SLaLes of MaLLer

O @ere are 3 sLaLes of maLLer solld llquld and gas ln Le sollds Le parLlcles are
arranged ln llnes and very close LogeLer ln Le llqulds Le parLlcles are sLlll close
LogeLer buL noL ln a deflnlLe sape Cases aren'L arranged ln a deflnlLe order Ley are
spread ouL Lelr sape aren'L deflnlLe and Ley are far aparL

SCLIDS

LIUIDS

GASLS


Arrangement of
matter




Shape

ueflnlLe

Canglng

Canglng

Vo|ume

ueflnlLe

ueflnlLe

Canglng

Spac|ng of
part|c|es

very close
LogeLer

Close LogeLer

lar aparL

Iorces between
part|c|es


very sLrong

SLrong

very weak

Movement

vlbraLe

lasLer Lan ln
sollds

very fasL

O lneLlc Leory PeaL Le parLlcles galn energy
Cool Le parLlcles losses energy
LlemenLs
O LveryLlng ls made ouL of elemenLs wlc are Le slmplesL and puresL subsLances LaL
exlsL @ere are 118 elemenLs LaL ad been ldenLlfy buL only 88 are naLurally
occurrlng LlemenLs ave deflnlLe properLles and can'L be broken down wlLouL loslng
Lelr ldenLlLy @ey ave symbols LaL usually are one or Lwo leLLers of Le acLual
elemenL AlLoug some of Lem come from Lelr LaLln (eg Cold Au Aurum)
O ALoms are Llny parLlcles LaL form parL of everyLlng @e elemenLs ave proLons
neuLrons and elecLrons @ey ave a number for eac one of Lem

4 -ucleon or Mass number -umber of proLons + number of neuLrons
4 9roLon or ALomlc number -umber of proLons (wlc ls Le same as Le
number of elecLrons)

-ucleon or mass number




Cemlcal symbol



ALomlc or proLon number



Compounds mlxLures and molecules

O A compound ls Le producL of 2 elemenLs cemlcally comblned A mlxLure ls Le resulL
Lwo mlxed elemenLs (noL cemlcally comblned) Compounds are 8C-uLu so LaL
make muc more dlfflculL Lo separaLe Lem buL Le mlxLures can be separaLed by
some meLods
4 lllLraLlon
A solld wlc as noL dlssolved ln a llquld can be separaLed
by fllLraLlon AfllLer paper ls placed lnslde a glass funnel
and a conLalner puL beneaL@e solld remalnlng ln Le
fllLer paper ls called Le resldue@e resldue can be drled
by spreadlng lL ouL on Le fllLer paperand allowlng Le
llquld Lo evaporaLe@e llquld wlc as passed Lroug
Le fllLer paper ls called Le fllLraLe

4 LvaporaLlon
Slnce lL ls spread all Lroug Le solvenL ln Llny parLlcles @e
soluLlon ls eaLed so LaL Le solvenL evaporaLes and [usL
leave Le solld belnd @e dlagram below sow by uslng Lls
meLod salL can be obLalned from lLs soluLlon Cnly soluLe can
be obLalned and solvenL wlll evaporaLe away ln Le process

4 ulsLlllaLlon
Wen a soluLlon of solld ln llquld ls eaLed Le llquld wlll
evaporaLes @e oL vapor LaL formed can de condensed back
Lo llquld agaln on a cold surface


4 CromaLograpy
Slnce none of Le Lwo subsLances ave Le
same absorpLlon and solublllLy eac subsLance
wlll Lravel a dlfferenL dlsLance along Le fllLer
paper Cne subsLance ls separaLed from
anoLer ln Lls way @e subsLances separaLed
by cromaLograpy do noL ave Lo be colored
Colorless subsLance can be made Lo sow up by
spraylng Le paper wlL a locaLlng agenL @en
reacLs wlL eac of Le colorless subsLances ln
order Lo produce a colored producL

4 CrysLalllzaLlon
@e soluLlon as Lo be eaLed Lo geL rld of some
waLer ln order Lo obLaln crysLals from an
unsaLuraLed aqueous soluLlon @e soluLlon
becomes more concenLraLed as Le waLer bolls
away @e solvenL cannoL old all Le dlssolved
sollds wen concenLraLed soluLlon ls cools and ls
oL @e reason for Lls ls because a oL solvenL
dlssolve more soluLes Lan cold solvenL @en
Le exLra sollds wlll be separaLed ouL as crysLals

O A molecule ls an aggregaLe of Lwo or more aLoms ln a deflnlLe arrangemenL eld
LogeLer by cemlcal bonds
9erlodlc Lable
O @e perlodlc Lable ls an ordered way of sLudylng Le elemenLs @ey are ln a paLLern
wlc lncreases Lelr aLomlc/proLon number @e elemenLs are arranged ln groups
(columns) and perlods (rows) All Le elemenLs LaL form parL of a group ave slmllar
properLles and may form compounds wlL slmllar cemlcal properLles
MeLals/-onmeLals
O @e meLal ave Lls caracLerlsLlcs good conducLors of eaL and elecLrlclLy Ley are
slny sonorous ducLlle malleable dense and Ley ave a lg melLlng polnLs (some
of Lem ave magneLlc properLles lron cobalL and nlckel )
O @e nonmeLals are Le opposlLe dull brlLLle poor conducLors of eaL and elecLrlclLy
and Ley ave a low melLlng p
9roperLles of Le maLerlals
O @e mosL lmporLanL Llng Lo know ls LaL eac maLerlal as dlfferenL properLles Lese
words would elp you Lo undersLand Lese properLles
4 SLrengL 8eslsLance Lo Le enlargemenL
4 9oroslLy LeL any subsLance geL Lroug
4 LlecLrlclLy and Lermal conducLlvlLy ConducLlng elecLrlclLy or eaL
4 8lodegradablllLy 8acLerla consume lL
4 Weakness Lnlargeable
4 lmpeneLrable -oLlng can pass Lroug
4 -on conducLlvlLy Can'L conducL elecLrlclLy or eaL
4 -on degradable Can'L be consumed by bacLerla
@ypes of sLrucLure
O @ere are 4 Lypes of sLrucLure ClanL lonlc ClanL meLalllc ClanL molecular and slmple
molecular
4 ClanL lonlc sLrucLure @ey are formed by lonlc compounds @ls conslsLs on
opposlLely carged lons arranged ln a ard and reslsLance lonlc laLLlces eld
LogeLer by lonlc bonds @ey are conducLlve wen molLen Ley are soluble ln
waLer and Lelr bolllng polnL ls lg






4 ClanL molecular sLrucLure @ese are made up of Lousands of aLoms eld by
sLrong covalenL bonds @ey ave lg bolllng and melLlng polnLs Ley aren'L
conducLlve and Ley are lnsoluble






Step 1: 0raw a
cube
Step 2: Add posItIve and
negatIve on each
alternate Ions on each
corner
Step J: 0uplIcate the
cube to gIve larger
crystal lattIce (E.g.
Na
+
Cl

)

4 ClanL meLalllc sLrucLure@ese are made of meLalllc bondlng @ey are an
arrangemenL of poslLlve lons cores of meLals surrounded by a moblle
delocallzed sea of elecLrons @ey are conducLlve wen molLen



4 Slmple molecular sLrucLures @ey are made up of dlscreeL molecules low
melLlng and bolllng polnLs usually llqulds and gases @ey are soluble ln non
polar sysLem and Ley aren'L conducLlve





O @e maln dlfference beLween glanL and slmple sLrucLures (Lalklng ln Lerms of bolllng
and melLlng polnL) ls LaL Le glanL ones ave a lg bolllng and melLlng polnL and Le
slmple ls Le opposlLe
8ondlng lonlc (nonmeLal and
meLal)
CovalenL (beLween non
meLals)
MeLalllc (ln
meLals
SLrucLures ClanL lonlc ClanL
CovalenL
ClanL
Molecular
ClanL MeLalllc
MelLlng
9olnL
Plg Plg Low Plg
ConducL
LlecLrlclLy?
MoL wen solld buL
wen molLen or
dlssolved
-o -o ?es (as free
elecLrons)


Lxample

-aCl
Sodlum Clorlde

ulamond

P
2
o
WaLer


Zn
Zlnc


9yslcal SLaLes
O @ere are several uses for waLer ln ome cleanlng waslng sewerage and
drlnklng ln lndusLry processlng lmporLanL producLs WaLer needs Lo be purlfy ln
order Lo be consumed Le process ls Le followlng
1 WaLer comes lnLo Le planL were Le blg conLamlnanLs are exLracLed
2 CoagulaLlon Alum and cemlcals area added Lo form floc wlc aLLracL
dlrL
3 llocculaLlon @e waLer ls sLlrred Lo mlx alum wlL dlrLy waLer
4 SedlmenLaLlon WaLer ls seLLle floc slnk and clear waLer go Lo Le Lop and
Lo Le fllLraLlon camber
3 lllLraLlon WaLer passes Lroug fllLers Lo remove floc Ley're made of
gravel sand garneL and carcoal @e lasL elemenL neuLrallzes Le odour
6 ulslnfecLlon @e waLer moves lnLo a dlslnfecLlon camber wen clorlne
ls added Lo klll bacLerla or mlcroorganlsms Sodlum LlosulpaLe ls added
Lo neuLrallze clorlne and Le fluorlde ls added for denLal ealL
7 SLorage WaLer ls sLored ln a reservolr were lL flows Lroug plpes and Lo
omes or buslness ln Le communlLy
O AlLoug Lere are some problems Lo collecL pure waLer because mosL of Le
waLer reservolrs are polluLed LaL's wy we ave Lo safe waLer by closlng Laps noL
wasLlng lL and of course noL polluLlng lL
SoluLlons
O 8lue LlLmus ln alkall 8LuL
O 8ed LlLmus ln acld 8Lu
O Some subsLances are more soluble Lan oLers and noL all Le Llngs dlssolve ln waLer
@e lonlc compounds dlssolve ln waLer and molecular compounds noL (Ley dlssolve ln
nonaqueous solvenLs)
O @ls words are lmporLanL pay aLLenLlon
4 SoluLlons Wen Lwo Lypes molecules ln a llquld are mlxed evenly dlsLrlbuLed
4 SolvenL Were Le soluLe ls dlssolved
4 SoluLe @e Llng LaL dlssolve ln Le solvenL
4 Soluble @e faclllLy Lo dlssolve
4 lnsoluble Can'L be dlssolved
4 Pomogeneous Lvenly dlsLrlbuLed soluLlon
4 PeLerogeneous Cne of Le elemenLs ls more concenLraLed ln Le soluLlon
Pard and sofL waLer
O Pard waLer ls caused by magneslum or calclum lons
O ln ard waLer soap doesn'L form laLer
O ln sofL waLer soap forms a loL of laLer
Cleanlng
O ury cleanlng percloroLylene Lo clean wen dry
O ueLergenLs clean easler because Ley ave a speclal a waLer lovlng end and a waLer
aLlng end



Water Pollution:
O LuLroplcaLlon9ospaLes from deLergenLs lncrease algae growL and Lake all Le
oxygen ouL of Le waLer
O @ermal 9olluLlon Warm waLer from facLorles eaL up rlvers and lakes and cange Le
ecosysLem
O CLer WasLe Cemlcals from facLorles polluLe waLer even Loug Lere are laws Lo
sLop LaL
9P lndlcaLors
O 8lue LlLmus ln acld 8Lu
O 8ed LlLmus ln alkall 8LuL
O Colours ln pP scale 8ed Creen Acld 8lue Creen Alkall Creen (llgL)-Lu@8AL



WaLer lovlng
ead (ydroplllc)

8eacLlons and -euLrallzaLlon
O Aclds Corroslve llquld pP 6 1 LlLmus 8Lu
O 8eacLlons
4 Acld + CarbonaLe SalL + WaLer + CC
2

4 Acld + Alkall SalL + WaLer
4 Acld + 8ase SalL + WaLer
O -euLrallzaLlon
4 Pydroclorlc acld Clorldes
4 Sulpurlc acld SulpaLes SalLs
4 -lLrlc acld -lLraLes
O -ame of a salL @e name of Le meLal + Le salL formed (eg Copper + Sulpurlc acld
copper sulpaLe)
O Wen an acld reacLs wlL an alkall Le LemperaLure of Le soluLlon rlses
8aLes of reacLlon
O Some reacLlons can occur very slowly or very fasL
O 8easons
4 @e concenLraLlon of reacLanL
4 @e LemperaLure
4 @e pressure
4 ln sollds @e surface area
4 CaLalysLs (subsLance LaL lncrease Le raLe of reacLlon)
O 8aLe of reacLlon means Le raLe aL wlc aLoms colllde agalnsL eac oLer Lo form a
reacLlon
Cxygen
O Cxygen ls an elemenL LaL exlsLs as a dlaLomlc molecule
O Cxygen ls a colourless and odourless gas found ln Le aLmospere
O C
2
means 2 molecules of oxygen
O Wen oxygen reacLs wlL anoLer compound an oxlde ls formed
O CxldaLlon ls wen a compound reacLs wlL Cxygen Lo form a
new one
O Cxldes ave dlfferenL properLles Lan Le elemenL