TheNewImperialism

Fromaworldhistoryperspective,themostnoticeabletrendinthehistoryofthe late19thcenturywasthedominationofEuropeansoverNonEuropeans.Thisdomination tookmanyformsrangingfromeconomicpenetrationtooutrightannexation.Noareaof theglobe,howeverremotefromEurope,wasfreeofEuropeanmerchants,adventurers, explorersorwesternmissionaries. Wascolonialismgoodforeithertheimperialistorthe peoplesoftheglobewhofoundthemselvessubjectsofoneempireoranother?Afew decadesago,theanswerwouldhavebeenaresoundingno.Now,inthewakeofthe collapseoftheSovietUnion,themoreorlesswidespreaddiscreditingofMarxistand Leninistanalysis,andtheendoftheColdWar,politicalscientistsandhistoriansseem willingtotakeamorepositivelookatNineteenthCenturyImperialism. Onenotedcurrenthistorian,NiallFergusonhasarguedthattheBritishEmpire probablyaccomplishedmorepositivegoodfortheworldthanthelastgenerationof historians,poisonedbyMarxism,couldorwouldconcede. Fergusonhasarguedthatthe BritishEmpirewasaliberalempirethatupheldinternationallaw,kepttheseasopenand free,andultimatelybenefitedeveryonebyensuringthefreeflowoftrade.Inotherwords, FergusonwouldfindlittlereasontocontradicttheyoungWinstonChurchillsassertion thattheaimofBritishimperialismwasto: givepeacetowarringtribes,toadministerjusticewhereallwasviolence,to strikethechainsofftheslave,todrawtherichnessfromthesoil,toplacethe earliestseedsofcommerceandlearning,toincreaseinwholepeoplestheir capacitiesforpleasureanddiminishtheirchancesofpain. (Ikenberry,p.149) ItshouldcomeasnosurprisethatFergusonregardstheUnitedStatescurrentpositionin theworldasthenaturalsuccessortotheBritishEmpireandthatthegreatestdangerthe U.S.representsisthattheworldwillnotgetenoughAmericanImperialismbecauseU.S. leadersoftenhaveshortattentionspansandtendtopullbacktroopswhenintervention becomesunpopular. Itwillbeveryinterestingtocheckbackintothedebateon ImperialismabouttenyearsfromnowandseehowNiallFergusonspointofviewhas fared! TheothergreatschoolofthoughtaboutImperialismis,ofcourse,Marxist.For example,MarxisthistorianslikeE.J.Hobsbawmarguethatifwelookatthel9thcentury asagreatcompetitionfortheworld'swealthandresources,therewereclearwinnersand losers.AmongthewinnersweretheBritish,French,Americans,andJapaneseall successfulcolonizers.AmongtheloserswerePunjabis,Zulus,Chinese,Egyptians,Crow, SiouxandhundredsofotherNonEuropeantribesandethnicgroups.(Hobsbawm,Age ofEmpire) ThereareacoupleofgeneralizationsthatneedtobesaidaboutthisprocessofEuropean expansion:

1.Muchofitoccursduringthelast30yearsofthe19thcenturyitisduringtheyears 1870to1900thatmuchofAfricaandAsiafallsunderthedirectcontrolofoneEuropean poweroranother.ItshouldberememberedthattheUnitedStates,inthiscontext,is clearlyaneconomicandculturaloutpostofEurope.Americansareenthusiasticplayers intheImperialsweepstakesforthemostpart,attheexpenseofSpain.(Hencetheterm NewImperialism!). 2.Thiswholeperiodofcolonialismandempirebuildingisveryintensebutbrieffor examplethewholeperiodofacquiringcolonies,exploitingcolonies,andfinallyde colonizationroughlyfallsintoonehumanlifetime:WinstonChurchill,thenotedBritish ImperialistIquotedwasbornin1870anddiedin1962.Hegrewtoadulthoodduringthe heightoftheImperialistcraze,foughtasayoungmanintheSudanandSouthAfrica, andlivedtosupervisethedismantlingoftheBritishEmpire.

TheGreatDebate
Giventhelaterpopularityofcolonialexpansion,itissurprisingtoseejusthow futilecoloniesseemedbefore1850.Forexample,AdamSmithhadarguedthatthe burdensofcolonialismoutweigheditsallegedbenefitsliberalreformersfavoredlaissez faireeconomicsandcoloniestiedtothemothercountry didnotseemtofitthemodelof globalfreetrade.TheliberalpartyleaderWilliam GladstoneexpectedthewholeBritish Empiretodissolveintheend,andin1852Benjamin Disraeli,whoagreedwithGladstone inlittleelse,madehisfamousdeclarationthatThesewretchedcolonieswillallbe independentinafewyearsandaremillstonesaroundournecks. Theexperienceofthe SpanishintheWestern Hemisphereseemedtosuggestcolonialempireswereontheway out.AseriesofrevolutionsoverturnedSpanishcolonialrulefromMexicotoArgentina. TherewasawidespreadfeelinginEuropethatcoloniesweremoretroublethantheywere worthandthesoonerorlatercolonieswouldrevoltandfightforindependence. Between 1775and1875,owingtoallthesuccessfulrevolutionsinNorthAmericaandLatin America,Europeanslostmoreterritorythantheyacquired. (Spielvogel,p.859) But,rathersuddenly,atthebeginningofthe1870s,theBritish,French,and Germanpopularattitudestowardscolonieschangedradically.TheBritishTory Party underBenjamin DisraeliadoptedanimperialistplatformandtheLittleEnglandersas criticsoftheempirecalledthemselves,lostbothparliamentaryseatsandpopularinfluence. In1876DisraelipersuadedparliamenttobestowthetitleofEmpressofIndiaupon QueenVictoria.TheQueenappearedinpublicforthefirsttimein15yearsadornedin huge,uncutjewelsfromIndia.TheBritishCrownandtheempireweretiedtogetherina greatoutburstofenthusiasmfortheBritishEmpire.FortwogenerationsofBritish subjects,IndiabecametheJewellintheCrown.Indiabecameasymbolofexoticclimes, healthy andprofitableadventure,andBritishImperial greatness.AuthorslikeSirArthur ConanDoyleandRudyardKipling(18651936)begantowritepopulartalesof adventuresonthefrontier: GungaDin

3 NowinIndiassunnyclime, WhereIusedtospendmytime Aservin'of'ErMajestytheQueen. Ofallthemblackfacedcrew ThefinestmanIknew Wasourregimentalbhisti,GungaDin. SoI'llmeethimlateron Attheplacewhere'eisgone Whereit'salwaysdoubledrillandnocanteen 'E'llbesquatin'onthecoals Givin'drinktopoordamnedsouls, An'I'llgetaswiginHellfromGungaDin! ThoughI'vebeltedyouandflayedyou, Bythelivin'Gawdthatmadeyou, YourabettermanthanIamGungaDin! Thepopularityofimperialismwassimplyonesuperficialexplanationforaremarkable processofcolonialexpansion. Intheyear1800,Europeanscontrolledoroccupied35% ofthelandsurfaceoftheglobeby1878thisfigurehadrisento67%andby1914to over84%.Between1870and1900alone,about1/4ofthelandsurfaceoftheworldwas dividedupamongthecolonialpowersofEurope.

Twoquestionscometomind:Howwasallthispossible?Andmostofall, Why?
The"How"partofthequestioniseasyenoughtoanswer.Europeansenjoyeda decisivetechnologicalandmilitaryadvantage.Manyfamouscolonialfightswereliterally battlesmatching12thcenturyweaponryagainstthemostmodernweaponrythatEuropean sciencecouldproduce:rifledpercussionmuskets,lateron,breechloadingrepeaters, Gatlingguns,maximmachinegunsandpowerfulfieldartillery.Indigenouspeoples,be theySiouxatWoundedKnee,ZulusatRourke'sdrift,orSudaneseDervishesat Omdurmanstoodnochanceagainstvastlysuperiorfirepower.Evenvastspacesandthe interioroftheAmericanorAfricancontinentsgavelittlesheltersinceEuropeanarmies builttheirrailwaysastheycameorreliedonsteampoweredriverboatswithlight,cannon topushtheirwayuptheYangste,ortheCongo,ortheNile.In1842,oneBritish steamboat,theH.M.S.Nemesissankmostof theNavalforcesoftheEmperorofChinain oneafternoon.Only extremely warlikepeoplesliketheAfghanisortheEthiopians, shelteredamongtheirinhospitablehillsbluntedthedriveofWesternimperialists.The EthiopiansdefeatedalargearmyofItaliansatAdowain1895,andneithertheBritish duringthe1880snortheSovietsduringthe1980s,hadmuchluckinsubduingthe Afghans. AsfortheUnitedStatestoday,whoknows? PerhapsthegreatestdisplayofwesternmilitarysuperioritycameintheEgyptian Sudan,atthebattleofOmdurman(1898)wheninonemorningtheMaximsandLee

4 EnfieldriflesofLordKitchener'sarmykilled11,000dervishesforthelossof48oftheir ownBritishregulars.YoungWinstonChurchillwasthereandparticipatedinthelast successfulCavalry chargeinBritishhistory.BattleslikeOmdurmandemonstratedthatthe Westenjoyedamilitarysuperiorityequivalenttotheproductiveandeconomicdomination theirfactoriesandtechnologygavethem.TheglobaldominanceoftheWest,implicitsince thedaysofChristopherColumbusnowknewfewlimits.GreatBritainruledIndiaand foughtseveralborderwarsinPakistanandAfghanistanwithafewvolunteerregimentsa forceofonly75,000European troops. Between1870and1914,thebestdefensenative peopleenjoyedagainstEuropeanmilitarysuperioritywasthelimitedprotectionofvery inhospitableclimatesandthesusceptibilityofEuropeanstotropicaldiseaseslikeYellow FeverandMalaria.

TheWhyquestionisfarmoredifficulttoanswer. EconomicTheoriesofImperialism:HobsonandLenin
AfamousBritisheconomist,J.A.Hobsonandfollowinghim,Lenin,attributedthe colonialexpansionsoftheseyearstospecialneweconomicforcesatworkinthemost industrializednationsofwesternandcentralEurope.Thiseconomicexplanationofthe urgetoimperialismisusuallytakentomeanthatthebasicmotiveswerealsothebasest motivesandthat,whateverpolitical,religious,ormoreidealisticexcusesmightbemade, therealimpulsewasalwaysoneofcapitalisticgreedforrawmaterials,advantageous markets,goodinvestments,andfreshfieldsofexploitation.Theargument,inbrief,isthat whatHobsoncalled'theeconomictaprootof imperialismwasexcessivecapitalinsearch ofinvestment,andthatthisexcessivecapitalcamefrom oversavingmadepossiblebythe unequaldistributionofwealth.Theremedy,hemaintained,wasinternalsocialreformand amoreequaldistributionof wealth.Iftheconsumingpublicinthiscountryraisedits standardofconsumptiontokeeppacewitheveryriseofproductivepowers,therecould benoexcessofgoodsorcapitalclamoroustouseimperialisminordertofindmarkets. Itisundeniablethatthesearchforlucrativeyetsecureoverseasinvestmentplayedapartin theEuropeanurgetoacquirecoloniesattheendofthenineteenthcentury.

Lenin andCapitalistImperialism
ThefollowersofKarlMarxwereespeciallyeagertoprovethatimperialismwas economicallymotivatedbecausetheyassociatedimperialismwiththeultimatedemiseof capitalism. V .I. Lenin (1 870 1 924)elaboratedtheargument,inhisfamouspamphlet ImperialismtheHighestStageofCapitalism(1916).AccordingtoLenin,asthecapitalist systemconcentrateswealthinfewerandfewerhands,thepossibilityforinvestmentat homeisexhausted,andcapitalistshavenotchoicebuttoinvestabroad,establishcolonies, andexploitsmall,weaknations.Inthebackwardcolonialpeoples,arguedLenin, capitalismhadfoundanewproletariattoexploitandfromtheenhancedprofitsofsuch imperialismitwasabletobribeatleastthemoreskilledworkersathomeintorenouncing revolutionaryfervorandcollaboratingwiththebourgeoisie.Therecouldbenocurefor imperialismasidefromthedestructionofcapitalism.Atthesametime,thedestructionof

5 colonialempiresmustbeintimatelyinvolvedwiththegreat,inevitablerevolutionagainst capitalism itself. CecilRhodes,thefounderoftheRhodesscholarshipsandaleading Britishimperialist,seeminglyagreeingwithLenin,arguedthatcolonieshelpedtoensure socialpeaceandpreventedsocialistrevolution athomebytakingthemindsoftheworking classofftheirmisery:Hewhowouldavoidcivilwarmustbeanimperialist.

GreatPowerRivalriesandNavalism
Today,fewhistoriansoreconomiststakethesimplificationsofLeninvery seriously.Foronething,colonieswerenotamajorsourceofinvestment.TheBritish,the foremostcolonizersofall,investedfarmorecapitalinNorthAmerica,SouthAmericaand AustraliaratherthaninAfrica,IndiaorChina.Manycoloniesacquiredwereeconomically uselessBritish NewGuineaortheGermanCameroonsofferedlittleeconomicincentive toEuropeancountries.Itwasnotsomuchamatterofinvestmentfollowingannexationas theotherwayaround.TheGermansinvestedfarmoremoneyinLatinAmericanthanin theirownAfricancolonies.Thisisnotthattherenoeconomicadvantagesfromcolonies. TheBritishgotgold,copper,andraremineralsfromSouthAfrica.TheBelgiansmade effortstoexploitthemineralresourcesoftheCongo,butthereisnodenyingthefactthat mostofthenewcoloniescostmorethantheyreturnedtothemothercountry. Thereisabetterexplanationforl9thcenturyImperialismthatstillhasitsrootsin theworldeconomicstructure.Thisexplanationstressestheimportanceoftheunification ofGermanyin1870andtheemergenceofthenewGermanReichasamajoreconomic andmilitaryfactor.Duringthelate19thcenturytensionsbetweenthegreatpowersof Europeincreasedmoretothepoint,therewasamilitarycomponenttoallthisintheform ofamilitaryandnavalarmsrace. ItbecamemoreconvenienttoplayouttheEuropean rivalriesinthecolonialspherethatathomeintheformofopenwarfare.Atthesametime, aswarinEuropebegantoseemmorelikely,allgovernmentsbecamemoreinterestedin dominatingstrategicterritoriesandfavorablelocationsformilitaryandnavalbases. SuddenlytheCapeofAfricaandthecoastalcitiesofChinaseemedtobeofenormous strategicsignificance.TheBritishgovernmentinparticularbegan toseetheBritishEmpire moreintermsofapossiblestrategicassetincaseofwar.ColonialoutpostslikeGibraltar, theSuezCanal,andHongKongallbecomemoreimportantasmilitaryandnavalbases thanassymbolsofempire.TheywerenowvitalaslinksinthestrategiclifelinetoIndia. Inshort,European nationsacquiredcoloniesforreasonofnationalsecurity,because empirewasverypopularwiththevoters,andbecausegovernmentscametoseecolonies asnecessarytogreatpowerstatus. NationalistintellectualsinallEuropeanpowersarguedthatnationalgreatness meantseizingcolonialterritory.Oncethescrambleforcoloniesbegan,failuretoenterthe racewasperceivedasasignofweakness,totallyunacceptabletoanaspiringgreatpower. ImperialistslikeJosephChamberlaininBritain,ConservativePartyColonialSecretary, arguedthattheempirealsoprovidedatraininggroundfornewleadersandagreat economicunitshouldacollisionwithGermanycome.TheGermanhistorianHeinrichvon Treitschke,forexample,maintainedthatallgreatnationsinthefullnessoftheirstrength havedesiredtosettheirmarkuponbarbarianlandandthosewhofailtoparticipatein

6 thisrivalrywillplayapitiableroleintimetocome. (Spielvogel,p.859)TheFrench politicalscientistPaulLeroyBeaulieujustifiedFrenchexpansioninAfricabecause: ColoniesareamatteroflifeordeathforFrance:eitherFrancewillbecomeagreat Africanpowerorinacenturyortwoshewillbeno morethanasecondary Europeanpowerandwill countforasmuch intheworldasGreeceorRumania. Forallthesereasons,bytheendofthel9thcenturycolonialismlikenationalismdeveloped intoamasscult.Coloniesweresymbolsofnationalgreatnessandnationalistsofevery economicclasswereproudofthem. Theverysymbolofimperialismwasthemodern,armored,steampowered warship.Ifagreatpowerbydefinition,possessedcolonies,sheprotectedthosecolonies bybuildingamodernfleet.GreatBritainhadalwaysreliedonherRoyalNavyandbythe 1890smanycountriesdecidedtofollowtheBritishexampleandinvestinafleetofsteel battleships.InthenewGermanEmpire,inparticular,thenewGermanEmperorWilliam II(18691941)enviedBritishworldpower,whichhebelievedrestedonhernavy.He determinedthatGermanymusthaveitsfleetaswell: GermanyisayoungandgrowingEmpire.Shehasaworldwidecommerceto whichthelegitimateambitionofpatrioticGermansrefusestoassignanybounds. Germanymusthaveapowerfulfleettoprotectthatcommerceandherinterestsin eventhemostdistantseas.Onlythosepowerswhichhavegreatnavieswillbe listenedtowithrespect,whenthefutureofPacificcomestobesolvedandiffor thatreasononly,Germanymusthaveapowerfulfleet. (DailyTelegraphAffair, 10/28/1908)

Political,Religious,andCulturalJustifications
OfcourseEuropeansgenerallypreferredtoinvokeotherjustificationsforempire. Mostarguedthatcolonialismbenefitedindigenouspeoplesbybringingthemthebenefits ofhighercivilization.KingLeopoldofBelgiumrushedenthusiasticallyintotheracefor territoryinCentralAfrica: Toopentocivilizationtheonlypartoftheglobewhereithas notyetpenetrated,topiercethedarknesswhichenvelopswholepopulations,isaCrusade worthyofthiscenturyofprogress. (Spielvogel,p.863) PresidentMcKinleyjustified interventionintherevoltofthePhilippinesagainstSpain because,Wemusthelpourlittle brownbrothers.ThestorygoesthatthePresidentthenhadtohavesomeonehelphim findthePhilippineislandsontheOvalOfficeglobe.Someimperialisttookamore religioushumanitarianapproachtoempire.TheyarguedthatEuropeans(andAmericans) hadaChristianandmoralresponsibilitytoeducatedignorantpeoplesintohigherculture andChristianity. TomanyEuropeansandAmericans,theprospectofsavingsoulsseemed asimportantastheprospectofexpandingprestigeandprofit.Thehumanitarianargument founditsclassicexpressionin Kipling'sfamouspoem,TheWhiteMan'sBurden:

7 TakeuptheWhiteMan'sBurden, Sendforththebestyebreed. Gobindyoursonstoexile, Toserveyourcaptive'sneeds Towaitinheavyharness, Onflutteredfolkandwild, Yournewcaughtsullenpeoples, Half devil andhalf child. IfKiplingsidealisticviewofBritishImperialismisobvious,sotooishisarrogant assumptionofWhitesupremacy.

ImperialismandSocialDarwinism
Imperialismwasalsotiedtothegrowthof racistandSocialDarwinistthought. SocialDarwinistsbelievedthatinthestrugglebetween racesandnations,thefittestare victoriousandsurvive.Superiorracesmustinevitablydominateinferiorracesbymilitary forcetoshowhowstrongandviriletheyare.AsoneBritishacademicputitin1900: Thepathofprogressisstrewnwiththewrecksofnationstraceseverywheretobeseen ofthe[slaughteredremains]ofinferiorraces....Yetthesedeadpeopleare,inverytruth, thesteppingstonesonwhichmankindhasarisentothehigherintellectualanddeeper emotionallifeoftoday. (Spielvogel,p.859)AnotherEnglishimperialistwasequally blunt: TothedevelopmentoftheWhiteMan,theBlackManandtheYellowmustever remaininferior. (Spielvogel,p.859)Europeansofallimperialistnationsreadily acceptedtheracistnotionofthesuperiorityoftheChristianwestGermanimperialists spokeofthegreatnessofGerman KulturwhileFrenchcolonialistsdiscussedtheFrench civilizingMission.Manyfeltthatmissionaryactivityalonewasasufficientjustificationin itself.InIndia,thesonsofBrahminfamiliesweretaughtBritishhistoryandShakespeare butforbiddenmembershipinWhitesociety.OnetextbookwrittentoeducateVietnamese childreninFrenchhistorybeganwiththesewords:Ourancestors,theGauls,wereafair hairedrace. Toreturntoouropeningargument,thereweremorethan afewmaterialbenefits forthecolonialpeoples.ItwastheBritishNavythatabolishedtheinternationalslave trade.ThisalonemightbeconsideredjustificationenoughfortheBritishEmpirebymany evangelicalsathome.Therewereotherbenefitstoo.Forexample,Europeanmedicine curedoratleastcontrolledancientepidemicdiseaseslikeYellowFever.Ontheother hand,suchmedicalinterventionsalsoupsetthedelicateenvironmentaldemographic balanceandcontributedtoaglobalpopulationexplosionthatisstillunderway.Europeans builtrailwaysandmodernizedharborfacilities.ColonialpeoplesreceivedEuropeanstyle educationsandaluckyfewevenenteredOxfordandCambridgeortheSorbonne.Alotof impressivebuildingswereerectedtohouseEuropeangovernorsandthebureaucratswho administeredthecolonies.Navalbases,militarybases,coalingstationsandminingtowns appearedinthejunglesoftheCongo.CitieslikeSaigonandCairoacquiredbroad Europeanstyleavenuesandimpressiverestaurants,operahousesanddepartmentstores. Nevertheless,thebeliefthatthesuperiorityoftheircivilizationobligatedthemtoimpose

8 modernindustry,citiesandnewmedicinesonsupposedlyprimitivepeopleswasanother formofracism.

TheBritishandEgypt:TheClassicPattern
TheclassicpatternofEuropeaninterventioncanbeillustratedbytheexperienceof Egyptduringthe1870sand1880s.FrenchandBritishbanksmadeseverallargescale loanstotherulerofEgypt,theKhedive.TheFrenchformedacompanyunderthecontrol oftheengineerFerdinanddeLessepstodigtheSuezCanallinkingtheMediterraneanand theRedSeas.Whetherintheformofloanstothelocalrulerorintheformofinvestments, largeamountsofBritishandFrench capitalbeganpouringintoEgypt.TheKhedive,eager toimpresseveryonewithhisprogressiveplans,builttheworld'slargestoperahousein CairoandhiredthegreatItaliancomposerGuisepeVerdi towriteandproduceanew opera,Aida.Atthesametime,BritishcapitalflowedintotheEgyptian countrysideto encouragetheproductionofrawcottontoreplacethecottonproducedby theplantations oftheAmericanSouthrecentlyshutdownbytheUnionforcesintheAmericanCivilWar. Withinafewyears,inevitably,Egyptfellbehindinitsrepaymentscheduleto FrenchandBritishbanks.TheconsortiumbuildingtheSuezCanalwentbankruptandthe BritishPrimeMinisterBenjaminDisraeliarrangedamassiveloantobuytheSuezCanal outfromundertheFrenchgovernment.Disraeli'sschemeworkedandtheBritishacquired theSuezCanal.YouhaveitMa'am,hereportedtoQueenVictoriaatWindsorpalace. Atthesametime,alsoinevitably,theBritish financialcommunityexertedpressureon ParliamenttoprotectBritishinterestseventothepointofmilitaryintervention. Facedwiththesekindsofpoliticalpressures,andwiththepressforamoreforceful policy,allBritishgovernments,conservativeandliberalalike,oftengavewayand authorizedevermoreintrusiveinterventionsinEgypt.In1876aBritishNavalSquadron bombardedAlexandriaandlandedRoyalMarinesalthoughtheBritishdidnotremovethe Khedive.Infact,localrulerswerepartoftheimperialistsystem.TheBritish navyand civilianadministratorsthusensuredrepaymenttoBritishbanksbyseizingonehalfthe customsrevenuesoftheEgyptiangovernment. Toprotecttheirlegitimateinterests,theBritishsentevermoreadministrators, soldiersandengineerstoEgypt.EverystepalongthewayBritishpoliticiansdidso reluctantly,buttheydiditanywayuntilmattersreachedthepointwheretheBritish governmentcontrolledtheeconomyofEgyptmorethoroughlythanthatofCanadaor Australia.Inthisway,graduallybutinexorably,Egyptlostitsindependence.This scenario,economicpenetrationfollowedbygunboatdiplomacy,wasfollowedindozensof countriesintheThirdWorld.Inthewordsofoneofmyoldprofessors,fromDublinto Calcutta,theworldisfullofpeoplewhodonotmournthepassingoftheBritishEmpire. (T.A.Brady,Jr.)