Tshuyen 1

I S C S
1. CC BI TONV KIMTRA NHM

TS TRNHUYN
Khoa Ton-Tin hc, i hc S PhmTPHCM
http://math.hcmup.edu.vn
Ngy 1 thng 1 nm 2010
TS TRNHUYN L THUYT NHM
GVHD: Nguyn Thi Sn
Nhmthc hin:
1
Nguyn Tin t
2
KimTh Hu Nh
Ni dung
Ni dung
c gi thn mn
Cc bn ang tham gia chuyn "i s c s" ca Khoa
Ton - Tin HSP Tp. HCM. Chuyn ca chng ti xy
dng, trc ht nhm tr gip cc ng vin Thc s tng lai
v chuyn ngnh i s h thng li cc kin thc c s, cc
k thut c bn, rn luyn k nng gii ton c th vng
vng vt qua k thi tuyn sinh cao hc ca HSP Tp.
HCM, tr thnh hc vin Cao hc ngnh i s ca trng.
Chuyn bm st cc ni dung ra trong chng trnh
tuyn sinh, khng ch gip cc hc vin c th vng tm i
din vi k thi tuyn m cn gip cho hc vin mt kh nng,
phng php t hc, t o to mnh.
hc vin d theo di, tip thu, cc ni dung s c bin
son di dng cc bi ging vi ngn ng n gin v d hiu
nht, mi bi ging hai tit cho mi tun. Chuyn s
c dn dng vi thi lng chng 40 tit, lin tc c cp
nht cho ti ngy cc bn c th tham gia t n tp tp
trung trc khi bc vo k thi tuyn, dp thng 052005.
chuyn cng ngy cng c trin khai mt cch hu
ch, hiu qu hn, chng ti lun lun sn sng n nhn cc
gp , yu cu ca cc bn. Chng ti cng sn sng trao i,
gii p cc thc mc ca cc bn, hu mong chuyn s l
ngi bn tm giao ca c gi trong hnh trnh phn u
khoa hc ca mnh.
Ni dung
Nhp mn
Nhm l mt khi nim c bn ca i s, v l mt trong
nhng ni dung khng th vng bng trong cc thi tuyn
sinh chuyn ngnh i s c s. V vy bn phi nm vng
k nng kim tra mt tp X cho trc vi mt php ton no
trn X lp thnh mt nhm. D nhin bn phi nm vng
khi nim nhm theo m tng bc kim tra tp X
cho v php ton cho c tha mn tt c cc iu kin cn
c cho mt nhm hay khng?
Theo chng trnh i s i cng ta c ba nh ngha
nhm, tng ng vi nhau m ta s hc sau y.
Nhp mn
Nhp mn
Ni dung
nh ngha
nh ngha 1
Nhm l mt tp hp X = , trn xc nh c mt php
ton hai ngi tha cc iu kin :
1
N
1
: iu kin kt hp: x, y, z X th (xy)z = x(yz).
2
N
2
: iu kin n v: e X, x X th
_
ex = x
xe = x
3
N
3
: iu kin kh nghch: x X, x
1
X sao cho
_
x
1
x = e
xx
1
= e
nh ngha
nh ngha 1
1
N
1
2
N
2
_
ex = x
xe = x
3
N
3
1
X sao cho
_
x
1
x = e
xx
1
= e
nh ngha
nh ngha 1
1
N
1
2
N
2
_
ex = x
xe = x
3
N
3
1
X sao cho
_
x
1
x = e
xx
1
= e
nh ngha
nh ngha 1
1
N
1
2
N
2
_
ex = x
xe = x
3
N
3
1
X sao cho
_
x
1
x = e
xx
1
= e
nh ngha
nh ngha 1
1
N
1
2
N
2
_
ex = x
xe = x
3
N
3
1
X sao cho
_
x
1
x = e
xx
1
= e
nh ngha
nh ngha 2
Nhm l na nhm X, c n v tri e v mi x X u c
nghch o tri x (tc x
x = e)
1
So vi nh ngha 1, th nh ngha 2 tit kim hn; iu
kin N
2
ch cn kim tra ex = x v iu kin N
3
ch phi
kim tra x
1
x = e.
2
Mt dng i ngu ca nh ngha 2 v c th xem nh l
nh ngha 2 l : Nhm l na nhm X, c n v phi e v
x X u c nghch o phi x
( tc xx
= e)
nh ngha
nh ngha 2
nghch o tri x (tc x
x = e)
1
kin N
2
3
ch phi
kim tra x
1
x = e.
2
( tc xx
= e)
nh ngha
nh ngha 2
nghch o tri x (tc x
x = e)
1
kin N
2
3
ch phi
kim tra x
1
x = e.
2
( tc xx
= e)
nh ngha
nh ngha 2
nghch o tri x (tc x
x = e)
1
kin N
2
3
ch phi
kim tra x
1
x = e.
2
( tc xx
= e)
nh ngha
nh ngha 3
Nhm l na nhm X m cc phng trnh ax = b v xa = b l
gii c (tc c nghim) trong X vi mi a, b X
Lu
kim tra mt tp cho trc X v mt php ton cho trn
X l nhm, ty trng hp c th m ta la chn nh ngha
no trong cc nh ngha nu trn p dng cho ph hp.
nh ngha
nh ngha 3
Lu
nh ngha
nh ngha 3
Lu
Ni dung
V d 1
bi
Cho tp hp X = Z Z = (k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z xc nh trn X
php ton sau :
(k
1
, k
2
).(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)
Chng minh rng X vi php ton trn l nhm.
V d 1
bi
Cho tp hp X = Z Z = (k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z xc nh trn X
php ton sau :
(k
1
, k
2
).(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)
Chng minh rng X vi php ton trn l nhm.
V d 1
Cch 1: (Nu s dng nh ngha 1)
Ta ln lt kim tra tng bc nh sau:
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
) cng l mt cp s nguyn nn php
ton trn X l php ton hai ngi.
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
X = Z Z = v Z =
D dng thy l nu (k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
) l cp s nguyn th
(k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
(k
1
, k
2
), (l
1
, l
2
), (t
1
, t
2
) X ta c: [(k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
)](t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
)
(1)
V d 1
Cch 1
Mt khc:
(k
1
, k
2
)[(l
1
, l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)] = (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
+ t
1
, l
2
+ (1)
l
1
t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
(2)
So snh (??) v (??) ta c iu kin kt hp.
Tn ti (0, 0) X m vi mi (k
1
, k
2
) X th
(0, 0)(k
1
, k
2
) = (0 + k
1
, 0 + (1)
0
k
2
) = (k
1
, k
2
)
v
(k
1
, k
2
)(0, 0) = (k
1
+ 0, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
.0) = (k1, k2)
Vy (0,0) l n v trong X.
V d 1
Cch 1
Mt khc:
(k
1
, k
2
)[(l
1
, l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)] = (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
+ t
1
, l
2
+ (1)
l
1
t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
(2)
1
, k
2
) X th
(0, 0)(k
1
, k
2
) = (0 + k
1
, 0 + (1)
0
k
2
) = (k
1
, k
2
)
v
(k
1
, k
2
)(0, 0) = (k
1
+ 0, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
.0) = (k1, k2)
V d 1
Cch 1
Mt khc:
(k
1
, k
2
)[(l
1
, l
2
)(t
1
, t
2
)] = (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
+ t
1
, l
2
+ (1)
l
1
t
2
)
= (k
1
+ l
1
+ t
1
, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
l
2
+ (1)
k
1
+l
1
t
2
(2)
1
, k
2
) X th
(0, 0)(k
1
, k
2
) = (0 + k
1
, 0 + (1)
0
k
2
) = (k
1
, k
2
)
v
(k
1
, k
2
)(0, 0) = (k
1
+ 0, k
2
+ (1)
k
1
.0) = (k1, k2)
V d 1
Cch 1
(k
1
, k
2
) X, (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) X m
(k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
)(k
1
, k
2
) =
(k
1
+ k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
+ (1)
k
1
k
2
) = (0, 0)
(k
1
, k
2
)(k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) = (k
1
k
1
, k
2
+ (1)
2k
1
+1
k
2
) =
(0, 0)
tc
(k
1
, k
2
)
1
= (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
)
Vy X l mt nhm.
V d 1
Cch 1
(k
1
, k
2
) X, (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) X m
(k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
)(k
1
, k
2
) =
(k
1
+ k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
+ (1)
k
1
k
2
) = (0, 0)
(k
1
, k
2
)(k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) = (k
1
k
1
, k
2
+ (1)
2k
1
+1
k
2
) =
(0, 0)
tc
(k
1
, k
2
)
1
= (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
)
Vy X l mt nhm.
V d 1
Nhn xt
Nh vy kim tra mt nhm theo nh ngha 1, ta lm
theo ng cc yu cu ca nh ngha l kim tra tp X = ,
kim tra php ton cho trn X tht s l php ton hai ngi
(hai phn t bt k ca tp hp X phi c tch l mt phn
t thuc X!) v ba tin N
1
, N
2
, N
3
.
D nhin, trong cc bc , nu c bc no m cc i hi
uc tha mn mt cch hin nhin th ta c th b qua.
Chng hn v d trn nu xem bc 1, bc 2 l hin nhin
tha mn th vn c th chp nhn c. Tuy nhin trong
mt s trng hp cn kim tra mt cch cn trng, trnh s
sai st.
V d 1
Nhn xt
1
, N
2
, N
3
.
sai st.
V d 1
Nhn xt
1
, N
2
, N
3
.
sai st.
V d 1
Nhn xt
1
, N
2
, N
3
.
sai st.
V d 1
Cch 2:
Nu s dng nh ngha 2 th trong li gii trn ch cn b i
hai ng thc kim tra n v phi, kim tra nghch o phi
(hoc b i hai ng thc kim tra n v tri, kim tra
nghch o tri).
V d 1
Cch 2:
Nu s dng nh ngha 2 th trong li gii trn ch cn b i
hai ng thc kim tra n v phi, kim tra nghch o phi
(hoc b i hai ng thc kim tra n v tri, kim tra
nghch o tri).
V d 1
Cch 3:
Nu s dng nh ngha 3. Trc ht ht ta kim tra X = , php
ton trn X tht s l php ton hai ngi, kim tra iu kin kt
hp ca php ton (iu ny l nh cch 1). Tip theo ta kim tra
cc phng trnh ax = b v xa = b l c nghim trong X. Cho
a = (a
1
, a
2
), b = (b
1
, b
2
) X v x = (x
1
, x
2
).
V d 1
Cch 3:
Nu s dng nh ngha 3. Trc ht ht ta kim tra X = , php
ton trn X tht s l php ton hai ngi, kim tra iu kin kt
hp ca php ton (iu ny l nh cch 1). Tip theo ta kim tra
cc phng trnh ax = b v xa = b l c nghim trong X. Cho
a = (a
1
, a
2
), b = (b
1
, b
2
) X v x = (x
1
, x
2
).
V d 1
Cch 3
ax = b (a
1
, a
2
)(x
1
, x
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
(a
1
+ x
1
, a
2
+ (1)
a
1
x
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
_
a
1
+ x
1
= b
1
a
2
+ (1)
a
1
x
2
= b
2
_
x
1
= b
1
a
1
Z
x
2
= (1)
a
1
(b
2
a
2
) Z
Vy phng trnh ax = b c nghim ngha l
x = (b
1
a
1
, (1)
a
1
(b
2
a
2
)) X
V d 1
Cch 3
ax = b (a
1
, a
2
)(x
1
, x
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
(a
1
+ x
1
, a
2
+ (1)
a
1
x
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
_
a
1
+ x
1
= b
1
a
2
+ (1)
a
1
x
2
= b
2
_
x
1
= b
1
a
1
Z
x
2
= (1)
a
1
(b
2
a
2
) Z
Vy phng trnh ax = b c nghim ngha l
x = (b
1
a
1
, (1)
a
1
(b
2
a
2
)) X
V d 1
Cch 3
Tng t xa = b (x
1
, x
2
)(a
1
, a
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
(x
1
+ a
1
, x
2
+ (1)
x
1
a
2
) = (b
1
, b
2
)
_
x
1
+ a
1
= b
1
x
2
+ (1)
x
1
a
2
= b
2
_
x
1
= b
1
a
1
Z
x
2
= (1)
a
1
(b
2
a
2
) Z
tc phng trnh xa = b c nghim l :
x = (b
1
a
1
, b
2
(1)
b
1
a
1
a
2
) X
Vy tp X vi php ton cho lp thnh nhm.
V d 1
Nhn xt
tm c phn t n v (0, 0) hay nghch o
(k
1
, k
2
)
1
= (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) cch 1, ta s dng vic gii
cc phng trnh a ra cch 3 vi b = a khi tm n v e
hay vi b = e = (0, 0) khi tm a
1
V d 1
Nhn xt
tm c phn t n v (0, 0) hay nghch o
(k
1
, k
2
)
1
= (k
1
, (1)
k
1
+1
k
2
) cch 1, ta s dng vic gii
cc phng trnh a ra cch 3 vi b = a khi tm n v e
hay vi b = e = (0, 0) khi tm a
1
Ni dung
V d 2
bi
Cho X =
__
a b
0 c
_
: ac = 0
_
Chng minh rng X l nhm i vi php nhn ma trn.
V d 2
bi
Cho X =
__
a b
0 c
_
: ac = 0
_
Chng minh rng X l nhm i vi php nhn ma trn.
V d 2
Hin nhin l X =
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_
,
_
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
X th
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_ _
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
=
_
a
1
a
2
b
0 c
1
c
2
_
X(a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
= 0)
Vy php nhn ma trn l php ton hai ngi trn X.
Theo i s tuyn tnh, php nhn cc ma trn c tnh cht
kt hp.
V d 2
Hin nhin l X =
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_
,
_
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
X th
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_ _
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
=
_
a
1
a
2
b
0 c
1
c
2
_
X(a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
= 0)
kt hp.
V d 2
Hin nhin l X =
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_
,
_
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
X th
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_ _
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
=
_
a
1
a
2
b
0 c
1
c
2
_
X(a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
= 0)
kt hp.
V d 2
Hin nhin l X =
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_
,
_
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
X th
_
a
1
b
1
0 c
1
_ _
a
2
b
2
0 c
2
_
=
_
a
1
a
2
b
0 c
1
c
2
_
X(a
1
a
2
c
1
c
2
= 0)
kt hp.
V d 2
Cch 1:
n v l E =
_
1 0
0 1
_
X
_
a b
0 c
_
X do ac = 0 theo i s tuyn tnh ta c :
_
a b
0 c
_
1
=
1
ac
_
c b
0 a
_
X
Vy X l mt nhm.
V d 2
Cch 1:
n v l E =
_
1 0
0 1
_
X
_
a b
0 c
_
_
a b
0 c
_
1
=
1
ac
_
c b
0 a
_
X
Vy X l mt nhm.
V d 2
Cch 1:
n v l E =
_
1 0
0 1
_
X
_
a b
0 c
_
_
a b
0 c
_
1
=
1
ac
_
c b
0 a
_
X
Vy X l mt nhm.
V d 2
Nhn xt
Trong v d trn, tp cc ma trn v php nhn ma trn l
cc i tng m chuyn ngnh STT nghin cu, v vy
kim tra mt s iu kin no m bn cht l cc kt
qu bit chuyn ngnh ny, ta khng cn lp li cc kim
tra chi tit m ch cn nhc rng theo chuyn ngnh (hay
kt qu no ) ta c c iu mun kim tra.
Chng hn tnh cht kt hp ca php nhn ma trn, n v
hay nghch o ca mt ma trn khng suy bin v d trn.
Tuy nhin trong trng hp n v hay nghch o, cn phi
ch ra, phn t ang ni ti phi thuc tp X cho.
V d 2
Nhn xt
V d 2
Nhn xt
V d 2
Cch 2: (nu s dng nh ngha 3)
Trc ht ta kim tra X = , php nhn ma trn l php ton 2
ngi trn X, tnh kt hp ca php nhn ma trn trn X (nh
lm cch 1). Tip theo cho
a =
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_
, b =
_
b
1
b
2
0 b3
_
X
ta cn ch ra cc phng trnh ax = b v xa = b u c nghim
trong X. Gi x =
_
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
.
ax = b
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_ _
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
0 b
3
_
V d 2
a =
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_
, b =
_
b
1
b
2
0 b3
_
X
trong X. Gi x =
_
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
.
ax = b
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_ _
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
0 b
3
_
V d 2
a =
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_
, b =
_
b
1
b
2
0 b3
_
X
trong X. Gi x =
_
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
.
ax = b
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_ _
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
0 b
3
_
V d 2
a =
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_
, b =
_
b
1
b
2
0 b3
_
X
trong X. Gi x =
_
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
.
ax = b
_
a
1
a
2
0 a
3
_ _
x
1
x
2
0 x
3
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
0 b
3
_
V d 2
_
a
1
x
1
a
1
x
2
+ a
2
x
3
0 a
3
x
3
_
=
_
b
1
b
2
0 b
3
_
_
_
_
a
1
x
1
= b
1
a
3
x
3
= b
3
a
1
x
2
+ a
2
x
3
= b
2
_
x
1
=
b
1
a
1
(a
1
= 0)
x
3
=
b
3
a
3
(a
3
= 0)
x
2
=
b
2
a
3
a
2
b
3
a
1
a
3
(a
1
a
3
= 0)
V d 2
Vy nghim x =
_
_
b
1
a
1
b
2
a
3
a
2
b
3
a
1
a
3
0
b
3
a
3
_
_
X
Tng t chng minh phng trnh xa = b c nghim. Vy X
l nhm.
V d 2
Vy nghim x =
_
_
b
1
a
1
b
2
a
3
a
2
b
3
a
1
a
3
0
b
3
a
3
_
_
X
l nhm.
V d 2
Vy nghim x =
_
_
b
1
a
1
b
2
a
3
a
2
b
3
a
1
a
3
0
b
3
a
3
_
_
X
l nhm.
V d 2
Nhn xt
Tht ra cch 2 ny kh di dng, chng ti a ra nhm
cc bn lm quen nhiu hn vi nh ngha 3, v mun khng
nh iu rng, mi bi ton u c th c nhiu li gii khc
nhau nu ta bit huy ng v vn dng kin thc bit mt
cch hp l, nng ng.
V d 2
Nhn xt
Tht ra cch 2 ny kh di dng, chng ti a ra nhm
cc bn lm quen nhiu hn vi nh ngha 3, v mun khng
nh iu rng, mi bi ton u c th c nhiu li gii khc
nhau nu ta bit huy ng v vn dng kin thc bit mt
cch hp l, nng ng.
Ni dung
V d 3
bi
Cho tp s M = {1, 1}. Chng minh rng M lp thnh nhm vi
php nhn thng thng cc s.
V d 3
bi
Cho tp s M = {1, 1}. Chng minh rng M lp thnh nhm vi
php nhn thng thng cc s.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
Kt qu ca mt tch bt k hai phn t ca M li thuc M
nn php nhn cc s trn M l php ton 2 ngi.
Php nhn cc s (ni ring trn M) c tnh kt hp.
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 1:
Hin nhin M =
Xt bng nhn ca M :
-1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1
n v l 1 M
D thy nu x M th x
1
= x M. Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Ta biu din M di dng sau : M = {x R : |x| = 1}
Hin nhin M = .
x, y M th |x| = |y| = 1 nn |xy| = |x|.|y| = 1, do
xy M, tc php nhn cc s trn M l php ton hai ngi.
Php nhn cc s c tnh cht kt hp.
n v l 1 M.
x M th |x| = 1 nn |x
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 2:
Hin nhin M = .
n v l 1 M.
1
| =
1
|x|
= 1 , do x
1
M.
Vy M l nhm.
V d 3
Cch 3:
Ta biu din M = {x R : x
2
= 1} hay M = {(1)
n
: n Z} v
tin hnh kim tra cc iu kin nh trn.
V d 3
Cch 3:
2
= 1} hay M = {(1)
n
: n Z} v
V d 3
Cch 3:
2
= 1} hay M = {(1)
n
: n Z} v
V d 3
Cch 4:
Cc bn c th s dng nh ngha 3 vi lu l :
1.M = M = M.1
(1).M = M = M.(1)
V d 3
Cch 4:
1.M = M = M.1
(1).M = M = M.(1)
V d 3
Cch 4:
1.M = M = M.1
(1).M = M = M.(1)
V d 3
Nhn xt
Mi tp hp c th c biu din di cc dng khc nhau.
V vi mi cch biu din, chng ta c th c nhng cch x
l khc nhau c c cc li gii khng ging nhau. V d
ny mun cc bn khi nhn nhn mt vn phi bit xem
xt nhng gc khc nhau thy c cc cch tip cn
khc nhau gii quyt vn .
V d 3
Nhn xt
Mi tp hp c th c biu din di cc dng khc nhau.
V vi mi cch biu din, chng ta c th c nhng cch x
l khc nhau c c cc li gii khng ging nhau. V d
ny mun cc bn khi nhn nhn mt vn phi bit xem
xt nhng gc khc nhau thy c cc cch tip cn
khc nhau gii quyt vn .
Ni dung
V d 4
bi
Chng minh rng mt na nhm hu hn X c lut gin c hai
pha l nhm.
V d 4
bi
Chng minh rng mt na nhm hu hn X c lut gin c hai
pha l nhm.
V d 4
Cch 1 : (Nu s dng nh ngha 3)
iu kin v cc phng trnh ax = b v xa = b gii c
trong X ca nh ngha 3 l tng ng vi i hi
aX = X = Xa, a X. Gi s rng X = x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
.
Khi ain X th aX = ax
1
, ax
2
, ..., ax
n
X ng thi do X
c lut gin c nn n tch trong aX l i mt khc nhau
(nu ax
i
= ax
j
th x
i
= x
j
) nn |aX| = |X| suy ra aX = X.
Mt cch tng t c th chng minh Xa = X. Vy X l
nhm.
V d 4
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
.
1
, ax
2
, ..., ax
n
X ng thi do X
(nu ax
i
= ax
j
th x
i
= x
j
nhm.
V d 4
1
, x
2
, ..., x
n
.
1
, ax
2
, ..., ax
n
X ng thi do X
(nu ax
i
= ax
j
th x
i
= x
j
nhm.
V d 4
Cch 2:
Cc bn c th s dng nh ngha 1 (hay nh ngha 2) vi
ch rng do X = nn a X v do X hu hn nn c
m > n > 0 v am = an. n v ca X khi l e = am n
(hy t chng minh). Vi mi x X, t tn ti k > l > 0
m x
k
= x
l
v x
1
= x
kl 1
(hy t chng minh).
Lu trong chng minh lun lun c thc s dng lut
gin c.
V d 4
Cch 2:
m x
k
= x
l
v x
1
= x
kl 1
(hy t chng minh).
gin c.
V d 4
Cch 2:
m x
k
= x
l
v x
1
= x
kl 1
(hy t chng minh).
gin c.
V d 4
Nhn xt
y l mt v d tng i kh. Vic s dng dng tng
ng cho s tn ti nghim cc phng trnh ax = b, xa = b
l hon ton c quyn chp nhn, khng cn phi chng
minh. Tht ra l dng pht biu khc ca cc iu kin
trn theo ngn ng tp hp.
Cch th 2 chng ti ch a ra cc cch tm n v v nghch
o, vic hon thin chng minh dnh cho c gi t khm
ph ly chnh mnh, th khi dy bn nng kho lo ca mnh.
V d 4
Nhn xt
V d 4
Nhn xt
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
Cho X = Z Z = {(k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z} Trn X xc nh
php ton sau : (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ (1)
k
2
l
1
, k
2
+ l
2
)
Chng minh X vi php ton trn l nhm.
2
Cho X =
__
a 0
b c
_
: ac = 0
_
. Chng minh X vi php
nhn ma trn lp thnh mt nhm. Nhm X c giao hon
khng?
3
Cho tp cc s phc D = {1, i , 1, i }. Chng minh rng D
l nhm vi php nhn thng thng cc s.
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
Cho X = Z Z = {(k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z} Trn X xc nh
php ton sau : (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ (1)
k
2
l
1
, k
2
+ l
2
)
2
Cho X =
__
a 0
b c
_
: ac = 0
_
khng?
3
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
Cho X = Z Z = {(k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z} Trn X xc nh
php ton sau : (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ (1)
k
2
l
1
, k
2
+ l
2
)
2
Cho X =
__
a 0
b c
_
: ac = 0
_
khng?
3
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
Cho X = Z Z = {(k
1
, k
2
) : k
1
, k
2
Z} Trn X xc nh
php ton sau : (k
1
, k
2
)(l
1
, l
2
) = (k
1
+ (1)
k
2
l
1
, k
2
+ l
2
)
2
Cho X =
__
a 0
b c
_
: ac = 0
_
khng?
3
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
Cho tp X = v (X) l tp cc song nh ca X ln X.
Chng minh (X) l nhm i vi php nhn nh x.
2
Cho M
n
l tp hp cc ma trn cp n khng suy bin. Chng

minh M
n
l nhm vi php nhn ma trn.
3
Ta gi ma trn vung A = (a
ij
) cp n c dng tam gic nu
a
ij
= 0 khi i > j . Chng minh rng tp cc ma trn vung
cp n khng suy bin c dng tam gic lp thnh nhm vi
php nhn ma trn.
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
2
Cho M
n

minh M
n
3
ij
a
ij
php nhn ma trn.
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
2
Cho M
n

minh M
n
3
ij
a
ij
php nhn ma trn.
Bi tp lmthm
bi
1
2
Cho M
n

minh M
n
3
ij
a
ij
php nhn ma trn.

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1. CC BI TONV KIMTRA NHM

l tp hp cc ma trn cp n khng suy bin. Chng

l tp hp cc ma trn cp n khng suy bin. Chng

l tp hp cc ma trn cp n khng suy bin. Chng

l tp hp cc ma trn cp n khng suy bin. Chng

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