector. Is the target NIC fax running? Check the transmission port setting. Check whether a PSTN access number is required. Check the Windows 95 network settings on the PC. Remarks
Faxing From a PC
Is the modem set up in Windows 95 control panel set up the same way as described in the operation manual? Are the printer properties in Windows 95 control panel created by the fax application software set up as in the operation manual? Refer to the operation manual for the application. Is the IP address registered in the TCP/IP properties in the Windows 95 network setup correct? Check the IP address with the administrator of the network.
2. Application fax software
3. Network settings on the PC
9 August 2003
Page 922

Communication Route Item 4. Check that PC can connect with the machine 5. LAN settings in the machine Action Use the ping command on the PC to contact the machine. Remarks
Faxing From a PC
% Between PC
and e-mail server
1. E-mail application software
2. Network settings on the PC
Check the LAN parameters Check if there is an IP address conflict with other PCs. Use the application to check if transmission and reception are possible with destinations other than the NIC fax machine. When an error message appears in the application, solve it first. Check the PCs Is the IP address Windows 95network registered in the TCP/IP settings. properties in the Windows 95 network setup correct? Check the IP address with the administrator of the network.
At the MS-DOS prompt, type ping then the IP address of the machine, then press Enter. Use LAN parameters in service function 20. If there is an IP address conflict, inform the administrator. Inform the LAN administrator of the problem so that it can be dealt with.
9 August 2003
Page 923

Communication Route Item 3. E-mail account on the server Action Remarks
Faxing From a PC
4. E-mail server
& Between
machine and email server
1. LAN settings in the machine
Make sure that the PC Ask the administrator to can log into the e-mail check. server. Check that the account and password stored in the server are the same as in the machine. Make sure that the client Ask administrator to devices which have an check. account in the server Send test e-mail with the can send/receive e-mail. machines own number as the destination. The machine receives returned e-mail when the communication is performed successfully. Check the LAN Use LAN parameters parameters in service function 20. Check if there is an IP If there is an IP address address conflict with conflict, inform the other PCs. administrator.
9 August 2003
Page 924

Communication Route Item 2. E-mail account on the server Action Remarks
Faxing From a PC
& Between
machine and email server
3. E-mail server
( Between e-mail 1. E-mail account on

server and internet the Server
Make sure that the Ask the administrator to machine can log into the check. e-mail server. Check that the account and password stored in the server are the same as in the machine. Make sure that the client Ask the administrator to devices which have an check. account in the server Send test e-mail with the can send/receive e-mail. machines own number as the destination. The machine receives returned e-mail when the communication is performed successfully. Make sure that the PC Ask the administrator to can log into the e-mail check. server. Check that the account and password stored in the server are the same as in the machine.
9 August 2003
Page 925

Communication Route Item 2. E-mail server Action Remarks
Faxing From a PC
3. Destination e-mail address
4. Router settings
Make sure that the client Ask the administrator to devices which have an check. account in the server Send test e-mail with the can send/receive e-mail. machines own number as the destination. The machine receives returned e-mail when the communication is performed successfully. Make sure that the email address is actually used. Check that the e-mail address contains no incorrect characters such as spaces. Use the ping Ask the administrator of command to contact the the server to check. router. Check that other devices connected to the router can sent data over the router.
9 August 2003
Page 926

Communication Route Item Action Remarks
Faxing From a PC
5. Error message by e- Check whether e-mail mail from the can be sent to another network of the address on the same destination. network, using the application e-mail software. Check the error e-mail message.
Inform the administrator of the LAN.
9 August 2003
Page 927
Faxing From a PC
Symptoms For Troubleshooting

Internet fax machines use procedures which are not the same as the fax machines we are familiar with. The following can help solve problems in the field.
Decoding error during reception (1)

-- Possible Cause When the machine receives e-mail with attached files that are not in TIFF-F or DCX format, a decoding error occurs because the machine cannot decode the files. The error occurs even if a text file is attached. - Explanation/Action ITU-T and IETF require a TIFF-F formatted file to be attached for an Internet fax message. The sender should send the e-mail again, with a TIFF-F formatted file attached.
Decoding error during reception (2)

- Possible Cause The received e-mail has an attached file that has an unsupported resolution or page size. Messages of up to A4 width and up to 200 x 200 dpi resolution can be received. - Explanation/Action ITU-T and IETF specify a maximum size of A4 width for an attached file. The sender should resend the e-mail, with an A4 size file attached. The paper size is not negotiated during Internet fax handshaking.
Faxing From a PC
E-mail Transmission with Incorrect LAN Parameters

(The machine can send e-mail even though the host name and domain name are not stored in the machines LAN parameters.) - Possible Cause During transmission to the SMTP server, the host name and domain name stored in the machine are used in the argument of the SMTP HELO command. However, the SMTP server can receive the "HELO" command without the argument, so the machine does not check whether the host name and domain name are stored. - Explanation/Action At installation, the host name and the domain name are not required if they are unknown at the time. If incorrect names are stored, the SMTP server does not accept the HELO command and the machine cannot send e-mail to the SMTP server. Then, the machine fails to resend the correct number of times and prints an e-mail transmission error report.
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Page 929
Faxing From a PC
Error in the first part of the e-mail transmission procedure

- Possible Cause There is no domain name in the destination e-mail address (e.g., 123 is used instead of an e-mail address). - Explanation/Action When an e-mail address is sent to the SMTP server without a domain name (the address is blank is after the @ symbol), the server searches for the same user name in the local server. The server fails to find the user name then the transmission is rejected in accordance with SMTP procedures. This is done in the first part of the e-mail transmission SMTP procedure. NOTE: The following describes what happens if the domain name of the destination is correct but the user name of the destination is incorrect. 1) When an e-mail with a domain name which is different from the local domain name is sent, the SMTP server accepts the transmission and forwards the e-mail to the next SMTP server even if the user name of the e-mail address is incorrect. The local SMTP server cannot check user names in a remote server. 2) After that, the destination SMTP server checks the user name to see if that user has an account with the server. If there is no account, the server creates an e-mail error report and sends it to the sender, and this report is printed by the machine.
9 August 2003
Page 930
Faxing From a PC
LAN Parameters not listed after NIC Replacement

LAN parameters are not listed on the system parameter list after the NIC board is replaced. - Possible Cause Poor electrical contact between NIC board and machine - Explanation/Action When the machine does not recognize the NIC board, the NIC board does not initialized and LAN parameters are not listed. The NIC board should be installed again.
Communication ErrorE-mail Server Down

A communication error is indicated on the operation panel because the e-mail server is down. - Possible Cause The machine attempts to receive e-mail from the POP server by POP procedures at a regular interval. When the machine cannot contact the server, a POP error occurs in the machine. A POP error also occurs if the LAN cable is pulled out of the machine or if the network is down. When there is a POP error, a communication error is indicated on the display and the communication error LED is lit. - Explanation/Action The machine recovers from a POP error when either the next POP procedure or the next SMTP procedure with the server is performed successfully. The user does not have to press the Stop key.
Faxing From a PC
Transmission Error with Comma-separated Addresses When a number of e-mail addresses separated with commas are stored for transmission, a transmission error occurs. (eg. aaa@bbb.com, ccc@ddd.com, ddd@eee.com) - Possible Cause An SMTP error occurs in the above case. - Explanation/Action When storing more than one e-mail address, the user must press the Yes key after storing each address.
9 August 2003
Page 932
Fax Troubleshooting Techniques

Introduction
This section describes methods of solving commonly-occurring communication problems. Concerning copy quality and mechanical problem troubleshooting, specific troubleshooting procedures for each model are given in the Service Manuals.
Basic Troubleshooting Philosophy

Discuss the problem and its symptoms with the customer in detail There are many types of problem that can be encountered. Performance/operation errors Document jams (ADF problems) Copy paper jams Copy quality problems Communication problems
9 August 2003
Page 933
Understand when, where, how, and in what conditions the problem occurs. To do this, ask the user about the following aspects of the problem and the machine's location of installation. Location Office/warehouse Clean/dusty Temperature and humidity Power source (stability, dedicated/shared) Direct connection to the telephone company line PABX connection Dedicated/branched Tone dialling (DTMF)/pulse dialling DTMF/pulse dial CSI (full 20 digits) Auto dialling/manual dialling Auto reception/manual reception Type of model at the other end
Line
Settings Operation Others
9 August 2003
Page 934
Study the symptoms by making communication tests (Tx and Rx) - At the user's site Make tests with the terminal that the user was communicating with when the problem arose. Then, make tests with terminals that the user communicates with regularly. It is also helpful to call these terminals from a telephone in order to find out about the line condition (echoes, noise, and other line problems can be heard). After that, make tests with your test centre. Have your test centre observe the protocol sequence, modem rate, level, and line condition with an oscilloscope and other equipment. - At the test centre Make tests with the user end at first. Then, make tests with the other end that the user was communicating with when the problem arose. During these tests, observe the protocol sequence, etc. Make up a drawing of the protocol sequence using these observations. Try to adjust the terminal settings Try to solve the problem by adjusting bit switch or RAM address settings in the machine.
9 August 2003
Page 935
Sources of Line Problems in Telephone Circuits

Overview
Sources of problems affecting the quality of data transmission over the telephone network can be roughly classified into two groups, as shown below, in accordance with their character. Constant sources These include transmission loss, attenuation distortion, envelope delay, frequency deviation, echo, circuit noise, and non-linear distortion. Unpredictable sources These include impulse noise, dropouts, phase hits, and gain hits. It is necessary to consider the following characteristics of the telephone network when using data transmission equipment. Separate calls between the same terminals may be connected along different paths in the telephone network, thus causing differences in various transmission characteristics because of the difference in the connected links or types of exchange. Impulse noise, dropout and other types of interference having a great influence on data transmission and telephone communication are unpredictable both in their occurrence and in their effects. The characteristics of the communication network are continually being improved by the introduction of new systems or equipment. However, the mixture of new and old switches and various types of transmission equipment makes transmission characteristics irregular.
9 August 2003
Page 936
The following pages contain explanations of some sources of line problems. First, however, it is important to understand some of the terminology concerning the relationship between the data signal and noise. The following diagram illustrates the most important terms that are used on the next few pages. The diagram covers a wide frequency spectrum. However, the frequency range of modems in typical fax machines is only from 500Hz to 2900Hz.
Tshoot1.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 937
Another important term is the Signal to Noise ratio (S/N). To calculate the S/N (Signal to Noise) ratio, do the following. 1. Measure the level in dBm of the transmitted (or received) V21 protocol signal or V27/V29 document data signal. 2. Measure the white noise level in dBm. 3. To calculate the S/N ratio (dB), subtract the white noise level from the signal level. For example: Received signal level White noise level S/N ratio = -25 dBm = -50 dBm = -25 - (-50) dB = 25 dB
The S/N margin of a modem is the S/N ratio below which the modem cannot separate the data signal from the noise.
9 August 2003
Page 938
Transmission Loss
Transmitted signals are attenuated by the resistance of the telephone circuit, mainly due to the long copper cables. This weakening is known as transmission loss. Different sections of the circuit cause different amounts of transmission loss.
Attenuation Distortion
Signal levels at high frequencies level may be reduced by resistance and the length of the line. Cable equalizers can be used to counteract this problem. However, if the cable equalizer is overcorrected, the machine may be forced to fall back to a lower modem rate during training.
Tshoot2.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 939
White Noise and Circuit Noise

Circuit noise includes power supply noise and noise generated by components such as tubes and transistors. White noise is the major contributor to the background noise level at the receiving end and is the basic parameter used to determine the S/N margin of the modulation system. Data errors may be caused by a low S/N ratio but this is not the only cause of data transmission errors. Data transmission over a circuit with an S/N ratio that exceed the S/N margin for the modem is susceptible to interference such as impulse noise or envelope delay.
Impulse Noise
Impulse noise is unpredictable in generation interval and in amplitude. Therefore, the analysis of its generation, the method of measurement, and the evaluation of the effect on data signals are different from circuit noise. In data communication, impulse noise may alter the data signal, possibly causing an error. The diagram shows typical impulse noise clicks caused by a step-by-step switch. These clicks occur at irregular intervals.
Tshoot3.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 940
Time Unit Signal

Time unit signals are generated by the trunk exchange switchboard on the calling side and can be observed at the Tip and Ring (L1 and L2) terminals on the fax machine. The drawing shows an example of this type of signal. The charge billed to the caller is determined by the number of pulses generated by the trunk exchange switchboard. Pulses of long wavelengths cause no problems, but interference within the voice band may cause errors to the data.
Tshoot4.wmf
9 August 2003
Page 941

Level drop (dB)
10
Dropouts And Gain Hits
A dropout is a sharp decline of the received signal level in a relatively short time. This may have been caused by a line problem, a fault in a terminal, or another cause. In the ITU-T recommendations, a dropout is a drop in level of 6 dB or more over a duration of between 1 ms and 1 minute. A gain hit is a sudden increase or decrease in signal level. A dropout is a special case of gain hit, where the signal may become almost undetectable.
6 5
Impulse noise or gain hit
Dropout
Line problem or gain hit
Gain hit
0 0.5 [ms] 1 [ms] 1.5 [ms] 1 [min]
Duration
Tshoot5.wmf
CCITT definition of dropouts and gain hits
Envelope Delay
Voice, data, and other transmitted electric signals take some time to reach the receiving side. The received signal may be out of phase with the transmitted signal. The phase difference is known as envelope delay. If different envelope delays occur with different carrier frequencies, this is known as envelope delay distortion. Generally, the attenuation and phase characteristics of the transmission line vary depending on the signal frequency.
9 August 2003
Page 942
Effects of Line Problems on Copy Quality

The two major effects of line problems on copy quality are: Missing lines, causing shrinkage in the sub scan direction Cutoff, with the data abruptly stopping in the middle of the page. These are illustrated in the following set of diagrams.
Original
Tshoot6.wmf
Missing Lines
Tshoot7.wmf
Cutoff
Tshoot8.wmf
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Rx Is it a Tx or an Rx problem? Tx NG Check the Tx level OK NG Check for noise Use MH coding/drop the modem rate NG Increase the Tx level
Test Procedures
General
The diagram shows the basic testing procedure when dealing with line noise.
Check the Rx level and the S/N ratio OK OK
Use the cable equalizer, or ask the other party to increase their Tx level
NG Check for noise Change the training error tolerance Change the error threshold
OK
Check the other terminal
Use MH coding Drop the modem rate

Tshoot9.wmf
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Other problems that may occur are as follows: If the T1 timer runs out before a CED signal comes in from the other end, increase the T1 time. This problem may occur on international calls. If there are echoes on the line, switch on the echo countermeasure. If the other terminal is a fax board or other PC controlled device, you may have to change the reconstruction time of the 1st line from 6 s to 10 s. The adjustments mentioned above can be made in most models by bit switch. Some parameters can be changed using dedicated transmission parameters; these allow a technician to change a parameter for a particular destination only (for example, if echoes are frequently encountered when dialling a particular destination). For details on a particular model, refer to the Service Manual for that model.
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Decibel Level Measurement

Signal levels are measured in decibels. The decibel is the logarithm of the ratio of the output signal power (P1) to the input signal power (P2). dB = 10 log10(P1/P2) Logarithms are the most effective way to measure signal levels because: The ear responds to sound in a roughly logarithmic manner. The ratio between two levels, such as the S/N ratio, can be obtained simply by subtracting the two signal levels, instead of dividing. For measuring signal levels on telephone circuits, a standard reference value of 1 milliwatt (mW) is taken for P2. Signals measured in this way are quoted in dBm (decibels relative to 1 mW). dB = 10 log10 (Signal Power [in mW]/1 mW) A signal of 1 mW is quoted as 0 dBm. Each telephone circuit contains a 0 dBm reference point at the output of the telephone exchange at the sending end of the circuit. This reference point may also be referred to as the zero transmission level point (0TLP). Signal levels measured at any point in a circuit can be measured in dBm. For example, if a signal is delivering 100 mW of power, its level is 20 dBm. However, if you wish to quote relative gain or loss between two points in the circuit, the value must be stated in the dB unit. Also, ratios of signal levels, such as the S/N ratio, are quoted in dB.
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To measure signal levels, you can use an oscilloscope. For example, to measure the level of signals entering and leaving the fax machine, connect the oscilloscope across the Tip and Ring (L1 and L2) terminals on the fax machine. Measure the peak-to-peak level in millivolts (mVp-p) and convert it to dBm using the following table.
dBm 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 mVp-p 6.931 6.176 5.506 4.907 4.372 3.897 3.473 3.097 2.760 2.458 2.192 1.954 1.742 1.553 1.383 1.233 1.097 0.978 0.874 0.777 0.693 dBm -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -17 -18 -19 -20 -22 -24 -26 -28 -30 -32 -34 -36 -38 -40 mVp-p 0.617 0.551 0.492 0.438 0.390 0.348 0.308 0.277 0.246 0.221 0.175 0.139 0.110 0.088 0.071 0.054 0.042 0.034 0.028 0.023
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Signal levels vary from country to country in accordance with local regulations. However, transmitted signals are usually between 0 and -15 dBm, and received signals are normally in the region of -20 to -34 dBm. CAUTION: Do not place grounded test equipment across the Tip and Ring (L1 and L2) terminals. This will cause an imbalance in the phone line, leading to erroneous readings or even line disconnection. If the test equipment is grounded, bypass the ground by plugging the three-pin plug into an adapter that converts the plug into a two-pin plug (do not cut off the ground plug of the power cord).
Back-to-back Tests
If you wish to test communication between two fax machines directly, without having to connect them through any type of exchanger or switching device, you can carry out a back-to-back test. The procedure is as follows. 1. In both of the machines, enable back-to-back test mode. This is normally done by adjusting a bit switch; refer to the Service Manual for the machine for details. 2. Connect the two machines together with a line cord. Do not connect a switching device between the machines. 3. Place a document in the feeder of one of the machines. 4. Press the Start key on both machines at about the same time. 5. After finishing the test, put the back-to-back test mode bit switch back to the default setting in both machines.
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Note Normally, a battery must be connected somewhere in the circuit between the two machines to supply line voltage. This voltage simulates the voltage supplied by the telephone network. However, some machines have a circuit to generate this voltage. If both machines in the test have such a circuit, then activate the circuit in both machines before starting the test, and deactivate it after the test. There is no need to connect a battery. Refer to the model's Service Manual for details on how to activate this circuit for each model.
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Common Fax Features
Common Fax Features

This section contains technical descriptions of some fax features that are common to most models.
Auto Service Calls

Service Call Conditions
The machine makes an automatic service call to the service station telephone number when an error code occurs. The error codes specified for this feature may differ from model to model.
Periodic Service Call

The periodic service call notifies the condition of the machine to the service station. The call is made periodically at a time interval programmed in RAM. The Call Service indicator does not light for a periodic service call, so that the machine can be operated normally after it has sent the service call.
PM Call
If PM call is enabled, the machine will make an automatic service call when the PM counter reaches the PM call interval in RAM. The Call Service indicator does not light for a PM service call, and the machine can be operated normally after it has made the service call.
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Common Fax Features
Excessive Jam Alarms

JAM 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 NO-JAM1 16 12 8 4 0 NO-JAM2 48 32 16 48 pages fed without jam CLR Threshold (=48) 16 pages fed without jam 16 pages fed without jam 16 pages fed without jam DEC Threshold (=16) 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 OR CALL Threshold (=6)
Decrement Decrement Reset to zero
72
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
16
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
H516d535.wmf
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Common Fax Features
The excessive jam alarm automatically notifies the service station when the machine's scanner or printer frequently has jam problems. Each type of jam has three counters allocated to it (JAM, NO-JAM1, NO-JAM2). Each of these counters has a threshold value (CALL, DEC, and CLR respectively; these can be adjusted.) The machine uses these counters to monitor jams as follows. JAM: Jam counter used to place a service call NO-JAM1: Counter used for JAM counter decrement NO-JAM2: Counter used for clearing the JAM counter Each time a jam occurs: The JAM counter is increased by 1, and NO-JAM1 and NO-JAM2 are both set to zero. When JAM reaches CALL (6 by default), the machine sends an Auto Service Report with a System Parameter List. If a sheet of paper is fed without a jam occurring: NO-JAM1 and NO-JAM2 are both incremented by 1. When NO-JAM1 reaches DEC (16 by default), NO-JAM1is set to zero, and JAM is decremented by 1. When NO-JAM2 reaches CLR (48 by default), NO-JAM2 and JAM are both reset to zero. The CALL, DEC, and CLR thresholds can be adjusted for each type of jam. The Call Service indicator does not light for an excessive jam alarm, and the machine can be operated normally after the automatic service call has been made.
Effective Term of Service Calls

If a time limit for the effectiveness of service calls is programmed, the machine stops making automatic service calls after the time limit.
Common Fax Features
Fax On Demand
Overview
Fax On Demand is a polling application with pre-recorded voice assistance. A caller can get one or more fax messages in one polling operation using a DTMF tone sequence. A password (Remote ID) can be used to secure the information from unauthorized access.
Circuit
Example: H515
DTMF Receiver
MFDU
EXIO-2 (IC4)
MFCE
LPC
SCP
NCU
HIC
Modem
Speaker
Playback
Message Playback / Transmission Voice A/D Converter
FOD Card
SRAM (512kB)
Microphone
Message Record
Serial Interface Bus Interface
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Common Fax Features
The machine can have several voice messages to instruct the caller. The voice messages are recorded using the microphone, then the Voice A/D Converter on the MFCE converts them into digital format and stores them in the SRAM inside the Fax On Demand card. When playing back a message or transmitting it to a caller, the Voice A/D Converter converts the digitized message back to an analog voice message and sends it to the speaker or the NCU through the HIC on the MFDU. The SRAM on the Fax On Demand card is backed up by a battery on the card.
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Common Fax Features
Protocol
Tx
Dial
Rx
Ring Detection Dial
Tx
Rx
Ring Detection
CNG
CNG/DTMF Detection
Message "This is a fax service ... "
Message "This is a fax service ... " "1" Box No. Specified "5" "#" "#" "#"
CNG CED NSF DIS
Message
Message "Press Start ..." CED NSF DIS DIS or NSF
CNG/DTMF Detection
CNG
No Box No. Specified
H515D523 wmf
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Common Fax Features
After ringing detection, the machine sends a pre-recorded message, and at the same time, starts to detect CNG signals or DTMF tones from the caller. The dedicated DTMF receiver on the MFDU is used to detect both CNG signals and DTMF tones. If the machine detects CNG signals, the machine goes into fax reception mode. If the machine detects DTMF tone signals, the machine then sends some more messages to instruct the caller what to do. After the last message has been sent to the caller, the machine goes into fax transmission mode. Sometimes the machine might not detect DTMF signals while the machine is transmitting a voice message. To avoid this, the messages should instruct the caller to send DTMF signals after the message has been finished. While Fax On Demand is enabled, the machine disables receiving Transfer Request using DTMF tones, because it may use the same key sequence.
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Common Fax Features
Line Type Change

When the machine is initially used only with the PSTN, the line type programmed with phone numbers in Quick Dials and the Speed Dials is stored as PSTN G3. Later, if the line connection is changed so that G3 is to be used only with the ISDN, the communication port for all stored Quick and Speed Dials must be changed to ISDN G3. This feature allows the communication mode and port to be changed for all stored numbers at once. Procedure: 1) Change the following data in RAM. Current line type setting Line type to be used after this procedure 2) Turn the main switch off and on. Then, the machine checks all phone numbers stored in Quick Dials, Speed Dials, AI Redial, and Forwarding Stations. If the communication mode and the port setting for a number are the same as specified for the current line type setting above, the machine changes these to the new setting. Do not use this procedure if there are any files stored in the memory awaiting transmission.
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Common Fax Features
Parallel Memory Transmission

Using memory transmission, normally the machine starts dialing after the document has been completely scanned. Using Parallel Memory Transmission, the machine starts dialing at the same time the machine starts scanning. If the document has multiple pages, the machine scans them into memory and sends them at the same time. The following table shows the differences between normal memory transmission and parallel memory transmission. Memory tx File Reserve Report If the other terminal is busy Printed, if automatic report printout is enabled. Tries to resend the message later. Tries to resend the remaining pages later. Stops scanning and erases all the scanned pages from memory, if the user agrees to erase them. Parallel memory tx Not printed. Continues scanning the document into memory, and tries to resend it later. Tries to resend the remaining pages later. Stops scanning and hangs up the communication when memory overflow is detected. Then erases all the scanned pages from memory without
Page 958
If transmission failed If memory overflows during scanning
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Common Fax Features
notifying the user. If a document jam occurred during scanning How and when the scanned message is erased from memory Memory threshold to start scanning into memory Meaning of the stamp mark Batch numbering (P. x/x) Stops scanning and deletes all the scanned pages from memory. The complete message is erased after all the pages have been sent. Depends on the setting of communication switch 0D. H515 Default setting 24kB Successfully stored. Enabled Stops scanning and hangs up the communication when a document jam is detected. Each page is erased after the page has been successfully sent. Depends on the setting of system switch 10. H515 Default setting 512 kB Successfully stored. Not available unless the number of pages is programmed manually.
Using G4 transmission, parallel memory transmission is normally disabled because the transmission speed is much faster than the scanning speed. Transmission using parallel memory transmission is about twice as long as normal memory transmission (using an ITU-T #1 test chart).
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Common Fax Features
However, if the document contains pages with complicated images or when sending a photo document using halftone, using parallel memory transmission may be faster than normal memory transmission. If the user commonly sends this type of fax message, enable parallel memory transmission for G4 transmission by changing system switch 11, bit 7 to 1.
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Common Fax Features
Page Separation and Sub-scan Reduction

Introduction
In fax machines that use cut paper (such as laser fax machines), there is a problem if the incoming message is longer than the copy paper. This section explains the settings that control how the machine deals with this problem. The two techniques used are: Page separation: Printing the received page on two or more sheets of copy paper. Sub-scan reduction: Reducing the data in the sub-scan direction so that it will fit on the page. This means that the image will appear to be squashed. The methods used so far can be classified into two types (there is no special reason for having two different methods). These will be described separately Method 1 (normally used in standalone fax machines) Method 2 (normally used in fax board options for digital copiers)
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Common Fax Features
Method 1
Example: H515 The process depends on whether reduction is enabled or disabled. This is a bit switch adjustment.
If reduction is disabled
Case 1: If the incoming page is up to x mm longer than the copy paper, the excess portion will not print.
Received message Printout
Copy paper length
x mm
H515dis1.wmf
The value of x is adjusted by bit switch. It can be between 0 and 15 mm.
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Common Fax Features
Case 2: If the incoming page is more than x mm longer than the copy paper, the message is printed on more than one sheet of paper.
Received message P.1 Printout (two pages) P.1
Copy paper length OR

A B A A
x mm
P.2
P.2
A B
The last few lines of the first page can be repeated at the top of the second page, or not (look at points A and B in the above diagram). This is another bit switch adjustment. A mark can be printed on incoming messages that have been printed on more than one page.
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Common Fax Features
If reduction is enabled:
Case 1: If the incoming message is more than 5 mm shorter than the copy paper, there is no reduction. This 5 mm is a fixed value.
Received message Printout No reduction Copy paper length
5 mm
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Common Fax Features
Case 2: If the incoming message is within 5 mm shorter than the copy paper and a certain maximum limit, the page is reduced in the sub-scan direction.
Copy paper length
Reduced
Limit
H515en2.wmf
This maximum limit depends on the copy paper size, and the reduction ratio selected for that copy paper size. (Example: For A4 at a reduction ratio of 4/3, this limit is 388.8 mm.) Beyond this maximum limit, the incoming data cannot be reduced to fit on the copy paper. The reduction ratio for each copy paper size can be adjusted with bit switches.
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Common Fax Features
The following tables show the limits for each copy paper size. These have been the same in all recent models. USA Models - Resolution: lines/mm Copy Type Letter Legal Printable Page Length 279.2 mm 355.6 mm Ratio = 4/3 365.2 mm 467.0 mm Maximum Limit Ratio = 8/7 313.0 mm 400.3 mm Ratio = 12/11 298.7 mm 382.1 mm
- Resolution: lines/inch Copy Type Letter Legal Printable Page Length 279.4 mm 355.6 mm Ratio = 4/3 365.8 mm 467.4 mm Maximum Limit Ratio = 8/7 313.4 mm 400.6 mm Ratio = 12/11 299.2 mm 382.3 mm
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Common Fax Features
Europe/Asia Models - Resolution: lines/mm Paper Type A5 Sideways A4 F4 Printable Page Length 147.8 mm 296.9 mm 330.1 mm Maximum Reducible Incoming Page Length Ratio = 4/3 Ratio = 8/7 Ratio = 12/11 190.1 mm 162.9 mm 155.3 mm 388.8 mm 333.2 mm 318.2 mm 433.2 mm 371.2 mm 354.3 mm
- Resolution: lines/inch Paper Type A5 Sideways A4 F4 Printable Page Length 147.8 mm 296.9 mm 330.2 mm Maximum Reducible Incoming Page Length Ratio = 4/3 Ratio = 8/7 Ratio = 12/11 190.2 mm 163.4 mm 155.7 mm 388.9 mm 333.5 mm 318.3 mm 433.3 mm 371.3 mm 354.6 mm
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Common Fax Features
Case 3: If the incoming message is longer than the maximum limit, it is not reduced. It is printed on more than one sheet of paper, in a similar manner to case 2 when reduction is disabled (see above).
Received message P.1 Copy paper length OR
A B A A
Printout (two pages); no reduction P.1
P.2 Limit
P.2
A B
The last few lines of the first page can be repeated at the top of the second page, or not (look at points A and B in the above diagram). This is another bit switch adjustment. A mark can be printed on incoming messages that have been printed on more than one page.
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Common Fax Features
Bit Switch Summary

- General Reduction, enable/disable - If reduction is disabled Page separation threshold Repetition of the last few lines of the previous page at the top of the next page Page separation mark - If reduction is enabled In addition to the above three switches for when reduction is disabled, there is the following: Reduction ratio for each copy paper size Each paper size can have a separate reduction ratio. Example: H545, Printer switches 04 and 05 In each of the two bit switches, there is one bit for each possible paper size. The combination of the bit settings determines the ratio for that paper size.
Bit No. Bit 7 Bit 6 Bit 5 Switch Not used Not used Legal No. Sw 04 0: 4/3 1: 4/3 Sw 05 0: 0: Bit 4 F4 Bit 3 A4 0: 8/7 1: Bit 2 Letter Bit 1 Not used Bit 0 A5 sideways
1: 12/11 1:
For example, bit 3 in switches 04 and 05 determine the reduction ratio for A4. If bit 3 is 1 in switch 04 and 0 in switch 05, the reduction ratio for A4 is 4/3.
Common Fax Features
Method 2
Example: A891 The process depends on whether reduction is enabled or disabled. This is a bit switch adjustment.
If reduction is disabled
Case 1: If the incoming page is shorter than the copy paper length + x mm but longer than the paper length - 4 mm, the part of the image after paper length - 4 mm will be lost
Received Image Paper length - 4 mm Within Paper length +x mm Printed Image
Not printed
A891dis1.wmf
The value of x is adjusted by bit switch. It can be between 0 and 15 mm. It is known as the page separation threshold. The 2 mm gaps at the leading and trailing edges depend on the leading and trailing edge margin settings.
Common Fax Features
Case 2: If the image is longer than the copy paper length + x mm, it is printed on more than one sheet of paper.
Received Image Paper length - 4 mm Paper length - 14 mm
A
Printout, with duplication
Printout, with no duplication
A A
A891dis2.wmf
The last few mm of the first page can be repeated at the top of the second page, or not (note the repetition or non-repetition of A in the diagram). This is another bit switch adjustment. The amount of repeated data can also be adjusted by bit switch. In the above diagram, it is 10 mm. The bottom of the repeated part of the data is always at paper length 4 mm. If the amount of duplicated data is 10 mm, then the top of the data is at paper length 14 mm. A mark can be printed on incoming messages that have been printed on more than one page.
Common Fax Features
If reduction is enabled:
Case 1: If the incoming message is more than 4 mm shorter than the copy paper, there is no reduction. This 4 mm is a fixed value.
Received message Printout No reduction Copy paper length
4 mm
A891en1.wmf
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Common Fax Features
Case 2: If the incoming message is within 5 mm shorter than the copy paper and a certain maximum limit, the page is reduced in the sub-scan direction.
Copy paper length
Reduced
Limit
This maximum limit depends on a bit switch setting. Typically, it can be between 0 and 155 mm, with a default setting of 20 mm. This limit is also known as the page separation threshold (there is a different threshold for when reduction is disabled).It is used for all paper sizes. The size of the limit determines the maximum reduction ratio that is used. A larger value allows greater reduction. However, the actual reduction that is used depends on the length of the message; the message is always reduced to fit on the copy paper exactly, so the ratio will differ from case to case.
A891en2 wmf
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Common Fax Features
Case 3: If the length of the incoming message exceeds the maximum limit, a feature called reduction rate equalization comes into play. If this is switched off, the incoming page is printed on more than one page. However, reduction is only used in the final page. The diagram shows an example where duplication is enabled, the amount of duplicated data is 10 mm, and the maximum limit is 20 mm. Again, the maximum reduction rate for the final page depends on the value of this limit, and the actual reduction rate used depends on the amount of data that has to fit on the final page of copy paper.
Received Image Paper length - 4 mm Paper length - 14 mm
A
Printout
Not reduced
A A
Between paper length - 4 mm and paper length + 20 mm
Reduced
A891en3.wmf
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Common Fax Features
1. The data up to [page length - 4 mm] will be printed on page 1, without reduction. 2. The last 10 mm of this data will be repeated at the top of the next page (this length can be can be adjusted or repetition can be switched off). 3. The remaining data will be printed on page 2, with reduction, if it is within [paper length 4 mm] [paper length + 20 mm]. The 20 mm limit can be adjusted with bit switches. 4. If it is longer than this, page separation is done again. Data up to [paper length - 4 mm] will be printed on page 2, without reduction. 5. The process for page 3 and subsequent pages will repeat from step 2.
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Common Fax Features
Case 4: If the length of the incoming message exceeds the maximum limit, and reduction rate equalization is on, the incoming page is printed on more than one page. Reduction is used on all pages of the output, at the same reduction ratio. The diagram shows an example where duplication is enabled, the amount of duplicated data is 10 mm, and the maximum limit is 20 mm.
Received Image A A must equal B

A
Printout
Reduced
A
B
Within (paper length x 2) + 20 mm
Reduced
A891en4.wmf
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Common Fax Features
1. The machine determines how many pages will be needed to print the message, taking the following into account: The final page (n) is such that the received image length is within (paper length x n) + 20 mm The data must be reduced to fit on pages of length (paper length - 4 mm), with an equal reduction rate for each page. The last 10 mm of the previous page will be repeated at the top of the next page (this length can be adjusted or repetition can be disabled). 2. The machine prints all the pages, at the same reduction rate.
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Common Fax Features
Bit Switch Summary

- General Reduction, enable/disable - If reduction is disabled Page separation threshold for when reduction is disabled Repetition of the last few mm of the previous page at the top of the next page Amount of repeated data (if repetition is enabled) Page separation mark Page separation, on/off - If reduction is enabled Page separation threshold for when reduction is enabled Reduction rate equalization, on/off Repetition of the last few mm of the previous page at the top of the next page Amount of repeated data (if repetition is enabled) Page separation mark Page separation, on/off Note that there is a switch to disable page separation. If page separation is disabled, any message requiring this feature is kept in the SAF memory (using Substitute Reception) until a paper size is installed that can be used to print the message without page separation.
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Process Control
Basic Concepts
Process control is a system that automatically changes machine processes to compensate for changes in the environment or the machine condition. The objective of process control is to stabilize the quality of image output. The practical result is a decrease in the frequency of service calls, thus increasing customer satisfaction and decreasing service cost. The box to the right lists the machine conditions that process control compensates for.
Basic Concepts OPC Analog Systems OPC Digital Systems Selenium Analog Systems Target Machine Conditions ! Dirty optics ! Exposure lamp deterioration ! Dirty charge corona wire/grid ! Change of drum sensitivity ! Deterioration of developer
In this section (Basic Concepts) we will take an overall look at process control. Then we will look at the details of process control using several example machines. We will look at two OPC analog machinesone using a potential sensor (model A095) and one using a V sensor (model A074). Then we will study an OPC digital system (model A229). Finally, we will look at selenium drum analog systems (models A029 and A058).
NOTE: Unlike other parts of the Core Technology Manual, we don't pull out and compare example sub-units of process control but instead look at the process control systems of the example machines in their entirety. This is because process control components are interactive and best studied as a whole.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
Latent Image Control and Image Density Control

This illustration represents a copier model that uses two process control methods. One compensates for variation in the drum potential (latent image control) and the other controls the toner concentration and toner supply amount (image density control). All process control components affect one or the other (or both) of these methods.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
Latent Image Control
The figure shows the changes of the drum potential during the copy process. VO VD (Dark Potential) VL (Light Potential) VR (Residual Voltage) Drum potential just after charging the drum. Drum potential just after exposing the black pattern (VD pattern) Drum potential just after exposing the white pattern (VL pattern) Drum potential just after the exposure of the erase lamp.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
Image Density Control

The following sensors control image density. Toner density sensor (TD sensor) Image density sensor (ID sensor)
Data from the TD sensor is used to keep the toner concentration in the developer at a constant level. However, the image on the OPC drum varies due to the variation of toner chargeability (influenced by the environment) even if the toner concentration is constant. By the ID sensor compensation, toner concentration is changed to keep the image density on the OPC drum constant. The following items are controlled to maintain a constant copy image density: Toner supply clutch on time Toner supply level data (VREF) of the TD sensor
NOTE: Some machines do not have a TD sensor and use only an ID sensor for image density control.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
Terminology and Abbreviations

The following list explains the meaning of some of the terms and abbreviations used when describing process control. VO (Original Potential) VD (Dark Potential) VL (Light Potential) VR (Residual Voltage) Potential Sensor VL Pattern VD Pattern ID Sensor The drum potential after the drum is charged. The drum potential in black image areas after exposure. Standard VD is the potential measured after exposing a black pattern. The drum potential in white image areas after exposure. Standard VL is the potential measured after exposing a white pattern. The drum potential after the drum has been exposed by the erase lamp. A sensor used to measure the strength of the charge on the OPC drum surface (drum potential). A standard white pattern used for reference. On some machines the VL pattern is actually a light gray tone rather than pure white. A standard black pattern used for reference. A photosensor that measures the image density (reflectivity) of the drum and of a test pattern (ID sensor pattern). The output of this sensor is used to control toner supply.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
ID Sensor Pattern VSG VSP VLAMP VB or VBB TD Sensor VREF
A standard pattern that is exposed and developed for sensing by the ID sensor. The ID sensor output when checking the erased drum surface. The ID sensor output when checking the ID sensor pattern image. Exposure lamp voltage. Development bias. Toner density sensorit measures the concentration of toner in the developer. A targeted control reference for the TD sensor. When VTD becomes too low, toner is added to the developer to bring VTD back to the VREF value. The output voltage of the TD sensor. A reflective photosensor similar to the ID sensor that is used to indirectly measure the drum potential. It was used prior to the development of the potential sensor system and will be found in earlier models using process control. Charge corona grid potential.
VTD, VT, or VOUT V Sensor
VG or VGRID
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PROCESS CONTROL
Basic Concepts
VH (Halftone Potential)
A standard halftone drum potential. This value is used for laser power adjustment in the process control system of some digital products.
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PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
OPC Analog Systems

Model A095Process Control Using a Potential Sensor
After long usage following installation or a PM, drum potential will gradually increase due to the following factors: Dirty optics or exposure lamp deterioration Dirty charge corona casing and grid plate Change of the drum sensitivity In this copier, the change in drum potential is detected by the drum potential sensor and the following items are controlled to maintain good copy quality. The grid bias voltage The exposure lamp voltage The development bias voltage. A drum thermistor detects the drum temperature and this data is also used to control the above voltages. It is impossible to explain simply because it is controlled by methods developed in our laboratories using an artificial neural network.
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PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
Process Control Data Initial Setting

The flow chart shows the steps performed when turning on the machine while the hot roller temperature is below 100C. This initializes all the process control settings.
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PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
Latent Image Control

Drum Potential Sensor Calibration
The drum potential sensor [A] detects the strength of the electrical potential on the drum. The output of the potential sensor depends on the strength of the electrical field on the drum. Since environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity affect sensor output, the sensor output data is recalibrated during each process control initialization. The High Voltage Control PCB [B] has two relay contacts. Usually RA602 grounds the drum. However, during the initial setting, the main PCB turns RA601 on and RA602 off and applies the recalibration voltage to the drum shaft. By measuring the output of the drum potential sensor when 100 V and 800 V are applied to the drum, the sensor output data is calibrated automatically. (The machine recognizes the relationship between actual drum potential and the potential sensor output.) To prevent toner attraction during potential sensor calibration, an equivalent bias voltage (-100 and -800) is applied to the development rollers.
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VR Measurement
The relationship between the drum potential and the original density is illustrated at right. To get consistent copy quality throughout the drums life, this relationship must be maintained. Since this relationship changes due to various factors to the one represented by the dotted line, compensation is required. Factors causing these changes occur in the optics and charge sections and in drum sensitivity. The residual voltage (VR) cannot be compensated even if exposure lamp voltage is increased. Therefore, the VR change has to be compensated by other means. After drum conditioning the main control board turns on the erase lamps. Then the potential sensor checks the drum potential. This measured drum potential is in fact VR. This VR is used as the standard for the VD and VL corrections. NOTE: In the figure above, the residual voltage (VR) for the new drum is 0V. Actually, there is some residual voltage even on a new drum.
PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
VD Correction
The drum potential just after the black pattern (VD Pattern) is exposed (VD: Dark Potential) tends to lower during drum life due to a decrease in the drums capacity to carry a charge. To check the actual VD, the first scanner moves to the home position and the VD pattern (Black) mounted on the bottom of the exposure glass bracket, is exposed on the drum. The main control board measures VD through the drum potential sensor and adjusts it to a target value by adjusting the grid bias voltage (VGRID). On the other hand, there is a change of the drum residual voltage (VR), so that the target VD voltage is compensated as follows: Target VD Value: VD = VR + (770) The adjusted grid bias voltage (VGRID) is kept in memory until the next process control data initial setting.
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VL Correction
Dirty optics and exposure lamp deterioration decreases the intensity of the light that reaches the drum. In addition to this, the drum sensitivity also changes during the drums life. These factors change the drum potential just after white pattern exposure (VL: Light Potential). To check the actual VL, the lens moves to the VL pattern check position. The VL pattern (White) mounted on the bottom of the exposure glass bracket is exposed on the drum. The main control board measures VL through the drum potential sensor and adjusts it to a target value by adjusting the exposure lamp voltage (VLAMP). The residual voltage (VR) change also affects VL, so that VLs target voltage is compensated as follows: Target VL Value: VL = VR + (140) The adjusted exposure lamp voltage (VLAMP) is stored in memory until the next process control data initial setting.
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VR Correction
Potentials (VR, VD, VL) are monitored by the potential sensor. (This is done only when the fusing temperature is less than 100C after the machine is turned on.) During the check cycle, the VD and VL patterns are exposed and the drum potential of the area exposed by each pattern is checked by the potential sensor. Compare the curve of the VD and VL compensated drum potential with the curve of the new drum, they are parallel but the compensated potential is still higher (VR) than the new drum potential. To prevent dirty backgrounds due to increased residual potential, development bias (VBB) is applied as follows: VBB = VR + (220) The adjusted development bias (VBB) is stored in memory until the next process control initial setting.
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OPC Analog Systems

Toner density sensor (TD sensor)
Toner weight %
Developer consists of carrier particles (iron) and toner particles (resin and carbon). Inside the development unit, developer passes through a magnetic field created by coils inside the toner density sensor. When the toner concentration changes, the voltage output by the sensor changes accordingly.
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OPC Analog Systems
When new developer with the standard toner concentration (2.0% by weight, 20 g of toner in 1000 g of developer for the illustrated machine) is installed, developer initial setting must be performed by using SP mode. During this setting, the output voltage (VOUT) from the auto gain control circuit (AGC) on the main control board PCB varies to change the output voltage from the toner density (TD) sensor. This is done by changing the gain data as follows.
If the data is high, VOUT becomes high, and the sensor output voltage becomes high. As a result, the sensor characteristic becomes as illustrated by curve A. If the data is low, VOUT becomes low, and the sensor output voltage becomes low. As a result, the sensor characteristic shifts as illustrated by curve C. By selecting the proper gain data, the sensor output is set within the targeted control level (VREF, VREF = 2.5 0.1 V). Now, the sensor characteristic is illustrated by curve B and the TD sensor initial setting is completed. The selected gain data is stored in memory, and VOUT from the auto gain control circuit stays constant during the toner sensor detection cycle.
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OPC Analog Systems
Toner Supply Criteria

At every copy cycle, toner density in the developer is detected once. The sensor output voltage (VTD) during the detection cycle is compared with the toner supply level voltage (VREF).
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OPC Analog Systems
Toner Supply Clutch on Time

To stabilize toner concentration, toner supply amount (toner supply clutch on time) is controlled by referring to VREF and VTD. The toner supply amount is calculated at every copy. The toner supply amount is determined by using the following factors. 1. VREF VTD 2. VREF VTD' (VTD' = VTD of the previous copy cycle)
By referring to these factors, the machine recognizes the difference between the current toner concentration (VTD) and the target toner concentration (VREF). The machine also understands how much toner concentration has changed and predicts how much the toner supply amount will probably change. By changing the toner supply amount precisely, toner concentration (image density) is kept at a constant level. Since the toner supply clutch on time updating is under fuzzy control, the relation among VTD, V TD', VREF cannot be expressed by a simple algebraic formula.
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VREF Correction
The image on the OPC drum changes due to variation of toner chargeability (influenced by the environment) even if the toner concentration is constant. The image density sensor (ID sensor) directly checks the image on the OPC drum and shifts VREF data (under fuzzy control) to keep the image on the OPC drum constant, as explained in the next section. NOTE: 1. Toner end condition is detected by the toner end sensor. 2. The toner supply clutch turns on at the intervals between each copy process while image development is not being performed.
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OPC Analog Systems
Image density sensor (ID sensor)

VSG and VSP are checked by the ID sensor [A]. The ID sensor is located underneath the drum cleaning section. There is no ID sensor pattern in the optics, however, a pattern image is made on the OPC drum by the charge corona unit [B] and the erase lamp [C]. VSG is the ID sensor output when checking the erased drum surface. VSP is the ID sensor output when checking the ID sensor pattern image.
To compensate for any variation in light intensity from the sensor LED, the reflectivity of both the erased drum surface and the pattern on the drum are checked.
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In the above example, VSG is detected every time the machine starts copying. During VSG detection, the development sleeve rollers do not rotate and no development bias is applied. VSP is detected after copying is completed if 10 or more copies have been made since VSP was last detected. Since the transfer belt must be released when checking VSP, a VSP check cannot be done during continuous copying.
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Model A074Process Control Using a V sensor

The copy process around the drum and the copy image (image and background density) are controlled by many factors. The following items are controlled during the copy process to maintain good copy quality: exposure lamp (optics) grid bias (drum charge) development bias (development) toner supply (development)
The items above use various electrical components for the various process control functions. The most significant of these are for the control of the drum residual voltage, exposure lamp voltage and drum aging.
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Overview
During the OPC drums life, residual drum voltage gradually increases due to electrical fatigue. This may cause dirty background on copies. The V sensor is used to avoid this problem. The V sensor is located in the drum unit, near the ID sensor. The CPU checks the drum residual voltage through the V sensor by directly sensing the VR pattern on the drum surface. This VR pattern detection is performed after the drum initial setting. After this, the CPU will do one VR pattern detection every 200 copies for the next 2,000 copies, and every 1,000 copies after that. Also when VR data correction is applied and the drum temperature goes over 25C, this detection is performed. According to the data of VR pattern detection, the CPU applies VR correction to the grid bias voltage and the development bias voltage.
Residual Voltage
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VR Pattern Control
The VR pattern is made on the drum before the original latent image, as in the case of the ID sensor pattern. During VR pattern detection, the drum surface is charged with a fixed grid bias voltage: -500V + VG correction (Drum Rotation Time Control). At the same time all the blocks of the erase lamp unit turn on to illuminate this charged area of the drum. The exposed area of the drum is developed with a fixed bias voltage for non-image area: -160V + VR correction + VR Data correction (Drum Temperature Control) + Black Bias correction. The V sensor checks the reflectivity of the bare area of the drum and this sensor output voltage is called Vrg. (Vrg is the same as Vsg detected by the ID sensor.) Next to this bare drum area, the drum is developed with VR pattern bias voltage (0V). If there is residual voltage on the drum, this area of the drum will attract some toner, making a VR pattern. The V sensor checks the reflectivity of the VR pattern and this sensor output voltage is called Vrp.
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VR Correction
The CPU notes the ratio, of Vrp/Vrg. This VR pattern check is done 5 times in a row during the copy cycle and the CPU takes their average. The reference voltage of the V sensor output Vrg, is automatically adjusted to 4V at the same time as Vsg isadjusted.
VR Level 0 1 2 3 4 VrpxVrg x 100(%) 100~84 83~58 57~41 40~28 27~0 Grid bias correction voltage 0 V 40 V 80 V 120 V 160 V Development bias correction voltage 0 V 40 V 80 V 120 V 160 V
The grid bias voltage and the development bias voltage are corrected (VR correction) according to the ratio between Vrp and Vrg as shown in the above table.
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OPC Analog Systems
VL Pattern Control Overview

Dirty optics or deterioration of the exposure lamp decreases the intensity of the light that reaches the drum via the optics cavity. As more copies are made during the drums life, the photoconductive layer gets worn and drum sensitivity drops. The drum sensitivity also drops under low temperature condition. VL pattern control is performed on this copier to prevent dirty backgrounds caused by the factors mentioned above. The V sensor is used for VL and for VR pattern control. The VL pattern (light gray) is located on the bottom of the left scale bracket. When a copy job finishes, VL pattern detection occurs. The exposure lamp stays on for about 6 seconds while at the home position. The VL pattern is lit and a latent image is made on the drum. After this image is developed, its reflectivity is checked by the V sensor. The CPU notes the strength of reflectivity, and if the reflected light is too weak, the exposure lamp voltage is increased.
ID Pattern
PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
VL Pattern Detection
VL pattern detection is done after VR pattern detection, but unlike VR pattern detection it is done after the copy job is finished. This means after the drum initial setting, based on specific copy counts and when the drum temperature goes over 25C under the VR data correction condition. When VL pattern detection starts, the exposure lamp turns on, the main motor stays on, the charge corona, grid bias, all the blocks of the erase lamp, the pre-transfer and quenching lamps turn on. After about one drum revolution, the appropriate blocks of the erase lamp turn off and on to make a VL pattern on the drum surface. The drum surface is developed with non-image area bias for both the bare drum and VL pattern. The V sensor checks the reflectivity of the bare drum (Vlg) and the VL pattern (Vlp). The CPU calculates the ratio between Vlp and Vlg (Vlp/Vlg). The VL pattern is made 4 times with 150 mm distance between each pattern. The CPU takes the average of Vlp/Vlg (=Vdat).
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VL Correction
When the drum initial setting (SP mode #66) is performed and more than 7 black copies are made, the initial VL detection is performed at the end of the copy job and the CPU stores the VL reference value (initial Vlp/Vlg = Vref) in memory. ID sensor pattern detection and VR pattern detection is done prior to this initial VL detection. VL Level (%) 151~> 101~150 0~100 Lamp correction voltage 1 V 0 V +1 V
ID sensor pattern and VR pattern detection are performed when black copies are made, even in the SP mode. VL pattern detection is performed only when a black copy is made in enlarge or full size mode and not in the SP mode. The V sensor output is automatically adjusted to 4V for both Vlg and Vrg) by SP mode. When the VL pattern detection is performed during the copy operation, the CPU compares the Vdat with the Vref. According to the ratio between Vdat and Vref, the CPU applies the voltage correction to the exposure lamp (VL Correction) as shown in the above table. Vdat/Vref x 100 = VL level (%) The exposure lamp voltage for VL pattern detection depends on all previous correction factors, and the new VL correction factor is added to them. This result is then applied to the exposure lamp voltage till the next VL pattern detection.
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Drum Temperature Control
Under low temperature conditions drum sensitivity drops and drum residual voltage increases. This is a characteristic of the drum and may cause dirty backgrounds on copies. To compensate for this, a drum thermistor is installed to monitor the temperature around the drum. When the main switch is turned on, the CPU checks the temperature through the drum thermistor. If the temperature is 25C or less, the CPU applies appropriate corrections to the exposure lamp voltage (low temp. correction), to the grid bias voltage (VR data correction), and to the development bias voltage (VR data correction). When the temperature goes over 25C, the VR pattern detection and VL pattern detection are performed and the corrections above are canceled. If the temperature is already over 25C when the main switch is turned on, no correction is applied.
PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Analog Systems
Drum Rotation Control And VG Correction

Overview
During the OPC drums life the photo conductive layer gets worn and this causes a drop in drum sensitivity and a decrease in the drum potential after the drum charge. The CPU keeps track of the drum rotation time that corresponds to the wear of the drum surface. The grid bias voltage is increased at set intervals (VG correction).
VG Correction
If drum potential decreases after the drum charge, the ID sensor pattern on the drum becomes lighter, causing higher toner concentration in the developer. Also, copy image density becomes slightly lighter. To control toner density and copy image density, the drum potential is maintained by increments of the grid bias voltage at set intervals. (See graph.)
PROCESS CONTROL
OPC Digital Systems
OPC Digital Systems

Based on model A229
Overview
The drum potential will gradually change because of the following factors. Dirty optics or exposure glass Dirty charge corona casing and grid plate Changes in drum sensitivity To maintain good copy quality, the machine does the following just after the main switch has been turned on (if the fusing temperature is less than 100 C and Auto Process Control [SP] is selected). 1) Potential Sensor Calibration 2) VSG Adjustment 3) VG (Grid Voltage) Adjustment 4) LD Power Adjustment 5) VREF Update This process is known as Process Control Initial Setting. The rest of this section will describe these steps in more detail. Processes 1, 3, and 4 in the above list compensate for changes in drum potential. Processes 2 and 5 are for toner density control.
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Drum Potential Sensor Calibration
The drum potential sensor [A] detects the electric potential of the drum surface [B]. Since the output of the sensor is affected by environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, the sensor needs recalibration at times. This is done during process control initial setting. The development power pack [C] has two relay contacts. Usually RA102 grounds the drum. However, to calibrate the sensor, RA102 and RA101 switch over and apply the power pack output voltage to the drum shaft [D].
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The machine automatically calibrates the drum potential sensor by measuring the output of the sensor when 200V and 700V are applied to the drum. From these two readings, the machine can determine the actual drum potential from the potential sensor output that is measured during operation. During calibration, if the rate of change in drum potential sensor response to applied voltage is out of the target range, SC370 is logged and auto process control turns off. The VG and LD power adjustments are skipped; VG is set to the value stored in SP2-001-01, and LD power is set to the values stored in SP2-103.
VSG adjustment
This calibrates the ID sensor output for a bare drum to 4.0, 0.2V. It does this by changing the intensity of the light shining on the drum from the sensor. This is done automatically during process control initial setting, and it can also be done manually with SP3-001-002. If the ID sensor output cannot be adjusted to within the standard, SC350 is logged and toner density control is done using the TD sensor only.
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VG Adjustment
The potential on unexposed areas of the drum (VD) gradually changes during drum life. To keep VD constant, the grid voltage (VG) is adjusted during process control initial setting. The SBICU checks VD using the drum potential sensor [A]. If it is not within the target range (-900V + 10V), the SBICU adjusts VG (Grid Voltage) through the Charge/Grid power pack to get the correct target voltage. The most recently detected values can be displayed with SP3-902-2 (VD) and 3-902-4 (VG). If the CPU cannot get VD within the target range by changing VG, VG is set to the previous value and SC 370 is logged. For details of how the machine determines an abnormal sensor detection see the A229 service manual (p7-9).
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LD power adjustment
This adjustment uses the drum potential sensor to keep the ID sensor pattern at the same density, so that VREF will be updated correctly (see the next page). The VH pattern is developed using the current LD power (the density is the same as the ID sensor pattern). The drum potential sensor detects the potential on this pattern. The LD power is adjusted until VH becomes 300V +20V. This is done only during process control initial setting. The latest VH can be displayed using SP3-902-3. The corrected LD power can be displayed using SP3-902-5 (the default is stored in SP2-103-1-4). See Laser exposure for more details about laser power. If VH cannot be adjusted to within the standard within 25 attempts, LD power is set to the latest value (the one used for the 25th attempt) and SC 370 is logged. For details of how the machine determines an abnormal sensor detection.
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VREF Update
The TD sensor reference voltage (VREF) is updated to stabilize the concentration of toner in the development unit as follows; New VREF = Current VREF + VREF
VREF is determined using the following Vsp/Vsg and VREF VT table
VT: TD Sensor Output When SC350 (ID Sensor Abnormal) is generated, VREF is not updated. The machine uses the current value. VREF is updated during process control initial setting. It is also updated if both of the following conditions exist: 50 or more copies have been made since the last VREF update The copy job is finished
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Selenium Analog Systems

Based on models A029 and A058

Changing the strength of the positive bias voltage applied to the development roller sleeve controls image density. The bias voltage applied to the development roller sleeve reduces the potential between the development roller and the drum. This reduces the amount of toner transferred to the drum. So, the stronger the bias voltage is the lighter the resulting copy image will be. The bias base level is set either by the operator through the manual image density keys (V1) or by the automatic image density system (V2). The CPU increases the bias base level as necessary to compensate for the rest time between copy runs and the drum temperature, both of which are affected drum sensitivity.
Bias Compensation Factors

While not a true process control system, the drum temperature and rest time compensation of these analog systems was a forerunner of the systems we have today. The rest time (V3) and drum temperature (V4) compensation factors affect only the development bias voltage value. These compensation factors are added to the manual (V1) or automatic (V2) image density base bias levels.
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Rest Time Compensation (V3)

The CPU increases the bias level as necessary to compensate for the rest time between copy runs and the drum temperature, both of which affect drum sensitivity. <----------------------------------V3-------------------------------- > 1 2 3,4 5,6 7-11 12 Copy # Rest Time 0 to 1 minute 1 to 6 minutes 6 to 30 minutes 0.5 to 3 hours Over 3 hours 30 60 90 120 150 30 30 60 90 120 0 0 30 60 90 0 0 0 30 60 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 0 0
The drum sensitivity often drops slightly over the first few cycles of a copy run. This is because the light from the exposure lamp fatigues the drum slightly. The amount that it drops depends on the rest time between copy runsthe longer the rest time the greater the change. The A029/A058 copiers increase the bias at the beginning of each copy run to prevent variations in the image density of the first few copies. The bias increase is shown in the above table. When the main switch is turned on, the CPU will automatically select the greater than three hours rest time compensation level.
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Drum Temperature Compensation (V4)

When the switch on the bias power pack is on, the development bias power pack monitors the drum temperature through a thermistor, and it increases or decreases the bias voltage to compensate for temperature induced variations in drum sensitivity. The temperature compensation is -6 volts for each degree increase in drum temperature and is effective from 15C to 45C. However, if the bias switch is off, the CPU assumes a drum temperature of 30C. The power pack does not compensate for temperature, and V4 becomes +90 volts.
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Color Processes
This chapter of the Core Technology Manual deals with color specific principles and processes. Discussions of monochromatic specific process or general subjects that are not affected by color will be found in other chapters.
Principles of Color Color Scanning Color Development Color Image Transfer Image Files
Principles of Color
When discussing the processes involved in color copying, it is important to understand what light is and how just three basic colors can create a vast array of colors.
Electromagnetic Waves
Once thought to be the smallest particles of matteratomshave over time been shown to consist of a variety of subatomic particles. These subatomic particles are organized into three groupshadrons, leptons, and bosons.
0 1 101 1 01 0 1 1 0
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Principles of Color
The first group, the hadrons, includes among others the protons and neutrons that are found in the nucleus of the atom. Of the second group, the leptons, the electron is the most important from the standpoint of color. Electrons are part of ordinary matter; the volume of an atom is nearly all occupied by the cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus. The final group the bosons, includes the particles responsible for carrying the fundamental forces of the universe such as electromagnetic energy and gravity. One of them is a particle of major interest here, the photon. You can think of the Boson group of particles as the universes tiny energy transporters. Photons then, are particles that form a packet of electromagnetic energy and can transport this energy. All matter and energy (as they are understood at present) consist of these particles. All matter that we normally deal with is made up of atoms. For our purposes, we will consider an atom to consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a negatively charged cloud of electrons. These
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What do these particles have to do with color?
Page 1019
Color Processes
Principles of Color
negatively charged electrons encircle the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells. Each shell has its own energy level, and when energy is to be released from the atom, we will call upon the boson group of particles to transport this energy outward. If sufficient energy, say in the form of heat, is applied to the atom, one or more of the orbiting electrons will be forced to move to an outer shell. This process is referred to as absorption. An atom in which the electrons are boosted to higher energy levels is said to be in an excited state. As the electron returns to its normal energy state, electromagnetic radiation is released. This process is referred to as emission. One type of electromagnetic radiation is visible light. The color of the visible light depends on the atom, how far the electron moved to return to its initial orbit, and how much energy was released.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Electromagnetic radiation consists of rapidly changing electrical and magnetic fields, and is released from the atom in the form of particles or packets of energy. These tiny packets of electromagnetic energy are referred to as photons. These particles of radiation released in mass numbers take on the characteristics of a wave. The three wave characteristics of amplitude, wavelength, and frequency are described below. Photons are sometimes defined as particles of energy that behave like waves. Along the radiation wave, the electric and magnetic fields oscillate or go up and down in strength. The amount that the wave varies in strength is the amplitude.
Wavelength
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Principles of Color
The distance between one peak of the wave to the next in either the electric or magnetic field is called wavelength, which is measured in meters.
And, the number of peaks that pass a given point in one second is called the frequency. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 second
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Color Processes
FM BROADCAST / TV AM BROADCAST
Principles of Color
SHORT WAVES
VISIBLE LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET
MICROWAVES
GAMMA RAYS
INFRARED
X RAYS
10
-1 6
10
-1 4
10
-1 2
10
-1 0
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
10
ELF
6
10
10
WAVELENGTH, METERS
Ultraviolet
400
G
500
O R
600
Infrared
700 (nm)
Electromagnetic radiation covers a very broad spectrum of wavelengths. From the longestthe extremely long frequency radio waves (ELF)through radio waves, television, microwaves, radar, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and on down to the shortest wavesthe gamma rays. The principle difference between the various kinds of radiation is their differences in wavelength, frequency and energy. As the wavelength decreases, both the frequency and energy increases. Notice that visible light occupies only a narrow band of the spectrum between about 400 and 700 nanometers.
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Principles of Color
Some wavelengths are long and less frequent. Other wavelengths are short and more frequent. The longer the wavelength the lower the photons energy. The shorter the wavelength the greater the photons energy. A red photon of light (longer wavelength) has about half the energy as that of a blue photon of light (shorter wavelength).
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
The Visual Spectrum

Visible light occupies a very small portion of this continuous spectrum. The electromagnetic energy with wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700 nm makes up the entire visible light spectrum. (The abbreviation nm refers to a unit of measure called a nanometer. One nanometer is equal to 0.000000001 meters or written in exponential form -9 1x10 meters.) This range of wavelengths consists of all the colors of light that humans are able to perceive. White light contains all these wavelengths and hence, contains all the colors of the visible spectrum. This can be demonstrated through the use of a prism. A prism works on the principle of refraction, or the bending of light. As light passes through dense matter (such as glass), longer wavelengths of color bend less than shorter ones. In this manner the various wavelengths of color bend differently from one another. The result is that all the individual colors that make up white light are separated from one another, producing a rainbow of colors.
Color Processes
Principles of Color
As you can see in the previous illustration, the divisions between the colors are not pronounced or sharp. If you begin at the top, you may notice the color red, then going down through the spectrum you may be able to pick out a reddishorange, then maybe an orange, a yellowishorange and so on down through to the color violet. We perceive certain colors based on the proportion of one color to another. For example, if the ratio of yellow light to orange is 1:1, we would perceive the color as yellowish-orange. If the ratio was increased to 2:1, we would perceive the color as yellow-yellowish-orange, and so on. There are, however, three primary colors of light that when any two are mixed together, in equal amounts, a new or secondary color is produced. And, when all three of these colors of light are blended together in equal amounts white light is produced. The three primary colors of light that best produce this effect are the colors red, green, and blue.
Range of Wavelengths 400nm to about 500nm 500nm to about 600nm 600nm to about 700nm
Color Blue Green Red
Since all the various colors of light, as well as white light, can be created by combining these three colors in varying amounts, it is then possible to categorize visible light (from about 400nm to about 700nm) into three basic categories
Color Processes
Principles of Color
Reflection and Absorption

Luminous Color and Intrinsic Color
We see objects that create, reflect, or transmit, visible light. Objects that create light are said to be luminous. Luminous color is the color emitted by an object, and is dependent upon the wavelengths produced. Objects that reflect or transmit light are said to be intrinsic. Intrinsic color is the result of the wavelengths of light that are bounced off an object (reflected), or that are allowed to pass through a translucent or transparent object (transmitted color). For example, the sun, a candle, a television or a red spotlight are all examples of luminous color. They all generate light.
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Principles of Color
Reflection and Absorption

An orange, the pages in a book, a leaf or a transparent piece of blue glass have intrinsic color. The colors they produce are the result of absorbing or stopping some wavelengths of light, while reflecting or passing others. As white light strikes the leaf, the green wavelengths are reflected, while the other wavelengths are absorbed.
When white light strikes the blue glass, the blue wavelengths pass through and all other wavelengths are stopped (absorbed). The eye perceives the color blue. Substances which are colorless, such as air, are unable to absorb any of the wavelengths of light. Colorless substances either reflect all the wavelengths of light striking it, such as white clouds, or allow all the wavelengths to pass through, such as the glass in a window.
Color Processes
Principles of Color
All the visible colors of light can then be expressed as some combination of three principle colors of light red, green, and blue. It is this ability to reproduce all the colors of light using only three basic colors that is called additive color mixing. Red, green, and blue light are referred to as the three additive primaries.
Light Reflective Characteristics of Color Toner.

The light reflective characteristics of color toner are of special interest to us. We will get into this in more detail later, but for now lets take a quick look at how color toner reflects light. Cyan toner absorbs red rays and reflects blue and green rays. Reflected B and G rays are seen as cyan.
R G B
Cyan Toner White paper
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Color Processes
R G B
Principles of Color
Magenta toner absorbs green rays and reflects blue and red rays. Reflected B and R rays are seen as magenta.
Magenta Toner White paper
Yellow toner absorbs blue rays and reflects green and red rays. Reflected G and R light rays are seen as yellow.
R G B
Yellow Toner White paper
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Color Mixing
The Primary Colors
Colors can be created by mixing three primary colors in two basic methods. One is additive color mixing, which is the mixing of the three primary colors of light. Additive color mixing uses red, green and blue.
The other is subtractive color mixing, which is the blending of the three primary colors of pigment (such as ink, paint, or toner).
Subtractive color mixing uses cyan, magenta, and yellow.
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Principles of Color
Additive Color Mixing

In additive color mixing red, green, and blue light are blended in various amounts to produce all other colors and white light. Additive Color Mixing is the process used by color televisions, and by color computer monitors. As discussed earlier, if equal amounts of red light, green light, and blue light are mixed together, white light is produced. The resultant color created when mixing colors of light using the additive theory of color is brighter and lighter in color then either of its elements. The colors ADD together. Red + Green ! Yellow When only two of the three primary colors are mixed together, in equal amounts, the color created is referred to as a secondary color. When equal amounts of red light and green light are mixed together, the color yellow is produced.
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Red + Blue ! Magenta Mixing equal amounts of red light and blue light, produce the color magenta.
Green + Blue ! Cyan And when equal amounts of green light and blue light are mixed together, the color cyan is produced.
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Principles of Color
When one of the additive primary colors is combined with one of the secondary colors and the result is white or near-white light, the two colors are said to be complementary. For example, cyan light consists of green and blue light, adding cyan to red light would create white light. So, the color cyan and the color red are considered to be complementary colors. By the same reasoning, the color magenta is formed by the mixing of equal amounts of blue light and red light. If these colors were added in the correct proportions to green light, white light would be the result. Magenta and green are complements. The table lists the additive primaries and their complementary colors. When mixing pigments, such as ink or dye, these complementary colors are used as the principle or primary colors in a process known as subtractive color mixing.
Additive Primary Color Blue Green Red
Complementary Color Yellow Magenta Cyan
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Principles of Color
Subtractive Color Mixing

Mixing colors of light is one thing, but mixing opaque colors such as pigments or dyes is quite another. For example, red and green pigments will not blend to produce the color yellow no matter how hard you try. This is because these materials get their color by absorbing or subtracting certain amounts of red, green, and blue light, and reflecting what is not absorbed. This means that a pure red pigment would absorb blue and green light and reflect only red light; a pure green pigment would absorb red and blue light and reflect only green light; and a pure blue pigment would absorb red and green light and reflect only blue light. The mixing of any two of these three pigments, red, green or blue would result in all three primary colors of light being absorbed, which is black. So as you can see, in a three color print process, using the colors Red, Green, Blue, as pigments would not work. What must be determined are the three principle or primary subtractive colors. As you read the above paragraph you may have noticed that for each color pigment: pure red, pure green, and pure blue; two colors of light were absorbed or subtracted by each. If we had three different colors, colors that would each absorb only one color of light, then by mixing these three colors we could control the absorption of any combination of the three colors of light, resulting in the ability to create any color. As we mentioned earlier three separate colors do exist that will each absorb only one of the three colors of white light, namely the complementary colors of red, green and blue which are cyan, magenta, and yellow. These three colors are referred to as the subtractive primaries.
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Principles of Color
Cyan, Magenta and Yellow will each absorb a different additive primary and reflect the remaining two.
When white light strikes a pure yellow pigment the additive primary blue is absorbed and the remaining two additive primaries, red and green, are reflected. Remember, red and green light create yellow light. When white light strikes a pure magenta pigment, green is absorbed and red and blue are reflected. Red and blue light create magenta light. And as shown here, when a pure cyan pigment is used, red is absorbed and green and blue are reflected. (Green and blue = cyan)
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Principles of Color
Magenta + Yellow ! Red When magenta pigment (the circle on the left) is mixed with yellow pigment (the circle on the right) in equal proportions the color red is produced (center).
Yellow + Cyan ! Green When yellow pigment and cyan pigment are mixed together in equal proportions, the color green is produced.
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Principles of Color
Cyan + Magenta ! Blue When cyan pigment is mixed with magenta pigment in equal proportions, the color produced is blue.
When all three colors: cyan, magenta and yellow are blended together in equal pro-portions, the result is that all the wavelengths of light are absorbed, and black is produced. This black color is referred to as processed black, and depending on the purity of the colors for cyan, magenta, and yellow will actually appear to be a very deep blue or brown.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
The final color created, when mixing pigments using the subtractive theory of color, is always darker and deeper in color than either of its elements. The colors, when mixed together, Subtract light from being reflected. The colors, cyan, magenta and yellow, known as the subtractive primaries, will be the colors used to print the images when using the three color print process. The illustration to the right is an example of a simple color wheel. Starting at the color green and following the top arrow, moving clockwise toward red is the color yellow. Remember, yellow is produced by mixing equal amounts of green and red light. Continuing clockwise past red is the color magenta, which is a mixture of red and blue light. Then comes cyan and so on... Notice that each portion of the color wheel points to its complementary color. For example the red wedge points to its complement cyan. The blue wedge to its complement yellow. Not only does this color wheel show the relationships of the additive primaries, it also
Color Processes
Principles of Color
demonstrates the relationships of the subtractive primaries. For example, yellow and cyan pigments mixed in equal amounts create green. The color green sits between yellow and cyan on the color wheel. Green also points to its complement which is magenta. There are other, more elaborate color wheels, that can also demonstrate all the various hues of colors created as the proportions of the various colors mixed are changed. Familiarizing yourself with the color wheel can be a strong aid to obtaining a specific color. For example, using the color wheel, when equal proportions of magenta and yellow pigments are mixed, red is produced. If the amount of magenta was reduced the color would take on a more orange look to it. Reduce the magenta even more and the color would begin to appear more and more yellow. Understanding these concepts of how cyan, magenta and yellow interact in forming all the printed colors are important in both operating and servicing any device using the three color print process, such as a full color copier.
Some Color Wheels
A continuous color wheel
An additive mixing color wheel
A subtractive mixing color wheel
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Color Separation
Color Separation can be thought of as the opposite of Color Mixing. The process of color separation will take a full color image and break it down to its fundamental or primary components. This is accomplished using the intrinsic color transmission properties of optical filters. Although the process of color separation can be accomplished by using either the additive filters Red, Green, or Blue (R,G,B), or subtractive filtersCyan, Magenta, or Yellow, when used in the three color print process, such as used in color copiers, generally R,G,B filters are used. For this reason we will limit our explanation to the use of these three filters.
The Characteristics of Filters

B Red FilterThe Red filter allows Red light to pass through and absorbs Blue and Green. G R Red Filter
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Principles of Color
B Green FilterThe Green filter allows Green light to pass through and absorbs Blue and Red.
R Green Filter
B Blue FilterThe Blue filter allows Blue light to pass through and absorbs Green and Red rays. Lets look at the separation process... White light is first cast upon a full color image or object. Depending on the color of the image or object, certain wavelengths of light will be absorbed while others are reflected. The colors which are reflected can be considered as being composed of various proportions of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue.
Blue Filter
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
By passing the reflected light through a red filter, only the reflected light that consists of a red component will pass through. The intensity or amount of red that passes through is in direct proportion to the amount of red light reflected by the image. In other words, a pure yellow pigment would reflect red and green light in equal amounts. A red filter passes only the red element, hence the intensity of the light passed is only half of when the red and green light were combined.
White light is cast on the image again. This time the reflected light is passed through a green filter. The filter transmits only the green element of each color; the other colors are blocked.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Again, white light is cast on the image. This time a blue filter intercepts the reflected light. Only the blue element of each color from the image is allowed to pass. These steps are basically what occur during the color separation process in a full color copier. Each time white light is cast on the image would be equivalent to one scan of the copier. For each scan, the reflected image is passed through a different color filter. The end result is that the image is broken apart" into its R,G,B, components.
Image Scanning
The three-scan process has been replaced by a four-scan process in almost all modern full color copiers. The fourth scan is used to determine how much black pigment or toner should be added to the reproduced image. This is because the pigment or toner colors used are not necessarily pure. The magenta used may not be a pure magenta color, the cyan, not a pure cyan, and the yellow, not a pure yellow. This is due primarily to manufacturing, since the materials used to create
Color Processes
Principles of Color
the pigment color must also meet a range of requirements that are independent of color, such as: resistance to caking or clumping, consistency of particle size, or in the case of liquids the flow rate. The materials chosen to meet all the specifications may not wind up being pure in hue. For this reason black toner is used to produce a more true black, instead of the bluish or brownish look of a processed black. The amount of black used is usually a percentage of the C,M,Y ratio useda process referred to as under color removal. After scanning, the next process involves using the RGB separated color data and determining how much toner to apply. This is referred to as RGB to CMYK conversion (K = BLACK toner). This step is generally performed immediately after each scan before the next scan occurs. Since the subtractive primaries (C,M,Y) are the opposite or complements to the additive primaries (R,G,B), the amount of toner used is inversely proportional (or the opposite of) the amount of light transmitted through each filter.
Original image
CMYK separations after RGB to CMYK conversion
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Lets examine the light transmission and toner selection for a solid pink original. Since a large amount of red light is reflected from the pink image, then very little red light was absorbed. The color that absorbs red light is its complementary color cyan. Cyan pigment absorbs red light. Since very little red was absorbed by the image, the image must contain very little cyan pigment. So a very small amount of cyan toner will be used.
The pink original reflects only a very small amount of green light; so, a large amount must have been absorbed. The color pigment that absorbs green wavelengths of light is the complementary color of green, which is the color magenta. So, a large amount of magenta toner will be necessary to reproduce the color of this image.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Finally, the pink original reflects a moderate amount of blue light; so, a moderate amount must also have been absorbed. The color pigment that absorbs blue light is the complementary color yellow. And a moderate amount of yellow toner must be added to reproduce this image.
Blended together using heat and pressure, the end result is a copy or reproduction of the original image in full color. In this example the color Pink is reproduced.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
By altering the proportions of cyan, magenta and yellow pigments used, based on the levels of red, green and blue light reflected, any color can be reproduced. Adding a fourth pigment, black, at the proper amount adds depth to the copy and improves black reproduction. And those are the basic processes surrounding light and color mixing.
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Color Processes
Principles of Color
Brightness, Saturation, and Hue

We will finish the section on the principles of color with a discussion of three important terms brightness, saturation, and hue. These color characteristics form one of the systematic models available for classifying colors. It is based on how the eye perceives shades of color. Brightness: This is related to the amount of black or white in a color. It is also a measure of how much light the color is reflecting. Adjusting the lightness changes the intensity of R, G, and B but keeps their proportions the same. Brightness is also known as lightness. Saturation: Colorfulness with respect to a neutral gray (chroma is another term used). To adjust saturation, the intensity of the complementary RGB color is adjusted, keeping the dominant color the same. Hue: This is the color of an object. It is a measure of the proportions of R, G, and B in the color.
Green-blue
White
Blue
Brightness Violet Saturation Blue-green Hue Green Greenyellow Brightness Yellow Orange Red Black
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Principles of Color
These three characteristics of color can be shown on a three-dimensional diagram as shown on the previous page. The illustration on this page is a color representation of this concept. In this diagram, the brightness increases toward the top apex and decreases toward the bottom apex. All colors can be represented as a vertical color section in the solid, with a white apex at the top and a black apex at the bottom. The colors going through the center of the solid from top to bottom are all shades of gray. Also, colors get brighter (more white) above the equatorial plane, and darker (more black) below it. The colors get more intense as you move away from the vertical axis (the percentage of gray decreases). This represents increase in saturation. Any horizontal slice through the solid yields our friend the color wheel. The hue changes as you move around the center.
A 3D brightness, hue, and saturation color diagram
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Principles of Color
Color Matching
In theory, color management is simple; the colors either match the original, or they dont. In practice, however, it is much more complex. While accurate color matching is a goal of almost every color process, it is not always possible. There are a number of technical elements that limit our ability to reproduce specific colors, as well as psychological elements that influence our perception of colors. Understanding these will help you create a close-as-possible color match.
Color Gamut
A color gamut is the maximum color range for a particular device. Different devices and different color processes have different gamuts. The illustration on the right represents the entire visual spectrumthe color gamut visible to the human eye. The area inside the yellow triangle represents a typical RGB gamut. This is the color range that can be displayed on a typical monitor. While the actual gamut will vary from monitor to monitor, it is always smaller than the visible range. There are always some colors that cannot be displayed. The area inside the blue line represents a typical CMYK device. This, too, will vary depending on the quality of the printer or copier, but it is smaller than the RGB gamut. The unfortunate result is, some
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Principles of Color
colors can be displayed on a monitor but cannot be printed. You can calibrate, adjust and manipulate the printer as much as you likeyou wont get the desired color. Dark blue shades are a common example. On some printers certain blues come out purple.
Metamerism
Metamerism is an illusion in which two or more colors appear identical under certain light sources, but are markedly different from each other under other lights. This is a common problem in the paint, printing and textile industries. A typical example of metamerism occurs when you try to paint your living room to match your couch. You take a fabric sample with you to the hardware store, but while the paint chip and fabric sample match perfectly under the stores florescent lighting, they look quite different in your living rooms blend of incandescent and natural light.
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Principles of Color
Metamerism is a particular problem for CMYK processes, where the colors are created from just three colorants. Part of the problem is that, as we discussed earlier, light has color. Different light sources produce different colorsand these colors influence the appearance of fabric samples, paint chips and color copies. The color of a light source is described by its temperature. The temperature scale is calculated based on the amount of light emitted by a blackbody at any given temperature. Blackbodies are theoretical objects that are perfectly black when cold. At zero degrees Kelvin they absorb all light cast upon them; however, as they heat up, they begin to emit lightfirst red, then yellow, then white and finally blue. While perfect blackbodies do not exist, most solid objects are a good approximation of blackbodies. Think of the coils on an electric heater, the filament of an incandescent bulb, and even the sun and stars. Color temperatures are measured using the Kelvin scale. Kelvin is similar to Celsius. The unit intervals are the same; however, zero K is equal to -273 degrees Celsius. Note, hotter temperatures emit bluish light. Cooler temperatures emit reds. This runs contrary to most peoples color intuition. Blue is usually seen as a cold color. Red as warm or fiery.
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Color Processes Color Temperatures Clear blue sky at noon Graphics arts monitor North Sky Light Overcast Sky at noon Sunlight at noon Standard Color viewing lamps, Cool white florescent Photoflood tungsten, Warm white florescent Tungsten incandescent lamp Sunlight at sunset, Candlelight
Color temperature of standard light sources
Principles of Color
12000 K 11000 K 10000 K 9000 K 8000 K 7000 K 6000 K 5000 K 4000 K 2854 K 2000 K
When matching colors it is important to consider the light that the objects will be viewed under. Most professional color matching goes one step furtherusing strict lighting standards when comparing proofs. 5000 K is the default standard. This produces a completely neutral, white light source, similar to natural daylight. To be even more precise, the ANSI standard also defines the chromaticity, spectral power distribution, color rendering index, and intensity of the light for viewing different medium.
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
Color Memory
We are often disappointed with color reproduction, when the color does not live up to our memory of the scene. The truth is, colors that we remember are not always the colors we actually saw. People tend to remember colors as being more vibrant, more rich than they actually where. If you take two prints of the same object, one with accurate coloring and one with over-saturated coloring, most people will pick the over-saturated one. It appears more alive and more interesting. This is just one way in which psychology influences our definition of a quality color image.
Normal colors
For hands on experiments with interesting online applets, check out http://www.cs.rit.edu/~ncs/color
Over saturated colors
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
Color Scanning
In this section we will look at the aspects of image scanning and photoconductor exposure that are unique to color systems. The details of processes that are common to both color and black/white systems are covered in Photocopying Processes and Digital Processes chapters. Ricoh color products have used three different scanning methods, depending on the underlying basic architecture of the machines. These methods can be classified as color analog scanning/exposure, digital systems using lens and mirror scanning, and direct scanning digital systems using a fiber optic array. We will discuss and look at examples of each. The number of scans that a color copier makes depends on the amount of memory it has. Most color copiers must make one scan per color. However, digital color copiers with a large amount of memoryfor example model A269can store the full image data for all colors and need only one scan per image.
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Analog
Digital with lens and mirrors
Digital with fiber optic array
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Color Scanning
Analog Scanning
Most color machines are digital. However, there are some analog color machines in the field. The color analog scanning and exposure is basically the same as the systems used for black and white analog copiers. (See and Exposure in the Photocopying Processes chapter.) The only difference is that filters have to be used to separate the colors and the original has to be scanned for each of the primary colors to be reproduced. Example: Models A030 and A072 The illustration to the right shows the scanning mechanism of models A030/A072. During the copy cycle, an image of the original is reflected onto the drum surface via the optics assembly. Three color filters (red, green, and blue) and a neutral filter are mounted on a rotor. The three color filters are used when the full color mode is selected or single color erase mode is selected.
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Exposure Light Path: Exposure Lamp [A] 1st Mirror [B] 2nd Mirror [C] 3rd Mirror [D] Lens [E] 4th Mirror [F] Color Filter [G] Toner Shield Glass [H] Drum [I] Optics cooling fan: [J]
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Color Scanning
The neutral filter is used when black copies or single color copies are made. The filter rotor, which holds the four filters [A], is shown to the right. The rotor turns to bring the proper filter into the light path. A home position sensor [B] informs the CPU when the rotor is at the home position. A stepper motor [C] rotates the filter rotor the precise angle to bring the selected filter into the light path. [A] [B]
[C]
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
Lens and Mirror Digital Scanning

Most color digital machines use a lens and scanners with mirrors to reflect an image of the original to a charge coupled device (CCD). This is very similar to the system used in most digital black and white copiers. Example: Models A257 and A269 An image of the original illuminated by the exposure lamp [A] (a halogen lamp) is reflected onto a color CCD [B] (Charge Coupled Device) via the 1st [C], 2nd [D], and 3rd [E] mirrors, filter, and lens [F]. The filter removes infrared from the light reflected off the original; this is particularly important for glossy photos with black areas, which can appear reddish in copies. For all copy modes except the Auto Original Type mode machine makes a single scan. The CCD is a one-chip color CCD with RGB color filters. The scanning resolution is 400 dpi (5,000 pixels). [C] [A] [D]
[E] [F] [B]
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
The key element in digital color machines is the color CCD. The color CCD resembles the type of CCD used in black & white digital machines; however, it has three rows of light sensitive elements instead of one row. The color CCD converts light reflected from the original into three analog signals, one for each of the three basic colors Red, Green, and Blue. The signals are called the R, G, and B signals. A single scan generates a separate set of three signals (RGB). The CCD consists of three lines of 5000 elements at a resolution of 400 dpi (15.7 dots/mm)one line for each color. To make the R, G, and B signals, each line has a color separation filter (R, G, or B). The lines of CCD elements are very close together, but there is some space between them. In model A269 the lines are spaced 4 pixels apart at full size magnificationillustrated to the right. (In many earlier models they are spaced 8 pixels apart.) To correct for the spacing, the R, G, and B signals must be synchronized. This is done by delaying the signals in memory buffers on the image processing unit (IPU) board. This process is called scan line correction.
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R
1 1 2 3 5000
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
The CCD is mounted on the board with the lens block (the assembly is known as the SBU or Sensor Board Unit). Therefore, to replace the CCD, you must replace the SBU.
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
Direct Digital Scanning (SELFOC +CCD)

Color direct digital scanning systems use a selffocusing fiber optic array (SELFOC) and full-size CCD mounted together on a scanner. The basic principle of this method is quite simple. As the scanner moves across (scans) the original, a strip of the original is reflected through the fiber optic array to the CCD. Example: Models A092 and A105 The scanner unit used in models A046 and A105 consists of two exposure lamps [A] (fluorescent lamps), the full-size CCD [B], the CCD drive board [C], the CCD pre-amp board [D] and the optical fiber array [E]. The light from the exposure lamps exposes the original and reflects on to the full-size CCD through the optical fiber array. [E] [D]
[A]
[C]
[B]
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Color Processes
Color Scanning
The full-size CCD board has an unusual design. There are 5 CCD chips on the CCD board, each CCD chip has 2,928 elements (2,880 elements for model A105). Each element has a tiny green (G), blue (B), or red (R) filter on top. This G.B.R. order is repeated along the full length of the CCD chips. One set of these G.B.R. elements is equal to one picture element or pixel. The CCD elements are angled 45 degrees, so that all three CCD elements of any pixel receive the same reflected light.
45 1 pixel 62.5 m
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Color Development
Color Development
Like black and white machines, color copiers and printers use dual-component development or monocomponent development systems. However, color systems require a separate development unit for each color, and they must make at least one development cycle per color. The development systems of Ricoh color products can be classified into three groups(1) systems with the development units arranged in fixed positions around the photoconductor, (2) systems with a revolver that brings the development units to the photoconductor when needed, and (3) tetradrive systems. This section looks at representative examples of each group.
Development units in fixed positions
2nd
Y d 1st
Development units on a revolver Tetradrive
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Color Processes
Color Development
Fixed Position Development Systems

Many color copiers and printers have the four color development mechanisms (CMYK) arranged in fixed positions around the photoconductor. Such an arrangement is logical from a design point of view; however, such designs have two requirements that designers must address.
1. Photoconductor Surface Area

Four development mechanisms take up a lot of photoconductor surface. For this reason, color systems using fixed position development units must use a larger than normal photoconductor. One way is to increase the drum size; this is the approach used by model A109 as explained in example 1 below. Another method is to use a long photoconductor belt; this is the method used by model G033 (see example 2 below).
2. Prevention of Simultaneous Development

Although the development units are in a fixed position, only one color can be allowed to develop the image at a time. Examples 1 and 2 below show two ways to handle this requirementmodel A109 removes the developer from the rollers that arent being used for development, and model G033 holds the development rollers away from the photoconductor when they are not in use.
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Color Processes
Color Development
Example 1: Model A109 This machine has one large development unit [E] divided into four sections. From the left they are the black development section [A], the cyan deve- [A] lopment section [B], the magenta development section [C] and the yellow development section [D]. Each development section has a sleeve roller [E], dual mixing roller [F], doctor plate [G], and toner density sensor [H]. [B] To make room for the four development sections, model A109 uses a drum with a diameter of 120 mm. (Other Ricoh color systems typically use a 90 [F] mm diameter drum.)
Continued on next page.
[G]
[D] [H] [C]
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Color Development
One interesting feature of this machine is the use of six motors to drive the various development components. The color development drive motor drives the dual mixing rollers in the cyan, magenta, and yellow development sections. The black development drive motor drives those in the black development unit. Each of the four sleeve rollers is driven by an independent, reversible motor [A]. When the sleeve turns as shown by the black arrows, developer is carried to the OPC drum. When the sleeve turns in the direction of the white arrows, all the developer left on the sleeve roller surface is returned to the development section. Only one color development section at a time carries developer to the drum.
[A]
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Color Processes
Color Development
Example 2: Model G033 This machine has the four color development units [K,Y,M,C] arranged along one side of an OPC belt [A]. When the printer is idle, none of the development units contacts the OPC belt. During printing, the machine moves the development units into contact with the belt one at a time. (Refer to the G033 service manual for details. The mechanism used is a standard mechanical system using a solenoid, a spring clutch, and a cam.) [A]
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Color Processes
Color Development
Revolver Systems
Revolver Operation Overview
Machines using the revolver system have the four development units (K, Y, C, and M) mounted around a rotating mechanism called the revolver. The revolver rotates to bring the proper color development unit to the drum. Revolver systems use a standard size OPC drum. Example: Model A257/A269 The illustrations to the right show the revolver [A] used in models A257 and A269. The revolver unit holds four development units, one for each color (KYCM). It develops colors by rotating the revolver counter-clockwise (as viewed from the front of the copier), 90 degrees at a time, in the order K, Y, C, and M. (In printer mode, this machine develops in the order Y, C, M, and K to improve the reproduction of black letters.) [A]
C M
2nd
Y d 1st
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Color Processes
Color Development
Tetradrive Systems
[A] OPC drum [B] Development roller [C] Toner supply roller [D] Transport rollers [E] Mixing augers
[D]
The tetradrive system uses four print engines lined up in a row. It has four drums, four laser beams, four charge corona units, four transfer corona units, and four development units. The four print engines allow the creation of the CMYK images simultaneously, thus greatly increasing the full color copy speed. The primary drawback of the tetradrive system is expense. Examples of the original tetradrive system include models A092 and A105. The development units of these products use a standard dual component development system. The components of the development units of model A105 are illustrated to the right.
[E]
[C]
[B] [A]
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Color Processes
Color Development
Newer tetradrive systems (sometimes called four-tandem systems) have a number of improvements over the original. In the model G060, the paper path is inclined about 38 degrees to make the machine as compact as possible. The development units are redesigned, and there are four motors. Development drive motor-K drives the development unit for black, the fusing unit, and the paper exit section. Development drive motor-CMY drives the development units for magenta, cyan, and yellow, the registration roller and by-pass feed mechanism. Drum drive motor-K drives the PCU for black and the transfer unit. Drum drive motor-CMY drives the PCUs for magenta, cyan, and yellow.
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Color Processes
Color Development
Toner Supply Control

Current machines generally use fuzzy logic to control toner supply. Most use two inputs to the fuzzy control algorithmthe amount of toner attracted to the drum as sensed by the ID sensor and the calculated volume of toner used based on pixel count. (See example 1.) Higher end systems also use a toner density sensor. (See example 2.) Note: While the explanation and examples in this section are given using machines with revolver development units, the basic information applies to other machinesboth color and black and white. Example 1: Models A258/A259/A260
Fuzzy Control Mode

First, the machine assesses the amount of toner per unit area on the drum (M/A). This is determined from two sensor inputs: Vsg, and Vsp(toner). The fuzzy logic algorithm then uses the most recent M/A values to assess current toner density conditions. The output from the fuzzy logic process is then combined with the image area ratio obtained from the image data signal coming from the IPU board. The result of this calculation is the amount of
Copy
Vsp Detection for Toner Supply Control
Fuzzy Control
Image Area Ratio Required Amount of Toner is Determined Toner Supply Motor Duration is Calculated
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Color Processes
Color Development
toner required, and from this, the machine determines the time that the toner supply motor must stay on in order to supply the correct amount of toner.
Vsp detection for toner supply control

The copier generates an ID sensor pattern using a standard laser diode power. The copier generates this pattern between the K, C, M, and Y images, and then detects the density using the ID sensor. The result is known as VSP for toner supply control, or VSP (toner) to distinguish it from the other VSP, measured during potential control. This process is done after Each color development cycle for oddnumbered copies when making continuous copies of A4/LT landscape size or smaller. Each color development cycle, every copy in all other modes.
20 mm
20 mm
Calculating the amount of toner on the drum

First, the machine calculates a value from the current VSP (toner) value. Then, it refers to a table
Color Processes
Color Development
in the ROM to determine the toner density on the drum (M/A). M/A: Toner amount per unit area on the drum 2 (mg/cm ) The target M/A for toner supply control is 0.4 mg/cm2 for the C, M, and Y toners and 0.3 2 mg/cm for the K toner. M/A is calculated in the same way as for potential control.
Fuzzy Logic Algorithm The fuzzy logic algorithm has two input factors which are related to the amount of toner on the drum. These are: The difference between the average of the previous 10 M/As and the target M/A The tendency of the previous 10 M/As Image Area Ratio This is a measure of how much toner will be needed for each color on a page. From the image
Color Processes
Color Development
data from the image processing unit (IPU), the machine determines the total amount of the color on the page. It takes into account the grayscale values for each pixel for that color.
Fixed Supply Mode

Models A258/A259/A260 normally use the fuzzy logic supply mode described above. The fixed supply method is used only when abnormal conditions occur during the process control self check. In fixed supply mode, the machine adds a fixed amount of toner to the developer every copy. Readings from the ID sensor are ignored. The toner supply ratios for each color in fixed supply mode are determined by service programs (SP 2-208-005 to 008).
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Color Processes
Color Development
Example 2: Models A257/A269
Fuzzy Control Mode

The toner supply control of models A257 and A269 is similar to that described in example 1 above. However, in the fuzzy logic control mode, input from the toner density sensor (TD sensor) is also used in the calculation. Thus these machines use three input parameters as follows: 1. Density of the toner read by the TD sensor 2. Amount of toner attached to the drum sensed by the ID sensor 3. Pixel count (image area ratio) The amount of toner supplied is determined by the toner supply clutch on time
Other Toner Supply Control Modes

In addition to the default fuzzy logic control mode, these copiers have a proportional control mode and a fixed supply mode. The proportional control mode is used if an ID sensor becomes faulty. Only the TD sensor is used to control toner supply. The fixed supply mode is used if both the TD sensor and ID sensor become faulty.
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Color Processes
Color Development
TD Sensor Output
The relationship between the TD sensor output Vt and the toner density in the developer is shown in the figure on the right. The target toner density of this copier is 5 WT%. The TD sensor output for this toner density is referred to as Vref. Vref of this copier is adjusted to 2.5 0.1 volts for a toner density of 5 WT% (brand-new developer) for each of the C, M, Y, and K toners. When developers are replaced, since TD sensor fluctuations can occur in such a case, it is necessary to initialize the TD sensor and adjust its gain using SP3-005-1 through SP3-005-5.
Relationship between toner density and TD sensor output
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Color Processes
Color Development
TD Sensor Noncontact Coupler

Interfacing the toner density sensors in a revolver mechanism presents a special design problem. Models A257 and A269 handle this with a mechanism called a noncontact coupler. Each of the four development units has a TD sensor [A]. These sensors interface with the CPU through a single interfacethe noncontact coupler. The noncontact coupler has two parts; one is mounted on the main unit [B] and the other [C] is inside the bearing ring of the revolver. These two sections are separated by an air-gap. Power for the revolver side is provided through a circular coil [D] (a small transformer) inside the coupler sections. The power transformation is: 38 Vac (main unit) ! 12 Vac (revolver) ! 12 V (for TD sensor). The TD sensor output is conveyed through optical communication. The CPU receives TD sensor output only from the development unit at the development position. [A]
[C]
[B]
[D]
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Color Processes
Color Image Transfer

Image transfer in color machines is more challenging than in single color copiers or printers. The image must be developed and then transferred once for each color. Each of the color separations must be transferred and overlaid to achieve the complete colored copy or print. Ricoh products have two basic methods of transferring the developed color separations. The most common method is a two step transfer system. In the first step, each of the color separations transfers from the OPC to an intermediate surface. The complete image builds on the intermediate surface one color at a time. Once the color image is complete, it is then transferred to the paper. The OPC can be either a drum or a belt. When it is a drum, the intermediate surface is a transfer belt. (Schematically illustrated to the right.) When it is a belt, the intermediate surface is a transfer drum.
OPC drum
Transfer belt
Paper
Two step image transfer

Color Processes
The other method is to transfer the color separations from the OPC drum the paper as they are developed much in the same way as in single color imaging systems. This is repeated for each color to build the complete image directly on the paper. This is the method used in analog color copiers and in tetradrive systems. The following sections examine examples of both methods.
OPC drum
Paper
Direct-to-paper image transfer
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Color Processes
Two-step Color Image Transfer

The two-step transfer method builds the complete color image before transferring it to paper. Each of the color images (color separations) is first developed on an OPC and then transferred from the OPC to an intermediate surface. Once the color image is complete, it is then transferred to the paper. This method has the following advantages over direct transfer to paper. It reduces paper handling (less chance for slipping, wrinkling, jamming, etc.) It allows greater control over the electrostatics of image transfer and more precise registration of the color separations. It is possible to increase the copy speed by designing the system so that more than one image can be made at a time. The illustration to the right (model A269) shows two images being created on the transfer belt.
M
2nd
Y d 1st
Two A4/LT images made in one revolution of the transfer belt
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Color Processes
Example: Models A257/A269 The image transfer mechanism of models A257/A269 is illustrated to the right. This mechanism uses two transfer beltsan image transfer belt and a paper transfer belt. The copier transfer belt system first transfers the 4 color toner images from the drum to the image transfer belt and then later transfers the complete image onto the paper. This permits image transfer to the paper in a single operation. For the paper transfer step, the copier employs an insulated transfer belt system to improve the efficiency of image transfer to the paper. The paper transfer belt also provides smooth paper transport as the paper passes through the image transfer area and receives the image.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
OPC drum Transfer belt bias roller Image transfer belt (ITB) Belt mark sensor Transfer belt drive roller Transfer belt tension roller Paper transfer counter roller Paper registration rollers Paper transfer tension roller Paper transfer belt (PTB) Paper transfer bias roller PTB blade counter roller PTB cleaning blade
14. PTB cleaning brush 15. PTB back brush 16. Belt discharge corona unit 17. Paper transfer drive roller 18. Pick-off plate 19. Separation corona unit 20. ITB blade counter roller 21. ITB cleaning blade 22. ITB lubricant brush 23. ITB lubricant bar 24. Ground roller
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Color Processes
Direct-to-paper Color Image Transfer

Direct-to-paper transfer of color images is an older method that can be found in analog color copiers. It is also used in the unique tetradrive design.
Example 1: Model A072 (Analog)

The illustration to the right shows the image transfer mechanism of model A072. This model uses a transfer drum, which rotates in contact with the OPC drum. Copy paper is fed and clamped to the transfer drum. The transfer drum then makes the necessary number of rotations to transfer each color to the paper. The transfer corona unit is located inside the transfer drum unit. A high negative charge is applied to the transfer corona wire and the corona wire generates negative ions. The negative ions are applied to the copy paper and the negative charge attracts the positively charged toner away from the drum and onto the paper. At the same time, the copy paper is electrostatically attracted to the surface of the transfer drum. When full color image is complete, the clamp releases and the paper separates from the transfer drum.
[D]
[B] [E]
[E] [F] [A] [C] [G]

[A] Transfer drum [B] OPC drum [C] Transfer corona unit [D] Separation corona unit [E] AC discharge corona units [F] DC discharge corona units [G] Transfer drum cleaning unit
[F]
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Color Processes
Example 2: Models A092/A105 (Tetradrive)
[A] [A] The image transfer method of the tetradrive system is different from all other color systems. It uses a standard corona transfer system repeated four times. Transfer coronas [A] are located below each drum to pull the toner image onto the paper. The transfer belt position lever [B] raises the transfer belt to the drum to prevent void image problems under high humidity conditions.
Continued on next page.
[A]
[A]
[B]
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Color Processes
The transfer corona units for all four colors are the same, except for the corona wire height. The corona wires for yellow and cyan are installed closer to the drum than those for black and magenta [A].
The potential at the paper surface is increased in steps as each color is developed [B]. This is necessary because the top layers of toner require a stronger transfer force than the bottom layers. The transfer corona current for each color is as follows: Black: 300 A Magenta: 400 A Yellow: 350 A Cyan: 600 A
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Color Processes
Image Files
Image Files
Instead of being printed immediately, scanned data can be stored as an image file for later use. As a growing number of machines produce or use these image files, a basic understanding of file types becomes increasingly necessary.
Raster vs. Vector

There are two basic ways to create images. Rasters are created by defining color data for each dot in the image. Images are built from a grid of dots. A crude example can be seen at the football stadium. Fans holding up colored squares produce images for the television cameras. Rasters are usually created by scanners or paint programs. They are particularly good at representing textures or photo-realistic images. On the down-side, the unmodified, physical size of the image varies depending on the resolution of the output device. Rasters are naturally displayed dot-for-dot on the output device. If an image is 600 x 600 pixels, it will be displayed as a 1 inch square on a 600 dpi printer. The same image will appear as an 8.3 inch square on a 72 dpi monitor. While most applications can force the image to appear at a user-defined size, scaling the image can adversely affect its quality. Also, file sizes are based on the number of pixels and color depth of the image. Large, full-color raster images often result in mammoth files. Vectors, on the other hand, do not try to define every dot. The image is created by building objects out of mathematically defined curves and lines. These objects can be further filled with various colors or patterns. Vector images are usually used for graphs, illustrations and technical drawings. They are created using draw programs. Vector images are easily resized without losing image quality. The
Color Processes
Image Files
file size depends on the number and complexity of the objectsnot the image size. However, most output devices display images as rasters, so vector images need to be rendered (rasterized) before they can be displayed. Metafiles represent a third option for storing image data. A metafile is not a new type of image rather it is a composite. It is created from a combination of vector images, raster images and text. The rest of this section will focus on raster images. Since most of our images will be created from scan data, raster images are the most important for our purposes.
Color Depth
Images are often described by their color depthor the amount of information stored in each dot. The larger the color depth, the greater the variety of colors available. For example, in a 4 bit color image, each pixel must be one of 16 different colors. An 8 bit image allows 256 different colors. Most full color images are 24 bit (16 million colors) or greater. Sometimes the color depth is listed as bits/channel. PhotoShop, for example, supports 8 and 16 bits/channel RGB images (x 3 channels = 24 and 48 bit color). Color depth greatly affects the image file size. All other things being equal, a 24-bit color image will be three times larger than a grayscale image, and twenty-four times larger than a black and white bitmap.
Resolution
Raster images are also defined by their resolution, usually measured in dots per inch (dpi). Resolution depends largely on the device that will be used to display them. The typical computer
Color Processes
Image Files
monitor has a 72 dpi resolution. Images displayed at this resolution look natural to the eyethe pixels blend into a smooth image. However, if that same image is printed on a 300-dpi color printer, the pixels will appear as visible blocks, giving the image a jagged appearance. On the other hand, an uncompressed 300-dpi image file is 17 times larger than a same-size 72-dpi image file. This means that, if the print-quality image was used on a web page, it could take 16 times longer to download. Actually, the real-world difference would be greater still, since print-quality compression typically only reduces the file size by 1/2. Compression for web images often produces files 1/10 their original size or smaller. For the best results, you should select an image resolution based on how the image will be used. Note, if you are using a single image for multiple purposes (for example, a web site and a brochure), it is usually best to create a separate image file for each. Intended Use: Internet Use (e-mail and web) Halftone Printing Other Printing Recommended Resolution: 72 dpi Printers screen frequency multiplied by x 1.5 (good quality) to x 2 (best quality) Printers resolution
Halftone printing refers to printers that use dithering to produce grayscale images. These printers cannot produce true shading. Rather, they create dot patterns to give the appearance of grays. Since
Color Processes
Image Files
it takes multiple pixels to create one shaded pixels worth of information, the image resolution should be less than the printers true resolution. Anything over the printers screen frequency x 2 is a waste of memory. However, when printing bitmaps (pure black and white images) or printing to a device that can control the shading of individual pixels (through power modulation and pulse width modulation), each pixel-worth of information is important. The image files resolution should equal the printers. Remember, an images resolution and its scale go hand in hand. A 1-inch, 100 dpi image stretched to fill 2 inches is the same as a 2-inch, 50 dpi image. Resolution-based quality problems are often seen when people try to print images from the web or from a lower-resolution digital camera.
Lossy and Loss-less

Because raster images files can grow quite large, most image data is compressed. Compression reduces the amount of memory needed to store the file. But not all compression techniques are equal. Loss-less compression techniques carefully maintain all the details of the original image. The compression ratio will vary depending on the complexity of the image, but most are around 2:1. They compresses images by combining strings of identically colored pixels. For example, if the image has a row of 5 blue pixels the original sequence would appear as BLUEBLUEBLUEBLUEBLUE. The compressed image data could be reduced to BLUEX5.
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Color Processes
Image Files
Lossy compression, on the other hand, sacrifices some image detail in order to get a greater compression ratio, often up to 20:1. By using optical tricks that exploit limits in human vision, they create an image that is often indistinguishable from the original. However, depending on the amount of data sacrificed, the reduction in quality could become quite noticeable. Lossy compression is usually used on the internet, where image size is crucial. When printing, the drop in quality is more noticeable. Loss-less images are therefor recommended.
Format Highlights
The following section looks at seven of the most common image formats. This, however, is just a small sampling. A lot of up-to-date graphics information is available on the web. If you are interested, I recommend looking at The Graphic File Format Page for technical information on a wide variety of image formats. The Graphic Formats frequently asked questions page provides a more detailed discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the TIFF, PNG, JPEG and GIF formats.
BMP
The BMP file is one of the most commonly used formats for the Windows environment. It supports 24 bit color depth and loss-less compression. A very stable bitmap format; however, support is very limited on Apple or Unix systems. On Windows machines, it is used both for screen display (windows wallpaper) and printing. It is not typically used on the web.
EPS
Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) files use the Adobe PostScript language. They can store either bitmaps or vector information. The files are accepted on virtually all platforms, and virtually all
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Color Processes
Image Files
graphics, illustration and page layout applications. The format also offers a variety of options for highquality printing to postscript printers. Most applications cannot read the postscript information directlytherefor the file also contains a low-resolution (often binary) thumbnail image. Thumbnails are usually TIFF or PICT format. These images are displayed as placeholders in many graphics and page layout programs. There are three cautions when using EPSs. First, the PostScript may contain references to fonts. If the EPS was created on a different computer, those fonts may not be available on the current system. This can cause a variety of printing problems, from font replacements to print errors. Also, this may not be obvious when viewing the image in the page layout application. Second, some thumbnail images are more accurate than others. What you see on the screen is not necessarily what you get out of the printer. Be sure to test print and check any EPSs. Finally, EPSs are an excellent format when working with PostScript printers. However, if the printer cannot use PostScript information, the application will send the low-resolution thumbnail image instead. The result is very poor quality output from what was supposed to be a high-quality image format. The bottom line is, EPSs provide an excellent format for high-quality printing when used properly. However, they require a bit more care and technical know-how.
GIF
An older format, the Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) only supports indexed color (8 bit, 256 colors) and LZW compression (loss-less compression). Once commonly used for online photographic images, it has largely been replaced by the JPEG. However, the loss-less
Color Processes
Image Files
compression, the limited color range, and the ability to have transparent backgrounds makes it an ideal choice for web-based icons, or any web-images requiring small, clear text or using only a limited number of colors. When saving rasterized line drawings, GIF files are often much smaller and much cleaner than JPEGs.
JPEG
The Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) format is commonly used to display photographs and other continuous tone images on the web. It supports 24-bit color, and uses a lossy compression to greatly reduce the file size. While most loss-less compression averages around a 2:1 ratio, JPEGs can achieve 10:1 to 20:1, often without any visible loss in quality. When saving a JPEG you can set variable amounts of compression. More compression results in a smaller filebut there is a greater loss in image quality. The maximum quality setting usually produces a result indistinguishable from the original. While JPEGs are an excellent choice for screen-viewable photographs, it does not handle large areas of a single color or sharp edges very well. Blocks of color often develop odd distortions or squiggles, while text tends to appear blurry. It is also not recommended for binary (pure black and white) images. Printing tends to bring out the worst in a JPEG. The optical tricks it uses to compress the data are more noticeable on the printed page. One final note about JPEGS, they lose quality every time you open, edit and save them. While saving it once or twice may not be noticeable, continually editing and re-saving the file can result in a
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Color Processes
Image Files
considerable loss of quality. If you are going to need to edit an image, create a master copy using a loss-less format. After you are done editing that copy, convert it to a JPEG.
PICT
The PICT format is popular with Macintosh graphics and page-layout applications. It supports 16 or 32 bit color and loss-less compression. It can also support various JPEG compressions. PICT files can store either raster or vector data. While well supported on the Macintosh, it has very limited support on other systems.
PNG
The Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format was developed as a patent-free alternative to the GIF. It supports up to 48-bit color and transparent backgrounds without jagged edges. Unfortunately, older browsers may not support PNG images.
TIFF
The Tagged-Image File Format (TIFF) is a flexible bitmap image format supported by virtually all paint, image-editing and page-layout applications. It is also platform independentbeing well represented on Windows, Macintosh and Unix. This makes it an excellent choice for cross-platform or cross-application projects. If JPEG is the default web graphic format, TIFF is the default for printing. It supports up to 24-bit color and a variety of loss-less compression routines. Unfortunately, its flexibility can become a liability. There are many different flavors of TIFF, and not all applications support all formats. If you run into TIFF compatibility problems, try re-saving the file without any compression. While this produces a larger file, it can be read by almost all image-handling applications.
Digital Duplicators
Overview
Overview Duplicating Process Ink Supply Control Thermal Head Control Specifications
Digital duplicators are designed to provide inexpensive, largequantity duplication services. They use digitally-created stencil masters and ink to make prints. Digital duplicators are a modern adaptation of an older technology. The basic rotary stencil process was developed in the 1930s. Before the electrostatic copy process was introduced, the reproduction of documents in the office was manly done with carbon paper (for about five copies) and stencil duplicators (for larger volumes). While much of this work has been shifted to copiers, digital duplicators still provide a high-volume, inexpensive printing option. Most printing methods, such as lithography, apply a specific amount of ink to the paper. The stencil process used by digital duplicators, however, requires the ink to pass through the master before it is applied to the paper. While stencil masters are very easy to makeit is difficult to control the amount of ink passed to the paper. Fortunately, advances over the last two decades have made modern Digital duplicators easier to use, while greatly improving their print quality. Compared to photocopiers, the printing speed from a single original is much faster. The C235
Digital Duplicators
Overview
supports 5 different printing speeds, ranging from 60 sheets/minute to 120 sheets/minute. Most digital duplicators can also use a variety of ink colors. On the other hand, the setup time for each original is longer, and digital duplicators tend to require more-complex mechanical components to handle tasks like ejecting old masters and wrapping new masters around the drum. While many digital duplicators are marketed towards schools, small government offices, and anyone who needs inexpensive, high-volume printing, the high quality machines can even handle some of the work usually done by offset printers.
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Digital Duplicators
Duplicating Process
Duplicating Process
1. Master Ejecting: Ejects the used master wrapped around the drum into the master eject box. Scans the original image with the CCD through the mirrors and the lens. Converts the image signal read by the CCD into digital signals and sends them to the thermal head to write the image on the master. The master then wraps around the drum. Sends paper to the drum section.
2. Scanning:
3. Master Feeding:
4. Paper Feeding:
5. Printing:
Presses the paper fed from the paper feed section against the drum. This transfers ink to the paper through the drum screen and the master. Peels off the printed paper with the exit pawls and air knife, and ejects the paper onto the paper delivery table.
6. Paper Delivering:
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Digital Duplicators
Duplicating Process
Master Ejecting
To keep the ink from drying, the master remains wrapped around the drum. Therefore, the first step in the duplicating process is to eject the old master. When the start key is pressed, the drum rotates from the home position to the master eject position. Then the drum master clamper (A) opens. Master pick-up rollers (B) grab the leading edge of the master, and remove the master from the drum. The master is ejected. Once the master is fed completely into the master eject box, a pressure plate compresses the master into the box. After ejecting, the drum rotates into the master making position. B A
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Digital Duplicators
Duplicating Process
Scanning
Scanning and image processing for digital duplicators is basically the same as other digital processes. Older machines tended to use a pass-through scanner, where the image was moved past a stationary CCD or CIS. This is the same method commonly used by fax machinesin fact, the duplicators often used the same components as the fax line. Newer machines tend to use a book scannerthe type of scanner used on a copier. Again, the components are identical to those used by the digital copiers. For example, the C231 and the A265 use identical scanners. See Digital Scanning for more information.
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Duplicating Process
Master Feeding
The masters are made from a low-fiber content paper coated by a thin layer of heat-sensitive film. The paper is fed from a roll to the thermal head. Here, image data from the CCD is burned into the film, creating the new master. The master is then fed to the drum. Once the drum rotates into the master feed position, the master clamper opens, and the leading edge of the master is fed under the clamper. The clamper then closes on the leading edge. The new master is wrapped around the drum, as it slowly rotates. When the master making process is finished, the master feed motor turns off, and the cutter activates. After the master is cut, the drum rotates again to wrap the remaining portion around the drum. [C] [B]
[A]
A: Master B: Drum C: Clamper
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Duplicating Process
Master Buffering
As the master passes the thermal head, the thermal head burns the image data into the thermal head. In an unbuffered machine, the master is transported directly to the drum. As the image is created, it is immediately clamped onto and wrapped around the drum. This process can take a significant amount of time, especially for higher-resolution printers. Also, the process does not begin until the old master has been completely ejected, and the drum has rotated into the master making position. In order to improve the first print speed, many of the higher-end duplicators buffer the master, allowing them to start creating a new master while the old master is being ejected. Old master creation and master ejection begin at almost the same time. In master buffering, the new master is fed until the leading edge is past the master feed control rollers. The master feed control rollers then stop. The master vacuum fans activate, drawing air down the master buffer duct.
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[B]
[A]
[D]
[C]
A: Thermal Head B: Master Feed Control Rollers C: Master Vacuum Fans D: Master Buffer Duct
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Digital Duplicators
Duplicating Process
As the master is created, the slack is drawn into the master buffer duct. When the drum rotates into the master creation position, the master feed control rollers activate again. The leading edge is clamped onto the drum, and the master is fed out and wrapped around the drum.
Paper Feeding
Digital duplicators use standard paper handling processes. See Paper Feed for more information.
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Duplicating Process
Printing
There are two variations on the printing process. One uses a pressure roller, the other uses a pressure cylinder. The basic procedure, however, is similar. As the paper is fed, the pressure roller (or pressure cylinder) presses it against the drum. The drum itself consists of a cloth screen over a metal screen. The ink pump supplies ink from the ink cartridge into the drum through the drum shaft. The ink roller and doctor roller spread the ink evenly over the screen. Ink seeps through the master where the film has been burnt away, transferring the image to the paper. [A] [B]
[C]
A: Drum B: Ink Roller C: Pressure Cylinder
The pressure roller is a smaller roller, held against the drum by tension springs. It is attached to a cam system, so it can disengage from the drum, and allow the master clamper to pass.
The pressure cylinder is a much larger rollerit is the same diameter as the drum. The pressure cylinder and the drum rotate in synch. The cylinder has a slot which the clamper fits into as it rotates through the printing nip. This allows the clamper to pass through without disengaging the cylinder from the drum. So, while the cylinder takes up more space, it also simplifies the mechanical design.
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Duplicating Process
Finally, on some of the higher-end machines, a drum idling roller has been added. This enables the Quality Start mode ensuring that the first print has enough ink, even if the machine has not been used in a long time. When Quality Start mode is selected, the drum idling roller is lowered against the drum, providing ink onto the screen and master before printing begins. Note: there must be a master on the drumif there is no master, this procedure is skipped. Some Idling rollers also include a quality blade to scrape excess ink off the inside of the metal screen. The drum idling roller disengages before printing begins. Actual printing proceeds as previously described.
[C]
[A] [B]
[D]
A: Ink Roller B: Doctor Roller C: Drum Idling Roller D: Quality Blade
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Digital Duplicators
Duplicating Process
Paper Delivery
Paper separation takes place shortly after the leading edge passes the nip between the pressure roller and the drum. Since this is a wet process, the paper has a tendency to stick to the drum. Most machines use both air knifes and exit pawls to separate the paper. Like the pressure roller, the exit pawls are also placed on cams. They disengage from the drum to allow the master clamper to pass. Once separated, the paper is fed into the delivery tray. Since the ink is still wet, paper transport must be handled without smearing the ink. On older machines, two rollers were used to transport the paper. [A] Each rollers position was carefully adjusted according to the paper size and the papers position on the paper table. The rollers had to catch the paper within the [C] 5mm margin along its edges. Newer machines use a combination of rubber belts and a vacuum fan to transport the paper. The vacuum draws the paper down, holding the sheet to the belts. Finally, the paper guide wings lift the side of the paper as it leaves the delivery unit. This stiffens the paper so that the leading edge will not sag and brush against the sheets already on the delivery table. Again, this prevents the ink on freshly printed sheets from smearing as the paper is stacked. [B]
A: Rubber Belts B: Vacuum Fan C: Wings
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Digital Duplicators
Ink Supply Control
Ink Supply Control

Overview
Ink is pumped from the ink cartridge to the ink roller. The ink travels through the drum shaft. Holes in the shaft drop the ink onto the ink roller. The ink on the ink roller is squeezed by the doctor roller, spreading it into an even thickness. While printing, the pressure roller pushes paper, master, and the screens against the ink roller. Ink seeps through the holes in the screens and master, and is applied to the paper.
Ink Level Detection

The ink detection pins work like the electrodes of a capacitor. The capacitance between the pins is measured. This capacitance varies depending on how much ink is touching the pins. Based on the capacitance, the ink motor is turned on and off. This way, the machine maintains a consistent level of ink on the roller.
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Digital Duplicators
Ink Supply Control
Ink End Condition

As soon as the capacitance indicates that the ink level is getting low, the ink pump activates. If the capacitance does not change within a specified time, the CPU stops the printing process and turns on the Ink End Indicator. For example, the C235 waits 40 seconds after the pump activates.
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Digital Duplicators
Thermal Head Control

Overview
The thermal head is a row of heating elementsone element per pixel. The thermal heating elements melt the over-coating and polyester film layers of the master, according to the image data sent by the CCD. The power supply PCB applies power (VHD) to the thermal heating elements. The applied voltage varies from one head to the next, since the average resistance of each element varies. When the thermal head or power supply PCB are replaced, the applied voltage must be set to match the value specified for that particular head. When creating a new master, the amount of energy sent to the head is controlled by varying the length of time during which power is applied. This is adjusted depending on the thermal heads current temperature. If the temperature is higher, the time will be shorter. The time setting is calculated when the Start key is pressed. It is kept throughout the entire master making process. See Thermal Head for more information.
Thermal Head Protection

To prevent the thermal head from overheating when continuously processing a solid image, a thermistor in the thermal head is used to monitor the units temperature. The CPU checks for any unusual conditions when the Start key is pressed.
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Special Handling
Pay attention to the following when servicing the thermal head.
Do not touch the surface with bare hands. If this occurs, clean the surface with alcohol. Do not damage the heating elements. Master Platen Roller Remove any foreign materials from the platen roller. Remove foreign materials. Do not touch the master film surface with bare hands. There are some ICs inside the metal cover. Do not push the cover down. Do not touch the connector terminals with bare hands, to prevent damage from static electricity. MP Thermal Head Connector
Connect and disconnect the connectors carefully. Keep them horizontal and firmly reconnect them. Adjust the voltage supplied to match the specified value for the thermal head.
PSU
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Digital Duplicator Specific Specifications

There are several specifications specific to digital duplicators. The following are some of the more noteworthy specifications, and can be useful when comparing the capabilities of two different machines.
Master Processing Time

This is the amount of time it takes to create a new master. All other things being equal, this is largely a function of the machines resolution. A 600 dpi machine will have a much longer master processing time than a 400 dpi machine. However, machines that buffer the master will have a much shorter master processing time than those that do notregardless of resolution.
Run Length Per Master

This is the number of prints that can be made from a single master. If you need more copies than this, the machine will need to process the job in batches, creating a master for each batch.
Master Roll Yield

This lists the number of masters that can be created from one roll.
Master Eject Box Capacity

This lists the number of masters that can be created before the master eject box needs emptying.
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Ink Recommended Maximum Storage Period

Duplicator ink has a limited shelf life. For example, the gradual evaporation of water from the ink will cause it to become overly viscous, reducing its quality. Other elements also contribute to a slow reduction in ink quality.
Printing Speeds
This is the sheet-per-minute speed from a single master. It does not take into account any master processing time. Unlike copiers, digital duplicators often have several different speed settings. Lower speeds allow higher density prints. The greater the density of ink on the page, the greater the likelihood of wrapping jams. The slower speeds help to compensate. Since there is a direct trade-off between print quality and speed, several options are provided. The customer can select a speed appropriate to their needs.
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Standard Components
Light Sources
Light Sources Semiconductor Components Sensors and Switches Clutches, Motors, and Solenoids Other Electrical Components Consumables
Our products use a variety of different light sources. These range from intense sources such as halogen lamps to relatively weak sources such as LED arrays. The light source selected depends on the functionoriginal exposure, quenching, etc.and the machine design. The most important light sources from a design point of view are those commonly used for original exposure (scanning)the halogen lamp, the fluorescent lamp, and the xenon lamp. The most basic characteristics of these three lamps are summarized in the following table. Halogen Light Intensity Spectrum Temperature dependency* Stability at start-up Heat output Cost
*Dependency of light intensity on temperature
Fluorescent Low Narrow Large Poor Small Low
Xenon Low Narrow Large Good Smallest Lowest
High Wide Small Good Large High
of these three lamp types.
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Light Sources
Halogen Lamp
A Halogen lamp is an incandescent lamp filled with halogen gas (iodine or bromine). The halogen gas suppresses filament evaporation using a chemical regeneration process known as the halogen cycle (see below). Halogen lamps have a long effective life and strong light output.
Characteristics
Extensive spectrometric distribution High illumination level Small changes resulting from the temperature of the light source and small transient changes Long lead time to lighting Large electricity consumption Large heat output
halogen.pcx
Halogen Cycle
During lamp operation, the halogen gas combines with tungsten molecules that have evaporated off the filament. The evaporated tungsten molecules are then deposited back onto the filament, instead of on the lamp wall. Consequently, there is almost no reduction of light output from lamp wall darkening. Some light reduction from filament degradation does occur, but it is significantly lower than in other incandescent lamps. The halogen regenerative process requires that tungsten-halogen
Standard Components
Light Sources
lamps operate at an extremely high temperature, which slightly increases lamp efficiency, and produces bright light and high temperatures. To withstand these high temperatures, tungstenhalogen lamps usually have quartz glass walls. Halogen lamps with quartz walled bulbs must be handled carefully. Quartz materials are extremely sensitive to oil and dirt from human skin, which can cause bulb wall deterioration, and premature lamp failure.
Applications
The intense light and wide spectral output of the halogen lamp suit it to color copiers and high-speed copiers. However, as it consumes a lot of electricity and undergoes drastic rises in temperature, it is generally not used for low-speed copiers and single scanner models. Since halogen lamps output a large amount of heat, they are also commonly used as a heat source in fusing units.
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Light Sources
Fluorescent Lamp
A fluorescent lamp is a closed glass tube that has electrodes at each end and an internal coated surface of a phosphorous material. The tube is filled with argon gas (or argon/krypton gas) mixed with a small amount of mercury vapor. When a suitable high voltage is applied across the electrodes, an electric arc forms and the resulting current ionizes the mercury vapor. The ionized mercury emits ultraviolet radiation, which strikes and excites the phosphor coating, causing it to glow and produce visible light.
FL operation (Illustration source unknown)
Characteristics
Has a medium luminance Produces excess heat from filaments Short lead time to lighting The exact makeup of the phosphor coating determines the color properties of a fluorescent lamps light output. The intensity of illumination changes depending on the tube temperature. Uneven illumination at the ends of the tube requires shading plates.
Lamp heater
Fluorescent lamp
fluorsnt.pcx
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Light Sources
Applications
Fluorescent lamps are suited for use in low-speed color copiers as well as medium-speed black and white copiers. They are the most commonly used type of lamp in fax machines. However, the light quantity changes depending on the tube temperature; and a lamp heater may be included to solve this problem. Some Ricoh machines use a variation of the fluorescent lamp, called the cold cathode fluorescent lamp (sometimes called CFL or CCFL), as a quenching lamp or pre-transfer lamp. CFLs are also sometimes used as the exposure lamp in image scanners.
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Light Sources
Xenon Lamps
A xenon lamp is a tube filled with xenon gas. When a voltage is applied across the lamp terminals, the xenon gas ionizes and current flows through the gas, which emits light. The terminals do not have to be preheated, unlike in fluorescent lamps. There are different kinds of xenon lamp. The xenon lamps used in black and white digital machines output a yellowish-green light with a peak at 543 nm. The xenon lamps used with color machines utilize fluorescence as well as gas discharge to produce white light.
The xenon lamp used in model A250
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Light Sources
Characteristics
Medium brightness light output Less expensive than fluorescent or halogen lamps Good durabilitygenerally can be expected to last the life of the machine Low heat outputexposure cavity cooling isn't required More compact than fluorescent lamps
Applications
Xenon lamps can be used as exposure lamps for printers, lower speed copiers, fax machines, and scanners. Recently, xenon lamps have been increasingly used in digital products. This is mainly due to improvements in the spectral sensitivity of CCDs, which allows use of the more economical xenon lamp.
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Light Sources
Xenon Flash Lamp

The xenon flash lamps used in office machines are basically the same as the flash lamps used in photography only larger. A xenon flash lamp has main electrodes at both ends of a gas tube, which contains xenon (Xe) gas. (Generally, any noble gas will work in a flash lamp. However, gases other than xenon are rarely used.) The lamp also has trigger electrodes, generally in the form of a wire, or conductive coating in the lamp tube wall.
xenon.pcx
The typical xenon flash lamp circuit consists of four parts: (1) power supply, (2) energy storage capacitor, (3) trigger circuit, and (4) the flash lamp itself. It operates as follows: The energy storage capacitor connected across the flash lamp is charged by the power supply. (The energy storage capacity is quite large.) A separate small capacitor is charged to generate a trigger pulse. The charge on the trigger capacitor to is dumped into the primary of a pulse transformer whose secondary is connected to the trigger electrodes. The pulse generated by this trigger is enough to ionize the xenon gas inside the flash lamp.
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Light Sources
The resistance of the ionized xenon gas is very low and the energy storage capacitor discharges through the flash lamp, which then emits a brilliant burst of light.
Characteristics
Produces an intense peak of radiant energy. Since flash lamps use a high voltage, precautions must be taken against electric shocks.
Applications
Xenon flash lamps are suited for use in high-speed black-and-white copiers. They are also occasionally used as the heat source for flash fusing.
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Light Sources
Neon Lamps
Like the cold cathode fluorescent lamp, a neon lamp uses a cold cathode to excite the atoms of a gas in an enclosed tube. However, the light is emitted by the neon gas in the tube rather than by a phosphorous coating inside the tube. The neon gas gives an orangish-red light.
Applications
In Ricoh products, neon lamps are used only as quenching lamps.
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Light Sources
LED Arrays
LED stands for light emitting diode. As the name implies, an LED is a diode that emits light when a small electric current passes through it. LEDs are commonly used as display devices and indicators (see the next section), but they can also be mounted together in an array and used as a light source.
Characteristics
LED arrays can be wired so that the LEDs can be turned on/off in blocks to provide precise illumination. LED arrays are useful where compact components are required.
Applications
In Ricoh products, LED arrays are used for document exposure in small fax machines and scanners. They are commonly used as quenching lamps in analog and digital copiers. Also, most analog copiers use them for erase lamps. The illustration to the right shows an LED array [A] used as an erase lamp in a copier.
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[A]
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Semiconductor Components
This section deals with components that are based on semiconductors.
Diodes
Normal Diodes
A diode consists of a p-type semiconductor joined to an ntype semiconductor. A diode only passes current in one direction. If it is connected up as shown opposite, current will flow. However, if the power source is connected up the opposite way around, current will not flow.
Current flow P
Symbol:
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Zener Diodes
A zener diode is connected the opposite way around from a normal diode. Normal diodes cannot pass any current if connected up in this way, and may be destroyed. However, zener diodes connected in V reverse will pass current, if the voltage across the diode exceeds a certain value, known as the breakdown voltage. After the breakdown voltage has been reached, the voltage across the diode will not change much, even if the current is greatly increased. Zener diodes can be used to make sure that the voltage at a certain point in a circuit (Vz in the above-right diagram) does not exceed a certain value. The diagram below right is the typical diode characteristic curve. While normal diodes should operate below the breakdown voltage and may be damaged if it is exceeded, the zener diode is intended to operate at that voltage.
+
V Z
Zener Diode
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Varistors
A varistor acts like two zener diodes connected back to back. This means that it has positive and negative breakdown voltages. A single zener diode only has a negative breakdown voltage. Varistors are used in similar ways to zener diodes. They are also useful in protecting circuits against voltage spikes. The example to the right shows a varistor connected across a switch to eliminate sparking. The illustration below right shows the characteristic double-breakdown curve of the varistor.
Vac
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Light Emitting Diodes

A light emitting diode (LED) is a kind of diode that emits photons (light particles) when a small electric current passes through it. When current flows across the pn junction in diodes, energy is released in the form of heat. However, the material used to make LEDs is selected so that some of the energy is emitted as light. Light emitting diodes have some special characteristics. They convert electrical current directly into light; therefore, the LED is more efficient than many other light sources. Also the light emitted by an LED has a narrow wavelength range. The LED is enclosed in a transparent case of epoxy resin or plastic. The typical LED produces red or infrared light; however, there are varieties to produce many colors. Alternately, as shown in the illustration, a colored case can be used to modify the light output. LEDs can be used to form large displays and are often the lighting elements in information displays used in public places such as highways and airports. In office machines, LEDs are used to light indicators on operation panels, as indicator lights on circuit boards, and in LED arrays.
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+
Current flow P N
P N
Symbol:
A small PCB with indicator LEDs on it.
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Laser Diodes Natural light is a mixture of light of different wavelengths. However, a laser beam consists of light at one wavelength, and the waves are all in phase (the peaks and troughs in the waves all coincide). As the waves are all in phase, the light is very intense (if peaks and troughs do not coincide, they tend to cancel each other out, reducing the power of the beam). Natural light can be focused, but it cannot be focused to so fine a point as laser light can. This is because a lens at the same angle does not refract the different components of natural light, having different wavelengths. To the right is a simplified diagram of a laser diode. Laser diodes can be considered as similar to LEDs in operating principle; current flowing across the pn junction causes energy to be emitted in the form of light. LEDs emit light in all directions. However, the pn junction in laser diodes has a mirror at each end, reflecting the light back into the diode. When the current
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Current flow
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passing through the diode reaches a threshold value, the light reflected back into the junction stimulates more atoms in that region to emit more radiation of the same wavelength. Some of this light passes out of the diode through one of the mirrors, which is partially transparent. The light beams emerge from the mirror parallel to each other. The wavelength of the laser depends on the composition of the semiconductor material. The lasers used in most printers emit red light. Engineers are trying to develop lasers that emit green or blue light; the shorter wavelengths of this light would allow smaller dots to be written to the photoconductor, leading to higher resolution printouts.
Laser diode LD Unit
For More Information

For a brief introduction to laser theory and more information on laser diodes we suggest you reference A Brief Introduction to Laser Diodes at the University of Washington web site (http://www.ee.washington.edu/class/ ConsElec/Chapter6.html)*. *We have no control over this web page. The content or location may change at any time.
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Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistors
A bipolar junction transistor contains two junctions between p and n type semiconductor, and three electrodes (the collector, the base, and the emitter). The most common use of a transistor is as a switch. They are also used in amplification and rectification. There are two types of transistor: the npn transistor, and the pnp transistor. The npn transistor is the most commonly-used of these. The diagrams to the right show the symbols for both types of transistor, their construction, and the direction of current flow. Notice that the batteries in the pnp transistor circuit are connected up the opposite way round from the npn transistor. (Continued on next page.)
NPN Type
PNP Type
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In the diagram on the right, an npn transistor is controlling a lamp. A positive voltage is applied between the collector and the emitter. The lamp cannot switch on unless a voltage is also applied between the base and the emitter.
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Phototransistors
A phototransistor works like an ordinary bipolar transistor, except that the transistor is switched on by light shining on the base region of the transistor. The diagram on the right shows an npntype phototransistor. In office machines, phototransistors are used in photointerrupters, optoisolators, and reflective photosensors.
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Sensors and Switches

Reflective Photosensors
Reflective photosensors are short range sensors that have a light emitting element (usually an LED) and a light sensitive element (usually a phototransistor). Reflective photosensors work by bouncing light off of an object. There are two main types of reflective photosensor. The simplest type signals the presence or absence of an object or conditionthe presence of paper, the presence of a belt reference plate, the presence of a cassette or cartridge. The illustration to the right is an example. This type of sensor has a binary output; it is either activated or deactivated. The other type of reflective photosensor is used to gather information about the surface being sensed. It has a variable output that depends on the strength of the light striking the light sensitive element. The primary example is the image density sensor (or ID sensor) used in copiers and other products.
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Characteristics
! Small, inexpensive, rugged ! Available in many different types (size, shape, sensitivity, specifications).
Applications
Reflective photosensors are used for detecting paper in the paper path, paper size detection, master belt position detection, and a number of other functions.
A reflective photosensor
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ID Sensor
The ID sensor is a special application of the reflective photosensor. Two types of ID sensor are used as part of the process control system in photocopiers. One type is a direct reflection ID sensor. It is positioned so that light from the LED reflects directly to the detector. This is the commonly used type of ID sensor. The other type is a diffused reflection ID sensor. In addition to the light reflected at a direct angle, diffuse light reflects at all angles from the toner on the drum. This sensor detects image density by receiving some of this diffused light. Using this type of sensor improves the measurement accuracy of the sensor pattern densities particularly for yellow, cyan, and magenta toners.
Direct reflection ID sensor
Drum Toner
LED
Detector
Diffused reflection ID sensor
Drum Toner
Detector LED Diffuse light
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Photointerrupters
A photointerrupter consists of an LED and a phototransistor separated by a slot. The sensor detects when something enters or leaves the slot, such as an actuator, a part of the machine, or a sheet of paper. When there is no actuator in the slot, light from the LED activates the phototransistor, and current flows through it. However, if an actuator enters the slot, light from the LED is blocked and current cannot pass through the phototransistor. Photointerrupters have a variety of uses in office machines. They are commonly used as home position detectors for moving parts such as lenses and scanners and to detect paper as it moves through the paper feed path. In machines such as photocopiers that handle a variety of feed stock photointerrupters are generally preferred over reflective photosensors because photointerrupters are not affected by the reflectivity of the paper. Continued on next page.)
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Characteristics
! Small, inexpensive, rugged ! Available in many different types (size, shape, sensitivity, specifications).
Most photointerrupters that are used as paper detectors use a "feeler" type plastic actuator. However, a photointerrupter is occasionally installed across a paper feed path, as shown above. This type of photointerrupter may become dirty and will need cleaning periodically.
[A]
Photointerrupters: The one on the left has a weight operated actuator built on it.
A photointerrupter [A] used as a home position sensor. Notice the scanner drive wire below the slot of the photointerrupter.
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Charge transfer control signals T1 T2 T3
CCDs
A CCD (Charge Coupled Device) is a semiconductor chip with light receiving elements etched onto it. In a digital machine that scans documents, the CCD is a row of these elements; each element on the CCD corresponds to one pixel on one main scan line across the original. The CCD also contains circuits for transferring the accumulated charges out of the elements and into the video processing circuits. The diagram on the right shows a simplified crosssection of a CCD element. When applying the appropriate voltage across the element, any light hitting the element liberates electrons from the silicon at the boundary between the n and p type semiconductors. Positive charges can flow out, but an insulating layer traps the electrons, and gathers them under the electrodes. The brighter the light shining on the element, the more electrons generated in that element.
Charge transfer circuits Light sensitive elements
Output
N P
_ +
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After scanning a line, the charges trapped in each element must be moved out of the CCD and into the video signal processing circuits so that the next line can be scanned. The diagram shows how this is done. The diagram shows two adjacent elements. Each element has three electrodes attached to it. After scanning a line of data, the electrons are under electrode 1, as shown in the top diagram. A voltage V2, higher than V1, is then applied to electrode 2. The electrons are attracted to the area beneath electrode 2, as shown in the middle diagram. Then, the voltage at electrode 1 switches off and the voltage at electrode 2 is set to V1, as shown in the bottom diagram. The electrons all gather under electrode 2. By repeating the above procedure, but using electrodes 2 and 3 instead of electrodes 1 and 2, the electrons move to
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T1 = V1 T2 = 0 1 2 3 1 2 3 T3 = 0
__ __
__ __
T1 = V1 T2 = V2
T3 = 0
__ __ _ _ __
__ __ _ _ __
T1 = 0 T2 = V1
T3 = 0
__ __
__ __
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electrode 3. The result of this is that one element shifts all the charges along, and the element charges at the end of the CCD shift out of the CCD. By continuing this process, all the charges shift out of the CCD. The series of charges appears on the CCD output line as a serial analog video signal. This signal passes to the video processing circuits, allowing the next line of the original to be scanned.
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Contact Image Sensors (CIS)

The contact image sensor (CIS) is a compact image reading assembly containing an LED array, an array of self-focusing optic fibers (SELFOC), and a strip of light detectors, such as phototransistors. The CIS is used instead of the CCD in the most compact of fax machines. The illustration to the right (from model H545) shows a typical CIS. Light from the LED array [A] reflects off of the document, through a row of selffocusing optic fibers [B], and onto a strip of phototransistors [C]. The entire assembly is located directly below the document, so a long light path is not necessary. When using a fluorescent lamp/lens/CCD arrangement, the light path is typically about 300 to 500 mm. However, with a CIS, the light path can be reduced to about 15 to 50 mm; with the most recent types, the CIS is positioned less than 0.1 mm from the surface of the document.
[B] [A]
[C]
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Hall Effect Sensors

Hall effect sensors are used in some network control units (NCU) of fax machines to detect line current. The output of a Hall effect sensor is called the Hall voltage. If a conductor [A] is placed in a magnetic field [B], and current [C] flows through this conductor perpendicularly to the magnetic field, a Hall voltage (VH) is generated across the conductor. The conductive material in Hall effect sensors is normally a semiconductor, as the Hall effect is too small to measure accurately in metallic conductors.
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Thermistors
A thermistor is a device that undergoes a very large change of resistance with temperature. The name is derived from thermally sensitive resistor. Typically, a thermistor is made from a semiconductor or sintered metal oxides. Most types have a negative temperature coefficientthat is, the resistance decreases as the temperature increases. However, some positive temperature coefficient varieties are also available. The material can be formed into rods or small beads, but for sensing purposes the small bead shape is generally used in order to get the fastest possible response. Thermistors have a large variety of uses. In office machines, they are used mainly to measure the temperature at critical pointsfor example inside fusing units or optic cavities.
[A]
Thermistors [A] used to measure the temperature of fusing rollers (model G024)
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Microswitches
Microswitches are electromechanical devices, which contain two contacts. They are modular, inexpensive, resistant to dust and contamination as well as metered. This means that any time the actuator is depressed, the contacts of the switch will close at the same point each time. These switches have a characteristic sound or click when the contacts close. The main advantage of a microswitch is its durability and its consistency.
The normally open terminal of this switch has been removed so that it cannot be connected incorrectly.
FP = Free Postion OT = Overtravel OP = Operating Position PT = Pretravel RP = Release Position MD = Movement Differential OF = Operating Force Above pictures courtesy of Zippy USA Inc.
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Reed Switches
Reed switches are magnetically operated components with contacts hermetically sealed in a glass capsule. Bringing a permanent magnet to the switch or placing the switch in or near an electromagnet causes the contact reeds to flex and touch, completing the circuit. Either protective inert gas or a vacuum within the capsule keeps the contacts clean, protecting them for the life of the device. Due to their lack of mechanical parts, reed switches are maintenance-free and remain unaffected by temperature change, moisture, chemicals, dust, abrasive fluids and other hostile surroundings. Features: Reliable Non-mechanical Long operating life Compact Rugged
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Thermoswitches
As the name implies, a thermoswitch (also known as thermal switch or thermostat) is a temperature controlled switch. Thermoswitches have contacts made of two dissimilar metals molecularly bonded together. These are called bi-metal contacts. The two metals expand and contract at different rates with changes in temperature. As the temperature rises the bi-metal contacts start to flex, and at a certain temperature, the contacts will open. At a lower, temperature, the contacts will close again. The difference between the opening and closing temperature of a thermoswitch is the "hysterisis" or "differential" of the device. Some thermoswitches, such as those used in deep fat cookers or popcorn machines, have a narrow hysterisis. However, In Ricoh products, thermoswitches are usually overheating safety devices with a large hysterisis. For example, the thermoswitch used in the 1st scanner of model A257 opens at 140C but will not close again until its temperature drops to -35C!
A collection of thermoswitches. (Photo courtesy of Elmwood Sensors, Inc.)
Note: Thermoswitch and thermostat are often used interchangeably. In fact, thermostat is the term used in our parts catalogs. However, here we use thermoswitch to avoid confusion with adjustable control devices such as room temperature thermostats.
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Clutches, Motors, And Solenoids

Clutches
Torque Limiter Clutches
In Ricoh products, torque limiter clutches are often in reverse rollers of feed and reverse roller paper feed mechanisms. In concept, torque limiter clutches (also called slip clutches) are simple. They transmit rotation to a drive component (usually a roller, pulley, or gear mounted on a rotating shaft). As long as the resistance to rotation is less than the torque (twisting force) limitation of the clutch, the roller turns with the shaft. If the resistance exceeds the torque limitation, the roller stops turningit slips. In fact, it may turn in the opposite direction if sufficient counter force is applied. Torque limiter structures vary: some use springs as slip mechanism, while others use magnetic force or powder filling. Compared to those that use springs, torque limiters that use magnets and/or powders do not need to be lubricated with
Standard Components
grease or other lubricants, so that they are easier to maintain. In addition, the magnet-type torque limiter does not generate much heat, even after extended use, because it does not come in contact with other components. Consequently, it ensures stable torque. The torque limiter of the model A112 reverse roller, shown on the previous page, is a magnetic type. Here are some other examples of torque limiter clutches: The clutch used in Model A084, illustrated to the right, uses two coupled magnetic type clutches. (Two coupled clutches have a stronger total torque than a single clutch.) Continued on the next page.
Model A084 (magnet) Outer magnet Casing Inner magnet
Drive shaft
Rotor
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Model A133 uses a magnet and ferrite powder type slip clutch.
Model A133 (magnet + ferrite powder)
Magnetic ring
Output hub
Input hub Ferrite ring
Ferrite powder
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Electromagnetic Clutches
The illustration to the right diagrams the basic [D] parts of an electromagnetic clutch. Gear [A] is driven by a motor. This gear is an idle gear; it does not drive the roller shaft [B]. Shaft [B] is attached to the rotatable part [C] of the clutch, and held in place by an E-ring [D]. When the clutch is switched on, current flows through the coil [E]. The magnetic field generated by this coil attracts plate [F], which is connected to gear [A]. The motor is still turning gear [A], and when plate [F] comes into contact with the rotating part of the clutch [C], the roller shaft begins to turn. A typical application is shown to the right, where a clutch [A] switches on to connect shaft [B] to the drive from motor [C]. Continued on the next page.
[E]
[F] [A] [B]
[C]
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An electromagnetic clutch requires + 24 or + 12 volts to drive it, but a CPU cannot output this high a voltage, so the CPU controls the clutch through a driver. When the clutch is off, the driver is holding the control signal to the clutch high, preventing current from going to ground. When the CPU drops the control signal low, + 24V flows through the coils in the clutch, and through the driver to ground.
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Spring Clutch
A spring clutch is purely mechanical clutch. It is a simple device that consists of two separate pieces fitted inside a coiled spring. One piece called the drive hub, supplies rotation from a motor. The other piece, called the output hub, delivers the rotation of the drive hub to a shaft. Under normal circumstances, the spring grips both pieces very tightly, so they function as one unit and pass on the rotation from the motor. The clutchs release mechanism is a sleeve that surrounds the spring. The sleeve is attached to one end of the springthe clutch spring tail. The other end of the spring is engaged with the output hub. When the sleeve is kept from turning, the spring expands away from the drive hub, disengaging the drive. The sleeve of a spring clutch either has a ratchet surface for a pawl to engage with or one or more projections for a stopper to engage with. Typically, spring clutches are engaged and disengaged by some kind of electronic controlusually a solenoid.
Spring tail
Sleeve projection
Drive Hub
Output Hub Sleeve
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Magnetic Spring Clutch

A magnetic spring clutch is a hybrid of the electromagnetic clutch and the spring clutch. Unlike the normal spring clutch, the spring is loose while idling. When the electric coil is energized, it causes the spring to tighten around the output element.
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Standard Components
DC Motors
Electric motors are based on the following two observations: When current flows along a wire, a magnetic field develops about that wire. When two magnetic fields are close to each other, an attractive or a repulsive force is felt. So, if a wire carrying current is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic field develops around the wire, and a force is exerted on the wire. The force is strongest if the wire is at 90 to the magnetic field. The force is also at 90 to the wire. If there is no angle between the wire and the field, there is no force. This is summarized in the diagram opposite; the wire would be forced directly upwards, away from the plane of the paper. If a loop of wire is placed in a magnetic field, the current direction is opposite on each side of the loop. This means that one side has an upward force on it, and the other side has a downward
Standard Components
force on it. This causes the loop to rotate, as shown opposite. The part of the motor containing the loop of wire is called the armature. It is normally in the form of a drum, with many loops of wire wound around it for increased motor power. The armature is connected to the drive current by a split metal ring called the commutator, and a pair of brushes made from a low-resistance material such as graphite. Each segment of the commutator is insulated from the other. The commutator is split in a dc motor so that the polarity of the current flowing through the loop is reversed every 180 of rotation. This allows the rotation of the coil to continue; if there were no reversal of current, the coil would not rotate constantly.
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Brushless DC Motors
In the dc motor described above, the magnet is stationary while the coil rotates. In the brushless dc motor, the coil is stationary and the magnet moves. In a typical example, nine coils are attached to the motor drive board, arranged in a circle around the shaft. A circular magnet, com-posed of eight alternating north and south polarized segments, fits around the outside of these coils. The magnet is bonded to a metal cover, which is bolted to the motor shaft. As shown in the diagram, the coils are wired up so that there are three north poles, three south poles, and three neutral positions around the center. To rotate the magnet, the motor drive board switches the positions of the poles in such a way that the magnet is always pulled around in the same direction. Ricoh products primarily use two types of brushless dc motorsservomotors and stepper motors.
Standard Components
Servomotors
Servomotors use feedback to maintain a constant rotating speed. To check that a dc servomotor is running at the correct speed, the drive board contains a circuit known as a phase-locked loop. An oscillator generates a reference frequency. The circuit board contains a detector that converts the motors rotation into another frequency signal. The phase detector compares both signals; a feedback signal is sent to the motor drive board to adjust the motor speed until it reaches the correct value. When the motor is at the correct speed, the two frequencies are the same.
Rotor
Stator
A servomotor mounted on its controller board.
The same motor disassembled to show stator and rotor.
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Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are used whenever accurate positioning of a component is required. The outer shell of the motor is stationary. Coils are wound around teeth attached to this shell. The core of the motor, made of iron, can rotate. The arrangement of the teeth is such that, if pulses are applied to the coils in the correct timing sequence, the core of the motor can be rotated in stepwise increments of a few degrees. In the example shown here, when phase 1 is energized, two of the teeth on the motor core will align with the coils on the outer shell, but the other four teeth will be out of alignment. Then, if phase 2 is energized, the core rotates by 15 to align two of the other teeth. If phases 1, 2, 3, and 4 are energized in sequence continuously, the motor will drive the shaft in increments of 15 . The order of activating the coils can be varied to give different effects, such as reverse motion, or coarser steps.
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The stator A typical stepper motor
The Rotor
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Standard Components
Solenoids
The solenoid is one of the oldest, simplest and most commonly used electromagnetic devices. It consists of a hollow electromagnet (coil) and a movable plunger that fits inside. When an electric current energizes the coil, it creates an electromagnetic force around the coil. This force causes the plunger to move into the coil. The picture to the right shows a disassembled solenoid. The amount of force created by a solenoid is in direct proportion to the amount of current applied. Some other factors, such as the number of turns in the coil, the magnetic character of the steel, and the stroke of the solenoid affect the amount of force produced. The solenoid drive circuit is similar to the drive circuit for and electromagnetic clutch as explained on an earlier page. Continued on the next page.
Coil Plunger
Plunger
Coil
Direction of motion
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Standard Components
Other Electrical Components
A typical application is shown to the right, where the solenoids plunger is activating a mechanical paper feed mechanism. A pawl [A] is gripping the ratchet sleeve of a spring clutch [B], preventing motor drive from reaching the feed rollers [C]. When the solenoid [D] turns on, the plunger pulls the pawl away from the ratchet sleeve, and the rollers start to rotate. [C]
[B]

For more information on solenoid theory, operation, and design, we suggest you reference What is a Solenoid at the web site of the Detroit Coil Company. (http://www.detroitcoil.com/whatis.htm)*. *We have no control over this web page. The content or location may change at any time.
[D] [A]
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Standard Components

Thermal Heads
Operation
The thermal head is the central component of the thermal printer. A thermal head consists of a row of heating elements. If a heating element is turned on, it will heat up. The heat from the element will make a dot on the thermosensitive printer paper. Roughly speaking, each element on the thermal head reproduces what was scanned by the corresponding element of the CCD at the transmitter. There are 8 heating elements for each mm across the thermal head. A4 [8.5"] thermal heads have 1728 elements, B4 [10.1"] thermal heads have 2048 elements, and A3 [11.7"] thermal heads have 2368 elements. Basically, the CPU clocks a line of data into a shift register in the thermal head. When the line is complete, the CPU sends a latch signal, then prints the line. Then the paper is fed forward one line, and the next line is printed in the same way. When printing a line, the CPU divides the line into 4 blocks. It prints the blocks one at a time. Each of these blocks is transferred to the printing elements using a strobe signal. Each block has a separate strobe signal.
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The blocks are usually adjacent on the thermal head, but they do not have to be. In fact it is even possible to interleave the blocks, having an element from block 0 next to an element from block 1, then one from block 2, followed by one from block 3, then back to block 0 again, and so on across the thermal head. Data, latch, and strobe signals reach a decoder in the thermal head from the CPU. The + 24VD supply comes directly from the power supply; it is a separate channel from the + 24VD supply used by the rest of the machine. Serial data comes from the CPU on pin A (see the diagram on the previous page). In most models, for a black dot, A is high. The data is clocked into the shift registers (the clock is on pin B). When a line of data has been fed to the shift registers, the CPU sends a latch pulse (pin C) and the data moves into the latches. To print the line of data, the CPU sends strobe signals to the thermal head. First, the strobe signal for block 0 (pin D goes low) is sent to
Standard Components
block 0, and the data in the block 0 elements passes from the latch to the heating elements (for a black dot, the element is heated). After all elements for block 0 have been printed, pin D goes high again. Then blocks 1 (pin E), 2 (pin F), and 3 (pin G) are sent in sequence, in the same way as block 0. The duration of the strobe pulse determines how much an element is heated to make a black dot. The CPU monitors the thermistor on the thermal head (see section 3-5-4). The CPU calculates the strobe pulse width based on the thermistor reading and on the value for the pulse width entered using service mode when the head was installed. NOTE: In most models, the pulse width must be programmed using a service function after installing a new thermal head or system RAM board (called the MBU in most fax models). In a few models, the pulse width is programmed automatically.
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1728 Heating Elements Block 0 Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
Internal Structure
The internal structure of the thermal head varies from model to model. However, two basic types have been used so far. These are the discreteelement control type and the block control type. In a thermal head using discrete-element control, each element has its own discrete clock, latch, and switching circuits. Each element also receives the strobe signal.
CPU FCU
24V Heating Element Circuit Element
Latch
Shift Register STROBE LATCH DATA CLOCK
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Standard Components
In a block control type thermal head, driver ICs control a group of elements. For example, one driver IC may control 64 elements. The decoder sends a clock, latch, and strobe signal to each driver IC. Each driver IC contains shift register, latch, and switching circuits for the elements that it controls. A good thermal head will have a conductive cover that is grounded to prevent build-up of static, which would damage the driver ICs inside the thermal head.
1728 Heating Elements (27 driver ICs, 64 elements/driver IC) Block 0 7 Driver ICs Block 1 7 Driver ICs Block 2 7 Driver ICs Block 3 6 Driver ICs
24V
CPU FCU
Driver IC 64 Heating Elements LATCH STROBE
Latch CLOCK
DATA
Shift Register
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LCDs
LCD is an abbreviation for Liquid Crystal Display. An LCD is a digital display that consists of two sheets of glass separated by hermetically sealed liquid crystal material. The liquid crystal is normally transparent. The outer surface of each glass sheet has a transparent conductive coating, forming front and back electrodes. On the viewing side, the conductive coating is arranged as either a matrix of dots (for example for a computer display) or character forming segments (for example the 7-segment display elements of a calculator). Leads at the edge of the display attach to the segments or the lines of the matrix. A voltage applied between the front and back electrodes, causes the liquid crystal molecules to change alignment and thus become reflective. The reflectivity of the liquid crystal segments can vary depending on the amount of voltage applied. Some LCDs depend on the reflection of ambient light for viewing. However, most larger displays use a backlight. The illustrations to the right show LCD displays used on model A201 (upper picture) and model A246 (lower picture).
Standard Components
Characteristics
Lightweight and thin construction Not naturally radiant, a light source is required. More expensive than CRTs (Still true but prices are dropping.)
Applications
LCDs are used as display screens.

For more information on LCD theory, operation, and design, we suggest you reference the following web pages: LCD Frequently Asked Questions. (http://margo.student.utwente.nl/el/misc/lcd_faq.htm)* Liquid Crystal And Other Non Emissive Displays (http://itri.loyola.edu/displays/c3_s1.htm)* *We have no control over these web pages. The content or location may change at any time.
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Standard Components
Consumables
Consumables
Photoconductors
The photoconductora photoconductive drum or belt is the heart of most imaging processes. The photoconductor's surface is where the latent image is formed and then developed. Photoconductors have the following characteristics: They are able to accept a high negative electrical charge in the dark. (The electrical resistance of a photo-conductor is high in the absence of light) The electrical charge dissipates when the photoconductor is exposed to light. (Exposure to light greatly increases the conductivity of a photoconductor.) The amount of charge dissipation is in direct proportion to the intensity of the light. That is, where stronger light is directed to the photo-conductor surface, a smaller voltage remains.
Our products use two types of photoconductors. One type is a selenium based inorganic photoconductor. That type was used in the past for analog copiers. The other type is an organic photoconductor (OPC) that is used for analog and digital copiers, plain paper facsimiles, and laser printers. Recently, all such products use OPCs instead of inorganic photoconductors.
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Consumables
Organic Photoconductors (OPC)

An OPC consists of a CTL (charge transfer layer), CGL (charge generation layer), electrode layer, and a substrate to which the layers are bonded. (The electrode layer is also called the under layer.) Ricoh made OPCs have charge generation pigments and charge transfer compounds imbedded in the charge generation layer. These materials greatly improve the response characteristics of the OPC. For more information on OPCs, refer to Appendix 2-OPC.
CG material CT material Cross section of OPC layer Charge transfer layer
Charge generation layer
Electrode
Substrate
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Standard Components
Consumables
Selenium
Many of the copiers in the field use selenium drum photoconductors. These drums consist of a layer of selenium or a selenium alloy bonded to an aluminum base. Selenium drums have gone through several generations of development. However, the only types that you are likely to encounter in the field at present are types H and F. Type H has a layer of selenium-tellurium alloy bonded to an aluminum core. Type F has a layer of selenium-arsenic (actually Arsenic-Triselenide) bonded to an aluminum core. The F type drum is more durable and has greater spectral sensitivity. However, it is more expensive to make.
Selenium photoconductor types

Se-Te Layer
Type H
Al Al Core (Base)
Se-As Layer
Type F
Al Core
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Standard Components
Consumables
The sensitivity of selenium changes slightly with variations in the temperature around the drum. This is especially true of type F drums. Under cool conditions, the drum may be excessively charged, resulting in drum has an internal over-toning of the copy image. To prevent this, many machines have a heater to warm the drum if it becomes too cool.
Selenium drum with a heater
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Standard Components
Consumables
Toner (Black)
Toner is a combination of plastic resins, dyes, waxes, flow agents, charge agents, and particles with magnetic characteristics (if magnetic toner). The plastic resins are the base ingredients of toner. They combine with some or all the other parts (sometimes with other additives) in a precise mixture with the proper charge, transfer, and fusing characteristics required for each type of toner.
Pigment and resin mixed together to form non-magnetic monocomponent toner
Non-Magnetic Monocomponent
All-in-One toner that contains blackened pigments for printing in a matrix of resin. This kind of toner usually comes in a cartridge and is used with nonmagnetic rollers. For this type of toner, a static charge picks up and holds the toner on the roller surface.
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Consumables
Magnetic Monocomponent
Similar to the non-magnetic toner, this type has iron oxide particles encapsulated in the resin matrix of each individual particle of toner. The toner itself isn't actually magnetic, but the iron particles in the toner make it possible for magnetic rollers to easily pick up and hold the toner particles. All monocomponent systems that use magnetic rollers must use this type of toner.
Pigment and resin
Particles of iron oxide
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Consumables
Dual Component
The toner used in dual component development systems is similar to the non-magnetic type monocomponent toner. This type of toner works with a separate particle known as a carrier. The mixture of toner and carrier is known as developer. The toner and carrier particles are held together by triboelectric charges. They develop opposite triboelectric charges due to mixing action in the development unit. The carrier rides on magnetic rollers and carries the toner with it to the photoconductor. The carrier itself is not transferred to the photoconductor, but merely releases the toner onto the photoconductor (which the toner is electrostatically more attracted to) and then returns to the hopper to pick up more. The carrier is normally an iron or iron oxide particle with a coating to improve durability. The illustration to the right shows the toner and developer particles used in F-type developer.
Toner and carrier of F developer Toner
Charge control material
Pigment Plastic resin base Coat layer (About 1m thick)
Carrier
Core material (diameter of about 100m)
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Consumables
Characteristics
There are three main characteristics of toner: its charge properties, fusing ability, and image capabilities.
Charge Properties
The charge is what enables toner to transfer from its container to the drum. If the toner is not charged properly, dirty background, toner blasting, or light prints may occur. The characteristics of toner charge depend on the toner particle size, shape, and composition. Friction generates a triboelectric charge on the toner particles. The charge generated for each particle depends on the surface area to mass ratio of each particle. This is determined by the size and shape of the particle. The smaller the particle the larger the ratio. The result is a stronger triboelectric charge for smaller particles. Particle sorting or printing defects can occur if toner particles are not uniformly sized. Therefore, the toner requires sifting several times after it is ground into a powder. Charge control material or "charging agents" are also important in that they help determine how well particles charge and if that charge is negative or positive.
Fusing Ability
Fusing requires very specific adhering and melting properties. Toner must melt at the correct temperature to be compatible with the fusing system it is in. The fusing rate is also an important part of fusing.
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Standard Components
Consumables
Toner must fuse quickly for high speed printers and slowly for lower speed ones. If the toner cannot meet these standards cold or hot offset may occur. This is a ghost image picked up on the fusing rollers. The plastic resins and various additives determine the fusing properties of the toner. Flow rate is also important because it determines the density of print. A toner that flows well produces higher density copies. Therefore, an optimum flow rate, where the toner is neither too much nor insufficiently fluid, is necessary. Toner composition, particle size and additives determine this rate.
Image Capabilities
If all of the previous characteristics are correct, a problem may still occur. This problem concerns resolution. High-resolution printers require micro fine toner, usually around 6 microns or less. If the toner particles are larger than this, the resulting image will not have the razor-sharp quality the user desires from their high-resolution printer. The size of the particle will also effect the density of the image and limit the number of shades the printer can produce. Printing black dots in white areas produces shades. The blackness of the dots is always the same; they appear darker or lighter depending on how closely grouped. For example, if the user selects 100 dpi as the desired shading, but the particles are too large, the toner will not stay within the boundaries of the dot size. This results in an overflow past the boundaries, filling in more of the area. Consequently, this produces a shade darker than desired by the user. This is how large sized toner particles limit the shading spectrum of high-resolution printers. The production of smaller, micro fine particles create new challenges. The smaller particles will have different charge and flow characteristics that must be handled properly.
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Standard Components
Consumables
Paper
Paper isn't a consumable part of office machines, but as copiers, printers, and fax machines all have to handle paper in various ways, paper is an integral part of their operating processes. In this section we will take a look at the properties of paper that effect the operation of our machines. Except where stated otherwise, we will use the term copier paper to include paper for plain paper faxes and office printers.
Summary
Properties important in copier papers include weight, size, stiffness, smoothness, electrical resistivity, porosity, coefficient of friction, and moisture content. Some properties are important to copy quality others affect paper handling reliability. Image density and fusing are improved on smoother papers. Paper handling reliability and less background toning are obtained with rougher papers. Increasing resistivity improves density but also increases the tendency toward static, background toning, and feathering.
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Standard Components
Consumables
Paper Weight
There are three commonly used systems for classifying paper weight. They are summarized in the following table. Papers with weights at the extreme low and extreme high levels of a machine's specified tolerance range will tend to jam more frequently. System International (ISO) system US (lb) system Japan (kg) system Paper weight definition The weight in grams of a single one square meter sheet of paper. The units are grams per square meter (g/m2) The weight of 500 17" x 22" sheets of paper. The units are pounds (lb).* The weight in kilograms of 1000 788 mm x 1091 mm sheets of paper. The units are kilograms (Kg). Where it is used Most of the world
USA Japan
*This applies to Bond paper only. See the discussion of US paper weights below. Since the paper weights are defined differently, you cannot convert directly between them. The conversion factors are as follows: lb " g/m2 lb " Kg x 3.760 x 3.233 g/m2 " Kg g/m " lb
2
x 0.860 x 0.266
Kg " g/m2 Kg " lb
x 1.163 x 0.309
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Consumables
Paper Weights in the United States

In the United States, paper weight specification is a real dog's dinner. Weight depends on classification. Sheets of paper that are actually exactly the same can have different weight specifications if they are from the different classes. The problem is that paper weight is measured by weighing 500 full sheets of paper. This is referred to as the "standard ream weight". So far so good, but now the fun begins. The size of a full sheet of paper is different for different types of paper! Some commonly used paper types are bond paper, book paper, card stock (or index stock), and cover stock. Lets take for example bond paper and book paper. A full sheet of bond paper is 17 x 22 inches. (A full sheet of bond is the equivalent of four sheets of 8 x 11 inch paper.) A full sheet of book paper is 25 x 38 inches. So if you took 500 full sheets of book paper that was the equivalent of 20 lb Bond paper, it would weigh more. Standard 20 lb bond paper is actually the same as 50 lb book paper. For copiers, paper specifications are written in bond weights. So, if a machine can copy on 14 to 42 lb bond paper, it will accept from 40 to 100 lb book paper. Confusing isn't it?
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Consumables
Paper Sizes
International Paper Sizes (ISO)
The ISO (International Organization for Standardization) paper sizes, which were based on the earlier DIN (Deutsche Industrie Norm) sizes, are commonly used everywhere in the world except Canada and the United States. The following table lists the sizes that can commonly be expected to be used in copiers.
ISO A Series A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 841 x 1187 594 x 841 420 x 594 297 x 420 210 x 297 148 x 210 105 x 148 74 x 105 B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 ISO B Series 1000 x 1414 707 x 1000 500 x 707 353 x 500 250 x 353 176 x 250 125 x 176 88 x 125 ISO C Series C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C6 917 x 1297 648 x 917 458 x 648 324 x 458 229 x 324 162 x 229 114 x 162 81 x 114

For a detailed discussion of the concepts behind ISO paper sizes refer to Markus Kuhn's web page on international standard paper sizes. (http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk2 5/iso-paper.html)* *As we have no control over this web page, The
content or location may change at any time.
Sizes are in millimeters
Multiplying the 0 sizes creates large format sizes. For example, 2A0 = 1189 x 1682 and 4A0 = 1682 x 2378
Standard Components
Consumables
Paper Sizes in the USA

Many paper sizes are in use in the United States. Copy paper sizes are defined in inches; the most commonly used sizes also have a name (letter, ledger, etc.). US paper sizes are also used in Canada; however, there they are usually defined in millimeters. The table to the right gives the copier paper sizes most commonly used in the USA. Size in Inches 4 x 5 5 x 8 8 x 10 8 x 13 8 x 11 8 x 14 11 x 14 11 x 17 17 x 22 22 x 34 34 x 44 Size in mm 108 x 140 140 x 216 203 x 267 203 x 330 216 x 279 216 x 356 280 x 356 279 x 432 432 x 559 559 x 864 864 x 1118 Statement Government letter Government legal Letter Legal Computer Ledger Common Name
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Consumables
Japan JIS B Sizes

Japan has developed its own standards for paper sizes. While the JIS (Japan Industrial Standard) A series of sizes is identical to the ISO A series of sizes, the JIS B series is not. Also, Japan has no series of envelope sizes comparable to the ISO C series.
JIS B Series B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 1030 x 1456 728 x 1030 515 x 728 364 x 515 257 x 364 182 x 257 128 x 182 91 x 128
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Consumables
Paper Characteristics
The following table summarizes the most important paper characteristics (other than weight and size). Brightness The brightness of a paper is a measure of its light reflectivity. A high grade paper usually has a brightness in the 85 ~ 90% range. Low grades would be in the 70 ~ 75% range. A high grade looks bright (white) and a low grade dull (gray). This is a measurement of the incident light that is reflected from the paper's surface. The coefficient of friction directly affects the efficiency of paper feeding. It must be high enough that the feed and transport rollers can get a good grip. However, it must be low enough that the sheets of paper slip over each other. Also, the coefficient of friction should not vary from sheet to sheet as variations in friction could cause multi-feeds and jams. Curl in paper is a major cause of transport problems resulting in misfeeds. Basically, copier paper should be manufactured to remain as nearly flat as possible while It is subjected to varied temperatures and humidity changes as it proceeds through the copy making process. Paper in a copier's paper tray tends to curl as it picks up moisture from the air. Some machines, especially higher speed models, have heaters in the paper trays to prevent such curling. If paper resistivity is too high it can cause static build-up that results in double feeding and jams. Too low an electrical resistivity (= higher conductivity) can cause image deletion (blank areas) as well as jams. Resistivity is affected by moisture and paper composition.
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Coefficient of friction
Curl
Electrical Resistivity
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Standard Components
Consumables
Moisture content
Opacity
Porosity Shade
Smoothness
Moisture content directly affects paper transport, copy quality, and curl. The generally acceptable range is 4 ~ 6 percent moisture. A higher moisture content will cause curl, a higher jam rate, poor image transfer (due to lower resistivity), and poorer image fusing. A lower moisture content causes static that results in misfeeds and double sheet feeding. Paper must be sufficiently opaque to prevent image show through. This is especially important in paper used for duplexing. Most brands of paper use some kind of filler to enhance opacity. The composition of the filler can affect copier performance and durability of parts. Some common fillers are clay, chalk, and marble. Mottling and smearing can result from excess porosity. Low porosity paper tends to have more curl and is prone to image smearing. Shade will vary from a pure white to tints in the blue, pink, or yellow ranges. Shade is a personal preference but also may vary between lots of paper or within a brand. Close control of shade is most important for papers used in color printing and copying. Smoother papers increase electrostatic adhesion at the image transfer step. This is because closer contact with the photoconductor makes the paper more difficult to strip from the photoconductor. Smoother papers are also more likely to have background toning. Too rough a paper may cause image mottling, poor image fusing, and high toner consumption.
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Standard Components
Consumables
Stiffness
Surface condition
Thickness
Paper stiffness is classified by cross grain and with grain. The stiffness is a result of the orientation of the fibers within the paper. In most copier papers, the fibers are orientated in the length direction of the paper Stiffness affects paper feeding and transport in copiers and laser printers. Paper is generally two or three times stiffer in the with grain direction than in the cross grain direction. Paper finishing and surface properties have an impact on long-tern satisfactory performance of copier equipment. Copier papers should be tightly controlled to eliminate such problems as: Dirt and dustwhich can cause reduced machine reliability, misfeeds, and copy quality defects. Surface inclusionswhich can result in poor copy quality, sheet weakness, and transport problems. Torn and wrinkled sheetswhich can cause poor transport, misfeeds, and machine damage. Paper thickness is measured in micrometers. Typical copy paper has a thickness of about 95 micrometers. For copy paper, thickness is a direct function of paper weight; so, for our products, generally only paper weight is specified.
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Standard Components
Consumables
The following table gives Ricoh Standards (= ideal paper) for some selected paper characteristics. (Not all possible paper characteristics are included.) Item Weight Thickness Stiffness Brightness Smoothness Ash content Moisture Resistivity Units g/m2 m % S % % cm Standard B/W 69.5 4.0 92 6 Color 80.0 4.0 95 6
With grain: 55 With grain: 55 Cross grain: 28 Cross grain: 28 80 Front: 60 20 Back: 50 20 1~5 4.0 ~ 6.0 8 x 10 ~2 x 1011
9
82 120 +40/-35 (front and back) 4.0 ~ 6.0 8 x 109 ~6 x 1010
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Appendix 1
Glossary of Terms
Agitator AI Short Protocol
A type of mechanical mixing device; used in copiers in the toner supply to keep toner particles separated; also used in the development unit to combine toner and carrier, creating twocomponent developer. Artificial Intelligence Short Protocol reduces the time required for the protocol exchange with a particular terminal by saving the communication parameters and the modem rate used to send the last page of a transmission. These parameters are used for the start of the next transmission to that terminal. The air knife paper separation process uses jets of air to separate sheets of paper for paper feed. After the modem converts data to serial and modulates it, the data passes through an attenuator, which adjusts the TX level. A screw-like mechanical transport device used to move bulk materials in many different applications. It relies on a large screw with deep, wide-pitched threads turning inside a close-fitting cylinder. The threads act like an endless scoop or wedge to lift material from one end of the cylinder to the other. A motorized device that allows automatic feeding, alignment and stacking of multiple originals, greatly improving the overall efficiency of photocopying.
Air Knife (or Air Separation) Attenuation Auger
Automatic Document Feeder (ADF)
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Appendix 1
Glossary of Terms
An advanced type of document feeder that can recycle and reverse originals. When a G3 fax message with a SUB code is received, the machine compares it with the personal codes stored in the machine with e-mail addresses. If there is a match, the machine automatically routes the message to that e-mail address. The Baud Rate is the number of bits per second divided by the number of bits per Baud. A bias roller is a roller that has a constant electric voltage applied to it. Such rollers are used at various places in copiers and printers. A typical use is in a copiers cleaning system, where a bias roller is often used to attract toner removed by a cleaning blade or brush. A bipolar junction transistor contains two junctions between p and n type semiconductor, and three electrodes (the collector, the base, and the emitter). See Transistors. A kind of electronic map that divides a system into a number of functional blocks; it shows all the interconnections among the blocks, but generally does not show detail inside them. A category of papers, consisting of many individual types. Most bond papers are suitable for use in plain-paper copiers. The voltage at which current will flow in reverse through a diode. Regular diodes will generally be destroyed if a reverse voltage greater than the breakdown voltage is applied; however, zener diodes are designed to operate at the breakdown voltage. See Zener Diode.
Automatic Document Handler (ADH) Autorouting Baud Rate Bias Roller
Bipolar Junction Transistor Block Diagram Bond Breakdown Voltage
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Appendix 1
Glossary of Terms
In standard DC motors, the magnet is stationary while the coil rotates, and brushes complete the electrical contact to the rotor. However, In a brushless DC motor, the coil is stationary and the magnet moves. After the scanning the document, the machine checks whether there is an incoming fax message. The machine cannot dial if there is an incoming message. This differs between North American, and European and Asian models. See North American models and European and Asian models. Carrier is one of the components of a two-component developer. Carrier consists of tiny iron-based beads that attract toner particles through a triboelectric charge and transport them to the photoconductor during the development process. See Triboelectric Charge. The carrier is the base frequency wave that fax machines use for communication. To transmit data, fax machines superimpose a modulating signal onto the carrier wave by varying the frequency, amplitude, or phase (or a combination of these) in a standard manner. See Modulation Techniques.
Brushless DC Motor Call Collision Prevention Carrier (copiers)
Carrier (facsimile)
Central Processing Unit A microprocessor chip that is used as the primary control and information processing device in a sophisticated electronic system. (CPU) Charge Charge Corona Unit
The first step in the copy process; during the charge process, an even electrical charge is applied to the photoconductor, preparing it to receive the image of an original during exposure. A corona unit used for the first step in the copy process, to apply an even high voltage charge to the photoconductor; usually ventilated by a blower to help distribute ions during charging.
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A solid-state component made from a number of very small light-sensitive elements; the amount of light falling on each element produces an electrical signal of corresponding strength. CCDs are used in laser-based copiers, fax machines and some television cameras. That step in the copy process during which residual toner particlesthose left behind after image transferare removed from the photoconductor. Cleaning relies mainly on mechanical systems but electrostatic forces may also be used. An element in a copiers cleaning system. After a copy has been made, the cleaning blade acts like a windshield wiper, riding along the surface of the photoconductor to wipe off all remaining toner particles. An element in a copiers cleaning system. After a copy has been made, the cleaning brush removes the residual toner from the surface of the photoconductor. See Bias Roller. A control device for rotational movement; a clutch will either be engaged, locking its components together and transferring rotation, or disengaged, letting its components turn separately and preventing the transfer of rotation. See Magnetic Clutch. See Magnetic Spring Clutch See Torque Limiter Clutches. See Slip Clutch. See Spring Clutch. See Torque Limiter Clutches.
Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Cleaning Cleaning Blade Cleaning Brush Clutch Clutch, Magnetic Clutch, Magnetic Spring Clutch, Slip Clutch, Spring Clutch, Torque Limiter
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The coefficient of friction directly affects the efficiency of paper feeding. It must be high enough that the feed and transport rollers can get a good grip. However, it must be low enough that the sheets of paper slip over each other. A variation of the fluorescent lamp. See Fluorescent Lamps, Applications. The contact image sensor (CIS) is a compact image reading assembly containing an LED array, an array of self-focusing optic fibers (SELFOC), and a strip of light detectors, such as phototransistors. The CIS is used instead of the CCD in the most compact of fax machines. A copier component that uses a high electrical voltage to create a localized electrical field of charged ions; various kinds of corona units are used at different points in the copy process. See Pre-Cleaning, Quenching, Transfer And Separation Corona Units. A thin wire usually made from tungsten and coated with carbon. Mounted inside a corona unit, it carries the high voltage needed to generate an electrical field for a specific copier application. The process by which toner and carrier are mixed together inside a copier; also creates and distributes the triboelectric charge that binds the toner to the carrier particles. The rate of flow of electricity through a conductor; current is measured in Amperes or Amps. Part of a fax circuit; it compresses the data before sending it out over the telephone line. It also reconstructs compressed data coming in from the telephone line. A motor that operates on direct current.
Coefficient of Friction (of paper) Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp Contact Image Sensor (CIS) Corona Unit Corona Wire Cross Mixing Current Data Compressor and Reconstructor - DCR DC Motor
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See Brushless DC motor. See Mono-component Developer. Also called dual-component developer. See Two-component Developer. That step in the copy process which first produces a visible image on the photoconductor. During development, toner is applied to the photoconductor, where it is electrically attracted to the latent image formed during exposure. Part of a copiers development system. Development rollers use some combination of magnetism, triboelectric charge and/or bias voltage to apply toner to the latent image on the photoconductor. A p-type semiconductor joined to an n-type semiconductor. A diode allows current to move in only one direction. See Diodes. See Zener Diode. Domain Name System is a service that enables the IP address to be obtained from the host under the TCP/IP network environment. Part of a copiers development system. It limits the thickness of developer picked up by the development roller by scraping off the excess as the roller turns. It determines the height of the magnetic brush. similar to the non-magnetic type monocomponent toner. It works with a separate particle known as a carrier. The mixture of toner and carrier is known as developer.
DC motor, Brushless Developer, Mono-component Developer, Two-component Development Development Roller Diode Diode, Zener DNS Doctor Blade
Dual Component Toner Toner designed to work in a dual-component development system. This toner is
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A paper handling device that permits the making of two-sided copies without manual intervention by the user. Available through the installation of a peripheral duplex unit on mid-size copiers, duplexing is a standard feature on most high-volume machines. Making two-sided copies. Error Correction Mode memory, an optional extension to Group 3 protocol, is a countermeasure for the frequent data errors that occur in areas that suffer from noisy telephone lines. See ECM. A type of clutch which contains its own electromagnetic actuator. When the clutchs coil is energized, two metal plates are pulled together and transmit rotation to a given component. When not energized, the two plates are separated by a spring, and no rotation is transmitted. Electronic mail is a system in which messages in the form of digital data are sent and received between computers. A component which removes certain parts of the latent image after exposure. After considering reproduction ratio and paper size, the main control board turns on specific sections of the erase lamp to remove the charge from the photoconductor outside the desired image area. This process was developed by Ricoh to improve the efficiency of MH, MR, and MMR coding. This is the most commonly used LAN. See Ethernet Frame Structure. A process where light is applied to a photoconductor to create a latent reverse image in the form of a charge pattern on the surface of the photoconductive material. See Photocopying Processes.
Duplex Unit Duplexing ECM Memory Electromagnetic Clutch
E-mail Erase Lamp
Estimated Fillbit Control-EFC Ethernet Exposure
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Part of a copiers exposure and optical systems; provides the necessary illumination to create a reflected image from an original, which in turn creates an electrical latent image on the photoconductor. A polling application with pre-recorded voice assistance. One of the standard paper feeding systems; the FRR (feed and reverse roller) feed mechanism consists of a pick-up roller, a feed roller, and a reverse roller. The first roller to handle paper a copiers paper feed system; pulls individual sheets from a paper supply, feeding them into the copier where they are passed to other rollers in the paper path. First-In First-Out Memory synchronizes the transfer of video data to (transmission) or from (reception) the modem. A lamp consisting of a gas-filled, closed glass tube that has electrodes at each end and an internal coated surface of a phosphorous material. Frequency shift keying (FSK) is s type of frequency modulation that is used for transmitting digital signals. The step in the copy process that bonds toner to a sheet of paper. Heat and pressure melt toner and force it into the paper surface, creating a copy that meets or exceeds the durability of the original. Part of a copiers fusing system, needed to keep toner from sticking to the fusing rollers. Uses an absorbent pad and/or a blade to coat the rollers with silicone oil. A row of small test patches showing a full range of image density, from solid black to paper white, usually in five to ten steps. Printed on a copier test chart. It is a gauge for the side-to-side and overall image density of the machine.
Exposure Lamp Fax On Demand-FOD FRR Paper Feed Feed Roller FIFO Memory Fluorescent Lamp Frequency Shift Keying Fusing Fusing Lubrication System Gray Scale
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Part of the charging system in copiers that use an Organic Photoconductor (OPC). OPCs are more sensitive to high voltage charges, so the grid plate acts as a regulator between the OPC surface and the charge corona. Hall effect sensors are used in some network control units (NCU) of fax machines to detect line current. An incandescent lamp filled with halogen gas. The part of a copiers fusing system that contains the fusing heat source, usually a halogen lamp. The hot roller is usually coated with Teflon, and works with the pressure roller. See Pressure Roller. In fax machines this refers to the amount of time necessary for the scanner or printer to process one scan line of image data. Modulation and demodulation are not included in this time measurement. A photosensor that measures the image density (reflectivity) of the drum and of a test pattern (ID sensor pattern). The output of this sensor is used to control toner supply. A standard pattern that is exposed and developed for sensing by the ID sensor. The quality of an original or copy that describes its relative lightness or darkness; high image density refers to a very dark copy, low image density refers to a very light copy The system in a copier that compensates for the variation in reflectivity among different originals. Some adjust the brightness of the exposure lamp. Others regulate toner transfer during development, by adjusting a bias circuit. In either case, image density controls can be manual, automatic or both.
Grid Plate
Hall Effect Sensors Halogen Lamp Hot Roller
I/O Rate ID Sensor ID Sensor Pattern Image Density Image Density Control
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A duplexing method used by some digital machines that speeds up duplexing by storing original images in memory. Sheets continually feed and reverse without stopping and the correct image for each sheet and side is selected from memory. International standards for data communication. The JBIG compression method consists of four processes: conversion to bi-level data, progressive coding, division into strips, and coding. Local Area Network. See LAN Fax, LAN Basics. A copier peripheral that holds a much greater amount of paper than a standard tray, thereby enabling the copier to run for longer periods without the supply being refilled, typically holds between 500 and 3000 sheets. An LED that outputs laser light. A photographic term which refers to an undeveloped image on a piece of film; in xerography, it refers to the invisible, electrostatic image formed on the photoconductor during exposure. LCD is an abbreviation for Liquid Crystal Display. An LCD is a digital display that consists of two sheets of glass separated by hermetically sealed liquid crystal material. The liquid crystal is normally transparent. See Large Capacity Tray. The first paper edge to contact the latent image on the photoconductor. The front edge of a copy as it travels through the paper path.
Interleave Duplexing ITU-T Standards JBIG Compression LAN Large Capacity Paper Tray Laser Diode Latent Image
LCD LCT Lead Edge
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The removal of that portion of a latent image which corresponds to a narrow strip along the lead edge of the copy, usually no more than 5 mm wide. This prevents a dark line from the edge of the original document from appearing on the copy. Achieved through the action of an erase lamp immediately after the exposure process. A kind of diode that emits photons. Usually shortened to LED. LEDs mounted together in an array as a light source. A memory buffer that ensures synchronization of video data transfer between different components of the circuit. A localized concentration of two-component developer formed on the surface of a development roller by magnetic fields. It brushes developer over the photoconductor during the development process. This allows toner particles in the brush to be attracted to the latent image. See Electromagnetic Clutch. Similar to the non-magnetic monocomponent toner, this type has iron oxide particles encapsulated in the resin matrix of each individual particle of toner. The toner isnt actually magnetic itself, but it can be attracted by a magnet. The magnetic spring clutch is a hybrid of the electromagnetic and spring clutches. Unlike the normal spring clutch, the spring is loose when idling. Two lines of an identical specified length, one vertical and one horizontal, printed on a copier test chart. Used to check the vertical and horizontal magnification of a copiers optical system.
Lead Edge Erase
Light Emitting Diode LED Array Line Buffer Magnetic Brush
Magnetic Clutch Magnetic Monocomponent Toner Magnetic Spring Clutch Magnification Lines
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A printed circuit board containing the most important components in a copiers electronic control system, including the Central Processing Unit (CPU), and factoryprogrammed instructions stored on Read Only Memory (ROM) chips. The main board is linked to other parts of the control system with a number of multi-wire connectors. A wide, flexible loop of plastic with an organic photoconductor surface. This compression method has one-dimensional coding scheme codes scan line data without reference to data on adjacent lines. Microswitches are electromechanical switching devices containing two contacts. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions is a specification for the inclusion of various types of data in e-mail. The Modified MR method uses the same algorithm as the MR method, but has 6 main differences. The data signal from the fax machine. See Modulation Techniques. Moisture content directly affects paper transport, copy quality, and curl. The generally acceptable range is 4 ~ 6 percent moisture. See Paper Characteristics. A special toner formulation that has both magnetic and electrical properties; functions without carrier. See Monocomponent Developer. See Stepper Motor. A type of scanning optical system in which originals are placed on a glass document surface (the platen) which moves across a fixed exposure slit and lamp during an exposure; found only on relatively small, low-speed copiers.
Main Control Board
Master Belt Modified Huffman Compression Microswitch MIME Modified MR Compression Modulating Signal Moisture Content (of paper) Monocomponent Toner Motor, Stepper Moving Platen
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A type of scanning optical system in which originals are placed on a fixed glass document surface, under which is a moving lamp and mirror assembly (the scanner). This scanner moves under the original during an exposure. Found on most mediumto-high speed copiers; this design is also known as fixed platen scanning This is the Modified Read compression method. It is an expanded form of the onedimensional run length encoding method. While the MH method encodes pixels in the pixel scanning direction, the MR also takes notice of the pixels in the feed direction. Similar to the cold cathode fluorescent lamp, but light emission is from the neon gas rather than the phosphorous inside coating. Interfaces a fax machine with the telephone network.
Moving Scanner
Modified Read Compression Neon Lamp Network Control Unit (NCU) Network Interface Circuits New Estimated Fillbit Control Non-magnetic Monocomponent Toner Offset Image Opacity of Paper
The filters, relays, attenuators and other components in these circuits interface the machine with the public telephone network. Fill bits are never added to the data and the receiver uses the SAF memory or hard disk instead of the FIFO memory. If the receiver's memory is full, it sends PIN to the transmitter and the line is disconnected. All-in-One toner that contains pigments for printing in a matrix of resin. This kind of toner usually comes in a cartridge and is used with non-magnetic rollers. A partial image that remains on the photoconductor or fusing rollers due to incomplete cleaning and is transferred to subsequent copies. Paper must be sufficiently opaque to prevent image show through. This is especially important in paper used for duplexing. Most brands of paper use some kind of filler to enhance opacity. See Paper Characteristics.
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A type of photoconductor based on certain organic chemicals, rather than metallic elements like selenium or silicon. An OPC requires negative charging before exposure. It is generally non-toxic, enabling it to be handled and disposed of more easily than selenium types. A condition that occurs when a copiers toner supply system is delivering too much toner to the development unit; the excess toner builds up inside the copier, especially around the photoconductor and paper path. Part of the development unit of many copiers. It pushes charged developer (a mix of toner and carrier) against the development roller, which picks up the developer through magnetic attraction and brushes it over the latent image. The brightness of a paper is a measure of its light reflectivity. See Paper Characteristics. Curl in paper is a major cause of transport problems resulting in misfeeds. See Paper Characteristics. The various rollers, belts, sensors and control devices that are responsible for moving sheets of paper through the copier; begins with the paper supply, and ends with the exit tray or sorter that holds the finished copies. See Paper Feed There are several standard systems for measuring paper size. The most commonly used is the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) series of paper sizes. In the United States, paper sizes are usually measured in inches. Paper stiffness is a result of the orientation of the fibers within the paper. Stiffness affects paper feeding and transport in copiers and laser printers. Paper is generally two or three times stiffer in the with grain direction than in the cross grain direction. See Paper Characteristics.
Organic Photoconductor (OPC) Over-toning Paddle Roller
Paper Brightness Paper Curl Paper Feed System
Paper Size Paper Stiffness
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There are three systems for classifying paper weight. These are the ISO system (g/m2), the USA system (lb), and the Japanese system (Kg). A type of electrical connection in which components each have a direct, independent path to a power source. A chemical coating on the inside of a fluorescent tube that produces visible light when struck by ultraviolet radiation. See Fluorescent Lamp. A special material that acts as an insulator in darkness and as a conductor when exposed to light. An electronic sensors that has a photocell and a light emitting diode (LED) on either side of a small gap. When a tab on a moving component enters the gap, it blocks the light from the LED, shutting off the photocell and signaling the components position to the machines Main Control Board. A phototransistor works like an ordinary bipolar transistor, except that light shining on the base of the transistor switches it on. Part of a copiers paper separation system that provides a mechanical separation method. Pick-off pawls ride along the surface of the photoconductor to peel off any paper not removed electrically. An electronic map, specially designed for troubleshooting equipment with replaceable circuit boards; combines features of a schematic drawing and a block diagram, concentrating on connections to and from different components.
Paper Weight Parallel Circuit Phosphor Photoconductor Photointerrupter
Phototransistor Pick-off Pawls Point-to-point Diagram
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The quality of electricity that describes its tendency to exist in either a positive or negative state. In most electrical circuits, polarity determines the direction of current flow. In electrostatic charges, polarity indicates the charge of ions that make up an electrical field, and therefore determines the polarity of materials that can be attracted by that field. A charge of a given polarity always attracts materials with a charge of the opposite polarity A type of phase modulation (PM) where data modulation occurs by altering the phase of the carrier wave and frequency remains constant. Post Office Protocol servers are computers that receive mail using SMTP. The mail includes a setting to ensure that it is directed to the POP server. POP servers are used when the user is not permanently connected to the internet. A corona unit used just before cleaning in the copy cycle. It creates an electrical field that reduces the charge on the photoconductor before mechanical cleaning, making it easier to remove leftover toner. Part of a copiers fusing system. During fusing, toner is forced into the surface of the paper by two rollers, the pressure roller and the hot roller. The pressure roller is usually made of silicon rubber, to help it withstand heat and provide a good grip on the paper. See Hot Roller. Used in some copiers to reduce the charge of the latent image after development, weakening its attraction just enough to assure a clean transfer. It also prevents toner particles from being attracted back to the photoconductor during separation. Process control is a system that automatically changes machine processes to compensate for changes in the environment or the machine condition.
Polarity
Polyphase Shift Keying POP Pre-cleaning Corona Unit Pressure Roller
Pre-transfer Lamp
Process Control
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Fax machines use two types of signals: Single (short, timed transmitted tones like CED and CNG) and frame-like HDLC signals that transmit digital information like DIS and NSF. Public Switched Telephone Network QAM is a combination of amplitude modulation (AM) and phase modulation (PM). Quenching is the process that eliminates any residual electric charge remaining on the photoconductor after the cleaning process. Quenching prepares the photoconductor for the charge step of the next copy or print cycle. A corona used at the end of the copy process; it creates an electrical field to help remove latent image charge on the photoconductor after mechanical cleaning, preparing the surface for the next copy cycle; always used in conjunction with a quenching lamp Shines light on the surface of the photoconductor to remove the latent image, after the leftover toner has been removed by the cleaning system. See Quenching. There are two types of reception modes: manual (telephone mode) and automatic (fax mode). Reed switches are magnetically operated switches with contacts hermetically sealed in a glass capsule. Reflective photosensors are short-range sensors that have a light emitting element (usually an LED) and a light sensitive element (usually a phototransistor).
Protocol Signals PSTN Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) Quenching Quenching Corona
Quenching Lamp Reception Modes Reed Switch Reflective Photosensor
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The process by which paper is lined up properly with the developed image on the photoconductor; registration is usually accomplished with a system of rollers, mechanical guides and electronic sensors. These marks are printed at the top and side of a copier test chart as a gauge of paper alignment and copier erase margins. They consist of thin parallel lines that will show if the paper is improperly meeting the latent image on the photoconductor. Part of a copiers paper feed system. A pair of rollers that align a sheet of paper to remove skew, and then feed the sheet toward the photoconductor at the correct time during the copy cycle to align it with the image on the photoconductor. Part of a copiers paper feed system; an electronic sensor mounted in the paper path just before the registration rollers. This sensor alerts the copiers control system when a sheet of paper approaches the registration rollers, so that they can be stopped before the sheet contacts them. Required to expand LANs. These devices do the following: extend the connection distance, enable connection between networks of different standards, allow control of high-speed transmission routes and filtering. They include repeaters, bridges, switches, gateways and routers. Part of a copiers paper feed system; used in machines with long or complex paper paths simply to move sheets from one area to another. They have no special copyrelated function. An optical specification that determines the relationship between original size and copy image size. A one-to-one reproduction ratio indicates that the original and copy have the same image size. This ratio can vary in most copiers to produce enlarged and reduced copies.
Registration Registration Marks Registration Rollers Registration Sensor
Relay Devices
Relay Rollers Reproduction Ratio
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Printed on a copier test chart as a gauge of the overall sharpness of a machines optical system; should be clearly visible on copies as individual lines. Store and Forward Memory stores fax messages to send later or for transmission to more than one location. It also holds the incoming message if, for example, the printer is out of paper. Part of the exposure system in a moving-scanner copier; these exposure systems have two scanners. The first consists of a lightweight metal frame containing one mirror and the exposure lamp. The second has a similar frame and two mirrors. Both scanners move along guide rails during an exposure, and reflect the image between them during the scan to maintain a constant optical distance from the original to the lens. The most traditional and detailed type of electronic map; shows every circuit, no matter how complex, and every component, no matter how small. A commonly used photoconductor. It consists of a hollow aluminum cylinder coated with a layer of selenium-tellurium or selenium-arsenic alloy. The selenium alloy layer provides the key photoconductive property of having high electrical resistance in the dark, and low resistance when exposed to light. An acronym for Self-Focusing Fiber Optic Array. SELFOCs are used for strip exposure with fixed optics, in contact image sensors, and direct scanning digital systems. The ITU-T recommendations were changed in 1996 to allow polling and confidential communications. At this time, this could only be done between Ricoh-made products. With the institution of these signals, communication between all fax makers became possible. That step in the copy process during which the paper and toner are separated from the photoconductor. See Image Transfer And Paper Separation
Resolution Bars SAF Memory Scanner
Schematic Diagram Selenium Drum
SELFOC SEP/PWD/SUB/SID Signals Separation
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Used in many copiers to move scanners in the optical system; servomotors emit a specific number of electrical pulses with each revolution, allowing a control circuit to monitor and regulate their speed. Servomotors use feedback to maintain a constant rotating speed. A dry lubricant powder applied to new photoconductors and or cleaning blades immediately before installation. During initial operation, the powder protects the surface from scratches that might result from contact with other copier components. Another name for a torque limiter clutch. See Torque Limiter Clutch. The Simple Modified Read method is identical to MR coding except that the K parameter is 8 for Standard and Detail resolution and 16 for Fine. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is the protocol for communication between internet mail MTAs (message transfer agents). A simple electrical control device, consisting of a hollow electromagnet and a metal plunger. When the magnet is energized, the metal plunger is pulled inside it, triggering whatever mechanism is attached. A sorter is a paper handling device that feeds finished copies into multiple output bins; can produce sets of collated copies, matching the order of the original documents, or count out stacks of single copies. A popular clutch for copier applications; its internal components are normally held together by a spring connected to an external sleeve, and rotation is transmitted to a given component. When the sleeve is kept from turning, the spring expands, releasing one internal component and preventing the transfer of rotation. The Super Speed Coding method combines EFC with Short Preamble and white line double-speed processing to achieve a further reduction in transmission time.
Servomotor
Setting Powder Slip Clutch SMR Compression SMTP Solenoid Sorter Spring Clutch
Super Speed Coding (SSC) Method

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A stationary part of an electric motor in or about which a rotor turns. See DC Motors. A type of electric motor designed to be controlled in individual steps that are portions of a full rotation, each step as small as one degree of arc. It is often used to adjust lens position in copiers with variable reproduction ratio. The design of a stepper motor allows for extremely precise lens placement and easy electronic control. Stepper motors are used whenever accurate positioning of a component is required. Part of a copiers fusing system; stripper pawls ride along the surface of the hot roller, and peel off copies that stick to the roller despite the rollers lubrication. It is difficult for one network to handle 65,534 hosts, therefore the subnet mask creates subnets to take some of the burden off of the main network. See Subnet and Subnet Masks. Subnet masks divides the host block into a maximum of 255 subnets within which a maximum of 255 hosts can exist. This helps to increase the speed with which a user can access a particular portion of the network. See Subnet and Subnet Masks. Data is stored in memory as it comes in to avoid loss of data if there is a printer problem. Basically, this means that memory substitutes for the print engine during reception. A standard internet protocol supported by Windows 95, it allocates 32-bit network addresses to nodes. The host requires a procedure for passing IP packets to the desired application. This procedure is filled by the TCP/IP. A specially designed copier original, with printed gauges used to assess many aspects of copy quality.
Stator Stepper Motor
Stripper Pawls Subnet Subnet Mask Substitute Reception TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol) Test chart
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The thermal head is the central component of the thermal printer. A thermal head consists of a row of heating elements. If a heating element is turned on, it will heat up. The heat from the element will make a dot on thermosensitive printer paper. Thermosensitive printer paper. This is the paper used for white-board printers and thermal fax machines. A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. It is a heat-sensitive electronic component, which indicates changes in temperature by varying its electrical resistance. An electrical control device used for overheat protection in office machines. The ink of an electrostatic copier that forms the actual image on finished copies. It is made from resin and a solid lubricant combined with carbon or a colored pigment. In dual-component development systems it is bound to carrier particles by a triboelectric charge, creating two-component developer. See Triboelectric Charge. The toner density sensor (or TD sensor) measures the concentration of toner in the developer. Part of a copiers development system. The toner end sensor monitors the level of toner in the toner supply. When the sensor detects a predetermined low-toner condition, it signals the control system, which then lights a corresponding indicator on the machines operation panel. It usually detects two different toner levels: Toner Near End (low) and Toner End (too low to continue operation). Part of a copiers cleaning system. This sensor monitors the level of toner in the used toner storage tank. When the sensor detects a predetermined used toner tank full condition, it signals the control system, which then lights a corresponding indicator on the operation panel of the machine.
Thermal Head Thermal Paper Thermistor Thermoswitch Toner
Toner Density Sensor (TD Sensor) Toner End Sensor
Toner Overflow Sensor
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A piece of ordinary glass used in copiers as a window in the exposure slit; allows light to reach the photoconductor, but keeps toner from contaminating the optical system. A combination of electronic and mechanical components that monitor the density of toner and add toner to the development unit whenever the density falls too low. See Dual Component Toner. See Magnetic Monocomponent Toner. See Non-magnetic Monocomponent Toner. In concept, torque limiter clutches transmit rotation to a drive component (usually a roller, pulley, or gear mounted on a rotating shaft). As long as the resistance to rotation is less than the torque (twisting force) limitation of the clutch, the roller turns with the shaft. If the resistance exceeds the torque limitation, the roller stops turning. It slips and in fact, may turn in the opposite direction if sufficient counter force is applied. That step in the copy process in which toner, held by the latent image on the photoconductor, is transferred to a blank sheet of paper, thereby creating a copy.
Toner Shield Glass Toner Supply System Toner, Dual Component Toner, Magnetic monocomponent Toner, Non-magnetic monocomponent Torque limiter clutch
Transfer
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A corona unit used immediately after development. The T/S corona unit creates two coronas. The first, the transfer corona, is an electrical field that pulls the developed toner image away from the latent image on the photoconductor, transferring it to a sheet of paper. The second corona, the separation corona, is an electrical field that releases the paper, together with the developed toner image, from the photoconductor. The primary job of a copiers paper feed system: moving sheets of paper from the supply, through the machine, and out into the exit tray; accomplished with a variety of rubber belts and rollers. The surface layer of a photoconductor. It receives and traps an electrostatic charge on the surface as long as the photoconductor is in darkness. Paper in a copier's paper tray tends to curl as it picks up moisture from the air. Some machines, especially higher speed models, have heaters in the paper trays to prevent such curling.
Transfer and Separation (T/S) Corona Unit
Transport Trapping Layer Tray Heater
Trellis Code Modulation TCM uses QAM, but part of the data signal is encoded, using trellis coding, for error correction purposes. (TCM) Triboelectric Charge Two-component Developer Under-toning
A type of static charge that builds up when certain materials are rubbed together. Triboelectric charges attract toner to carrier in a two-component developer system. The most popular developer formulation; uses tiny, metallic carrier beads to deliver much smaller toner particles to the photoconductor during the development process. A condition that occurs when a copiers toner supply system is delivering too little toner to the development unit; can lead to carrier abrasion, which may damage the photoconductor and shorten the useful life of the carrier particles.
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A reflective photosensor similar to the ID sensor that indirectly measures drum potential. Used before the development of the potential sensor system, it can be found in earlier models using process control. Acts like two zener diodes connected back to back. Development bias. The drum potential in black image areas after exposure. Standard VD is the potential measured after exposing a black pattern. A standard black pattern used for reference. Charge corona grid potential. A standard halftone drum potential. This value is used for laser power adjustment in the process control system of some digital products. The processing that is applied to image data after the machine scans the document. Both analog and digital video processing steps may be applied to the image data. The drum potential in white image areas after exposure. Standard VL is the potential measured after exposing a white pattern. A standard white pattern used for reference. On some machines the VL pattern is actually a light gray tone rather than pure white. Exposure lamp voltage. The drum potential after the drum is charged.
V Sensor Varistor VB or VBB VD (Dark Potential) VD Pattern VG or VGRID VH (Halftone Potential) Video Processing VL (Light Potential) VL Pattern VLAMP VO (Original Potential)
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Appendix 1
Glossary of Terms
This converts recorded voice messages from analog (audio) to digital for storage in the memory. It also retrieves the message from memory to send it out over the telephone line. The drum potential after the drum has been exposed by the erase lamp. A targeted control reference for the TD sensor. When VTD becomes too low, toner is added to the developer to bring VTD back to the VREF value. The ID sensor output when checking the erased drum surface. The ID sensor output when checking the ID sensor pattern image. The output voltage of the TD sensor. The xenon flash lamps used in office machines are basically the same as the flash lamps used in photography only much larger. A xenon lamp is a xenon-filled glass tube with terminals at each end. When a voltage is applied across the lamp terminals, the xenon gas ionizes and current flows through the gas, which emits light. The terminals do not have to be preheated, unlike in fluorescent lamps. Fluorescent xenon lamps also utilize a phosphor coating on the inside wall of the lamp to generate light. The indirect electrostatic copying system which is the basis of all modern plain paper copiers; patented in 1939 by Chester Carlson, Xerography comes from the Greek words for dry writing. A diode connected in reverse to a normal diode and is designed to work in excess of the breakdown voltage.
Voice Message Processor VR (Residual Voltage) VREF, VTREF VSG VSP VTD, VT, or VOUT Xenon Flash Lamp Xenon Lamp
Xerography Zener Diode
9 August 2003
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CORE TECHNOLOGY MANUAL

Purpose and Scope How to use this manual

How to use this manual

How to use this manual

How to use this manual

Printing this manual

Paper Feed Methods

Example: Model A113

[A] [D] [B]

Paper Lift Mechanism

Paper end feeler: [J] Paper end sensor: [K]

Paper Lift Mechanism

Example 1: Model A609 (belt lift) [D] [F]

[B] [A] [C]

Example 2: Model A171 (wire lift) [F] [C] [B] E] [D]

By-pass Feed Tray

Paper Size Detection

Paper Size Dial

Side Fence Detection

By-pass Size Detection

Paper End Detection

Paper End Feeler Method

Roll end detection

Registration Using A Stopper

Registration Using Rollers

Belt + Vacuum Transport

Duplex Stacking (Jogger)

[D] [B] [F]

17. The back of the 5th sheet (10th page) is printed.

Paper Length Detection

3.5 6.7 12.4

FRR with Feed Belt

[D] [A] [E] [C] [B]

Original Size Detection

Dynamic Original Size Detection

[E] [D] [A] [C]

Static Original Size Detection

Transport Past Fixed Optics

[C] [A] [B]

[A] [C] [E] [D

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

The following pages cover examples of each type.

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Sorting/Stacking with Fixed Trays

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

The Sorter Mechanism

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Sorting/Stacking with Moving Trays

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Bin Drive Mechanism

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Screw Drive (helical wheel drive)

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Bin Drive Mechanism

[B] [C] [D]

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Sorting/Stacking with Shift Trays

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

[C] [E] [B]

Handling Finished Copies/Prints

Handling Finished Copies/Prints