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Degradation of Cellulose Nitrate Adhesive Author(s): Y. Shashoua, S. M. Bradley, V. D. Daniels Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 37, No.

2 (May, 1992), pp. 113-119 Published by: International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1506403 . Accessed: 20/07/2011 23:51
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DEGRADATION OF CELLULOSENITRATE ADHESIVE Y. Shashoua,S. M. Bradleyand V. D. Daniels

artificially aged samples and a relationship between natural and artificial aging of cellulose nitrate adhesive has been established. The results of this investigation indicate that cellulose nitrate adhesives are stable for at least 30 years, and may be extrapolated to suggest a lifetime of 50 to 100 years under museum conditions in a temperate climate.

Abstract-An adhesivebasedon cellulosenitratehas and has been used for some aspects of ceramic been used in the BritishMuseumfor the repairof conservation in the British Museum. sincecellulosenitrate plasticwasfirstmade antiquities Some joins made in large ceramic objects with commercially available. The use of cellulose nitrate Paraloid B-72 have proved unstable, and this adhesives in conservation has been criticized and for be attributed to the glass tranthis reason the stability of the adhesive currently in phenomenon may sition temperature of the acrylic resin (40?C), use has been investigated. The properties of artificially which is considerably lower than that of celluaged samples of the adhesive have been compared with those of artificially aged adhesive-grade cellulose lose nitrate. A scientific assessment of cellulose nitrate. The results indicate that the degradation of nitrate adhesive was thus considered necessary. This paper discusses the manufacture, propercellulose nitrate is substantially retarded by the plasticizer in the adhesive. Samples of cellulose nitrate ties and degradation of cellulose nitrate adheadhesive taken from joins in objects where the date of sive, and outlines the investigation into its conservation work is known have been analyzed. The stability which has recently been completed at results have been compared with the analysis of the the British Museum. CH2OH HNO3 H2SO4 OH OH
Figure 1 Production cellulose nitrate.

CH2ONO2 20- 40?C

1 Introduction

of Since its discovery in 1833, cellulose nitrate, or nitrocellulose as it is also known, has had a wide range of uses, from surgical plasters to jewellery, collars and cuffs. It has been used as a conser- 1.1 Production of cellulose nitrate (Figure 1) vation material since the late nineteenth century, Cellulose nitrate is the polynitrate ester of celluas an adhesive and protective coating [1]. Cellu- lose. Modern manufacture involves steeping lose nitrate is favoured for its good adhesion to cotton linters or paper pulp in a mixture of conhomogeneous and inhomogeneous surfaces and centrated nitric and sulphuric acid at 20-40?C for its low cost. However, it does degrade spon- [4]. The concentration governs the degree of taneously, producing gaseous nitrogen oxides nitration obtainable. After washing the product which form corrosive nitric acid in the presence to remove excess acid, it is stabilized by boiling of moisture. in alcohol to remove residual sulphate groups. In the early 1980s, the stability of commerTheoretically, it should be possible to substicially available cellulose nitrate adhesives was tute each of the hydroxyl groups of the cellulose questioned by Koob [2]. Paraloid B-72, an molecule with a nitrogen group, resulting in a acrylic copolymer solution which is known for nitrogen content of 14-4%. However, cellulose its stability to light- and heat-aging, was sug- trinitrate is a highly unstable product. The gested as an alternative to cellulose nitrate [3], degree of substitution and polymerization determines the properties and applications of celluReceived 26 June 1991 lose nitrate. Material with a nitrogen content of Received in revisedform 19 December 1991 11 5-12% is suitable for use as an adhesive [5]. Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119 113

Y. Shashoua, S. M. Bradley and V. D. Daniels 1.2 Properties of cellulose nitrate

New cellulose nitrate is a colourless polymer which is brittle and tough, but flexible when plasticized and cast as thin films and sheets. It softens at approximately 80-90?C, flows at 150?C and ignites in air at 160?C.It is unlikely to soften or explode during normal application in a museum. Cellulose nitrate is readily soluble in most polar solvents-alcohols, ethers, ketones, esters and blends of these-and is swollen by dichloroethane and aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. toluene). The polymer is compatible with most synthetic and natural resins. It is resistant to water and relatively unaffected by dilute acids and alkalis, but has poor resistance to concentrated acids and bases.
1.3 Formulation of adhesive

Adhesives are produced by mixing cellulose nitrate with other components. These components may be classified as plasticizers, ultraviolet light inhibitors and solvents. The choice of these materials and the quantity added affect the mechanical and chemical properties of the adhesive. Their choice depends on compatibility with the polymer and cost. Plasticizers are lowmolecular-weight organic liquids or solids with high boiling points. They increase the flexibility 6 of the cellulose nitrate by separating the chains CH2ONO2 CH2ONO2 and allowing them to slide over one another. A solvent is added to dilute the cellulose nitrate to a viscosity suitable for use as an adhesive. ON0 ON02 The earliest commercially available formuO2 lation of cellulose nitrate adhesive consisted of 0? +NO2 ONO0 two parts cellulose nitrate to one part camphor [6]. Shortly before the First World War, cam- Figure 2 Mechanism of thermal breakdown of phor was replaced by triphenyl and tricresyl cellulose nitrate. phosphates. The use of phthalates, particularly dibutyl phthalate, began in the early 1920s and Cellulose nitrate is particularly susceptible to these are now the principal choice, mainly due to light of wavelengths between 360 and 400nm [8]. their good colour stability and physical retention Degradation is due to a nitrate ester cleavage by the polymer. In the United Kingdom, the similar to thermal decomposition and is likely to most popular cellulose nitrate adhesive used in result in the formation of a carbonyl group [9]: conservation is 'HMG Heat and Waterproof + RCHORCHONO2 --NO2 Adhesive'. Approximately 30% (by weight) of RCHO- + RCHONO2 RCHOH + HMG Heat and Waterproof Adhesive is diRCONO2. butyl phthalate, and the solvent is a blend of > decomposition NO2 + RCHONO2 amyl acetate and acetone [7]. According to the RC=O + -NO2 RCONO2manufacturer, the HMG Heat and Waterproof Adhesive formulation contains neither UV At shorter wavelengths, i.e. high energy waveinhibitors nor stabilizers. lengths, disintegration of the cellulose ring 114
Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119

1.4 Mechanism of decay The major causes of instability of cellulose nitrate are the products of hydrolytic, thermal and photochemical reactions. Since the residues of sulphuric and nitric acid used in manufacture contribute to the instability of cellulose nitrate, modern cellulose nitrate which is washed efficientlyis likely to exhibit fewer problems than early batches of the polymer. Few studies have been conducted at ambient temperature and knowledge of the mechanisms of decay is based on the behaviour of cellulose nitrate above 120?C. Degradation of the polymer is autocatalytic, that is, the products of breakdown tend to catalyze a faster and more extensive degradation than the primary processes. One of the first products of thermal deterioration, even under mild conditions, is the very reactive, highly toxic oxidizing agent nitrous oxide (NO2), identified by its yellow vapour and distinctive odour. This is formed by cleavage of the N-O bonds joining the ring which are the weakest bonds in the molecule. Cleavage is more likely to occur at the secondary nitrate groups, at positions 2 and 3, than at the primary position 6. Chain scission along the backbone follows (Figure 2).

nitrateadhesive Degradation cellulose of occurs, causing a rapid decrease in molecular weight. After the light source is extinguished, degradation reactions continue, usually at a slower rate than before [10]. 2 Investigation into the stability of cellulose nitrate adhesive 2.1 Preparation and artificial aging of samples In order to investigate the reactions involved in the degradation of HMG Heat and Waterproof Adhesive, each component of the formulation was studied independently. The behaviour of the commercial adhesive was compared with that of the adhesive-grade cellulose nitrate from which it is made, namely DHL 25-45. Stability of the plasticizer in HMG, dibutyl phthalate, was also studied in order to predict its tendency to evaporate or form volatile degradation products. The project had two aims: to evaluate the rate of degradation of HMG adhesive, and to see if natural and accelerated aging of cellulose nitrate could be related, so that the useful lifetime of the adhesive could be predicted. Accelerated aging is a procedure in which materials are subjected to more extreme conditions than usually exper; enced in the museum environment in order to raise the energy of the system and accelerate degradation reactions. HMG and DHL 25-45 were evaluated as thin films (20-30 microns) since this is the form they take when applied to objects. Films were aged under 'open' (on watchglasses) and in 'closed' (stoppered test-tubes) conditions. Open conditions simulated storage in a large, unconfined space, e.g. a large, vented showcase, while closed conditions represented storage in a sealed box. All films were aged at 60, 70 and 100?C. In addition, films were light-aged in a temperature-controlled Microscal light-fastness tester fitted with a bulb which exposed the films to an emission spectrum similar to that of daylight but approximately 100 times more intense. 2.2 Evaluation of the effects of aging Change in colour and appearance of the films was examined by eye and by UV-reflectance spectroscopy. Change in molecular weight was monitored using relative viscosity and chemical change was monitored using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). 37 Studiesin Conservation (1992) 113-119 2.2.1 UV/visible spectroscopy and visual examination UV/visible reflectance spectroscopy is a technique whereby the percentage of light reflected by the sample at each wavelength in the UV and visible spectrum may be monitored. A change in the shape of the spectral trace produced indicates a change in hue and lightness of the material, the technique being sensitive to small changes. Reflectance spectra data may be converted into CIE L*a*b* colour coordinates using a computer program, where L* is a measure of the lightness of the sample, a* relates to redness when positive or greenness when negative, and b* determines the yellowness when positive or blueness when negative [11]. In the aging regimens used, heat-aging caused more yellowing of the films than light-aging, the intensity of colour increasing with temperature and time of aging. The HMG films yellowed more slowly than the DHL 25-45 cellulose nitrate films and to a lesser extent. DHL 25-45 cellulose nitrate films began to evolve nitrogen oxides after an apparent induction period of 14 days at 60?C and seven days at 70?C and 100?C. This reaction was retarded by 14 days in the case of HMG. 2.2.2 Viscosity In common with all polymers the strength and durability of cellulose nitrate is related to its molecular weight which, in turn, varies with its viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid is defined as its resistance to flow or deformation. A decrease in viscosity suggests that bond breakage has occurred which leads to a decrease in molecular weight and weakening of the film. A simple method of determining viscosity is to measure the time required for a known volume of a solution at a specified concentration and temperatureto flow through a U-shape capillary tube. For these measurements, a thermostatted bath was used to maintain the viscometer and 2% w/v solutions prepared in a blend of acetone/distilled water (90:10 by volume) at 20?C. Results were expressed in terms of specific viscosity, defined as:
flsp = lr 1

where relative viscosity, hr viscometer timeforsolutionof sampleto flowthrough timetakenby solventblend 115

Y. Shashoua, S. M. Bradley and V. D. Daniels


06 05 0-4 03 0-2 0.1 0

>1 0 0

0 c,

-0-2 -0-3 0. -0-4 -0-5 o -06 -0-7 -0-8 -0.9 - I

0. 0
0

M2 rA
to cl

80
Duration of aging (days)

20 60 40 Duration of aging (days)

Figure3

and DHL 25-45 (right).

for Changein specific viscosity with time of artificialaging underclosed conditions HMG adhesive (left) x = 60?C, + = 70?C, E = 100?C, I = insoluble in acetone.

Throughout the aging regimen, degradation of all samples under open conditions took place at a steady rate. Degradation produces a decrease in viscosity because of the chain scission mechanism described earlier. All films aged at 60?C degraded at a steady rate while those aged under closed conditions at 70?C and 100?C began to level off after approximately 20 days of aging (Figure 3). Since no insoluble material was apparent, it is possible that cellulose formed by denitration of cellulose nitrate (insoluble in acetone and water) may have impeded the flow of solution through the viscometer. Under the most severe conditions (aging in closed conditions at 100?C) the relative viscosity of a film of HMG adhesive decreased from 5-00 when unaged to 0-8 after 60 days, suggesting that considerable
Table 1 Rates of degradationof cellulose nitratejllm Aging
temperature

Principal rate of degradation (days- 1 x 10 3) HMG adhesive DHL 25-45

(?C) Open conditions 60 70 100

2 10 19

7 13 55

degradation had occurred. Rates of degradation were calculated from the initial slopes of the curves obtained by plotting specific viscosity against aging time, and were found to increase with temperature (Table 1). Both materials degraded more quickly under closed conditions and this may be attributed to the accumulation of nitrogen oxides which initiated autocatalytic breakdown. The extent of degradation observed for light-aged films was similar to that observed for samples aged at 70?C and 100?C under open conditions. Rates of degradation were similar for both materials at 60?C. DHL 25-45 film degraded at a noticeably higher rate than HMG at higher temperatures, suggesting that the pure chemical is less durable than the plasticized adhesive. However, its eventual insolubility after aging at 70?C and 100?C restricted the number of viscosity measurements made. It is possible to calculate the activation energy required for the degradation of cellulose nitrate to proceed, using the Arrhenius equation. However, since films were only aged at three temperatures, such calculations would not be meaningful. 2.2.3 Stability of dibutylphthalate plasticizer In order to evaluate the stability of dibutyl phthalate, the plasticizer in HMG adhesive, 20g, weighed accurately, of the oily liquid was heataged at 70?C in an open watchglass and in a dry atmosphere for 50 days. It was re-weighed weekly and the percentage loss in weight was
Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119

Light-aged
Closed conditions 60 70 100

14
12 26 70

28
10 63 90

116

Degradation of cellulose nitrate adhesive

calculated at the end of this period. After 21 days, the weight became constant within experimental error, the total percentage lost being 1 02. This was attributed to residual water in the plasticizer. 3 Comparisonof artificially and naturally aged cellulose nitrate adhesive One of the major documented uses of cellulose nitrate in the British Museum has been the repair of cuneiform tablets. These are sun-dried clay writing tablets bearing a wide range of texts and dating from about 3000 B.C. onwards. The tablets range in size from 30cm to approximately half a metre square. When a new method of conserving these tablets was introduced into the Museum in the 1950s, new documentation procedures were also adopted. Cellulose nitrate adhesive was used to repair the tablets and the date when the treatment was carried out was recorded. The tablets have been handled frequently by students and curators and are stored in cardboard boxes in ambient museum conditions of relative humidity and temperature.
3.1 Analysis of samples using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Samples of cellulose nitrate adhesive were taken from 40 cuneiform tablets which had been conserved between 1957 and 1980. Several applications of acetone along the join were required to soften and expose a thin layer of adhesive. All the repairs were in good condition and the adhesive films were colourless. The samples of adhe-

0-241 0-2170-194? 0-170, 0 1460-1220-098 0-074 -

Figure 4 FTIR spectra of unaged ( ) and heatHMG cellulose nitrate adhesive. aged (----) Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119

sive from the tablets and samples from the artificially aged HMG adhesive films were prepared as potassium bromide discs and the FTIR spectra were obtained. The technique required approximately 3mg of sample (Figure 4). A method of calculating the ratio of heights of peaks which appear in all the spectra was adopted to follow degradation on aging. This is a common technique used by spectroscopists. Cellulose nitrate exhibits distinct absorption bands around 1720 and 1650cm-1 which may be attributed to the carbonyl group and asymmetrical stretching of the NO2 groups, respectively. The heights of these two peaks were measured on the raw, uncorrected FTIR spectra from artificially aged cellulose nitrate and that taken from the cuneiform tablets. The ratios between the carbonyl group bands and NO2 group bands were calculated. The ratio between the heights of these peaks corresponds to the formation of nitrogen oxides, and was found to increase with time of aging, both for artificially aged HMG adhesive films and for the adhesive removed from cuneiform tablets. Other authors [12, 13] have used ratios of peaks at 1294 and 875cm- 1 which correspond to NO2 and the beta-anomeric linkage in cellulose, respectively. Thus the height of a peak which is changing with concentration is ratioed against a peak which remains constant. However, spectra obtained on two independent FTIR spectrometers (at the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum) do not show peaks at these positions but at approximately 1280 and 840cm- . Of particular concern is the peak documented at 875cm- . Since the band assigned to N-O stretching may be found between 870 and 833cm- 1, the use of peaks at 1280 and 840cm- 1 would result in a ratio between N-O and NO2 bands. Many other potentially stable peaks in the spectrum cannot be used because they are overlapped by peaks in the dibutyl phthalate (plasticizer) spectrum. The rate of formation of nitrogen oxides by cellulose nitrate aged at 60?C under open conditions, the mildest conditions evaluated, was 50 times that of naturally aged adhesive while the rate of formation at 100?C and under closed conditions was more than 200 times the natural rate (Figure 5). Working from the 'rule of thumb' that the rate of reaction doubles for every 10?Cincrease in temperature, it seems that 117

Y. Shashoua, S. M. Bradley and V. D. Daniels


2
60?Copen .p 1-8-

. 1-6
142

1-4-

70?C open 100?Copen (3~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~( 60?Cclosed 0-_ 70?Cclosed 100?Cclosed

O 1-2-

u: 1-4q 1'2,cA 11

. 0-1 0.8 .2 0-4 I. 0-2 C 042

08-

xr

0.6. 0-4: 0-2 3

xr

l10

50 70 30 Durationof accelerated aging(days)

MI

I0-

11

Age of adhesive (days) thousands

Figure 5 Rate of change in FTIR peak ratios (1720: 1650cm- ) with timefor artificially aged HMG adhesive (left) and adhesivefrom cuneiform tablets (right).

accelerated aging under open conditions correlates well with natural aging of HMG adhesive. Since the film appeared to be in an acceptable condition after 100 days aging at 100?C under closed conditions, and assuming that the mechanism of degradation at 100?C is similar to that followed at room temperature, then, following the 'rule of thumb', it may be deduced that HMG has a useful life of at least 100 years. 4 Conclusion

at temperatures above 100?C and under closed conditions was many times more severe than aging under natural conditions. Artificially aged adhesive degraded to insoluble cellulose under the most severe regimens, a situation which has not been observed in the Museum. In fact, the experience of almost 40 years of using cellulose nitrate adhesive has shown it to be a useful and relatively stable material when employed as an adhesive inside the Museum building, where it is protected from extremes of temperature and relative humidity. Suppliers of materials DHL 25-45 (ICI cellulosenitrate):ICI Chemical& PolymersLtd, HexagonHouse, Blackley,ManchesterM9 3DA, UK. HMG Heat and WaterproofAdhesive:H. Marcel Guest Ltd, RiversideWorks, CollyhurstRoad, M10 7RU, UK. Manchester Dibutyl phthalate:Merck Ltd, FreshwaterRoad, DagenhamRM8 1RZ, UK. NicoletInstruments NicoletSPCFTIRSpectrometer: Ltd, BudbrookeRoad, WarwickCV34 5XH, UK. Microscal Ltd, LightFastnessTesterMk 1:Microscal 79 SouthernRow, LondonW10 5AL, UK. References
1 RATHGEN,F., The Preservation of Antiquities, A Handbookfor Curators,Cambridge University adhesives', The Conservator6 (1982) 31-34.

This study has shown some interesting results and trends but has been limited to the work required to establish the suitability or otherwise of cellulose nitrate as an adhesive for use in the British Museum. Throughout the project, HMG adhesive displayed greater resistance than pure cellulose nitrate to thermal and photochemical degradation. It retained its flexibility and discoloured only slightly under the most unfavourable conditions-high temperatures in a restricted storage area. Since both materials contained similar grades of cellulose nitrate and both were evaluated under similar conditions, this may be attributed to the plasticizer, dibutyl phthalate, which was present in the HMG adhesive. Since this is an oily liquid with a boiling point of 340?C [14], it is readily retained by the cellulose nitrate. It may protect the film by absorbing UV light, thus buffering its effect on the material, but this is speculation. Studies on the adhesive taken from dated repairs to cuneiform tablets indicated that aging 118

Press(1905)95. 2 KooB, S. P., 'The instabilityof cellulosenitrate S. 3 KOOB, P., 'The use of ParaloidB-72 as an adhesive: its application for archaeological
Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119

Degradation of cellulose nitrate adhesive ceramics and other materials', Studies in Conservation 31 (1986) 7-14. JOHNSON, 'Nitrocellulose as a conservation M., hazard' in American Institutefor Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, Preprints, 4th Annual Meeting, Dearborn, Michigan (1976) 66-75. Industrial Nitrocellulose, technical information, ICI Organics Division. C., SELWITZ, Cellulose Nitrate in Conservation, The Getty Conservation Institute (1988). Material Safety Data Sheet, Ref. No. 8602, H. Marcel Guest Ltd. J. PARKINS, A., 'Behaviour of cellulose nitrate and finishes in light', Paint and VarnishProduction (1957) 42-44.
PHILLIPS, 'Thermal decomposition L., of organic

obtained a BSc and PhD at UniverDANIELS VINCENT sity College, Cardiff, where he studied the kinetics of polymer degradation. He joined The British Museum in 1974 since when he has worked in many areas of conservation research. His specialisms are paper, pigments and other organic materials. Author's address: as for Shashoua. Resume-Depuis que le plastique a base de nitrate de cellulose a ete commercialis6, on s'est servi au British Museum de cette colle pour la restauration des antiquit6s. L'emploi en conservation de ces colles a base de nitrate de cellulose a ete critique, et c'est pour cette raison qu'on a recherch6 leur degre de stabilite. Les propriet6s d'echantillons de cette colle vieillis artificiellement ont 6te comparees a celles d'6chantillons de nitrate de cellulose, eux aussi vieillis artificiellement, destines precis6ment a fabriquer cette colle. Les r6sultats montrent que la degradation du nitrate de cellulose est sensiblement retardee par le plastifiant de la colle. On a analyse des 6chantillons de colles au nitrate de cellulose prises aux assemblages d'objets dont la date de restauration est connue. Les r6sultats ont ete compares avec les analyses des 6chantillons artificiellement vieillis et on a pu etablir un rapport entre les vieillissements naturel et artificiel du nitrate de cellulose. Les r6sultats de cette recherche montrent que les colles au nitrate de cellulose sont stables pendant 30 ans au moins, qui peuvent etre extrapoles jusqu'a 50 i 100 ans, tant qu'il s'agit de conditions mus6ales et dans un climat tempere. Zusammenfassung-Im Britischen Museum wird seit langer Zeit ein weichmacherhaltiger Klebstoff auf Cellulosenitratbasis fur die Restaurierung von Altertiumern verwendet. Dieser Klebstoff wird praktisch seitdem er auf dem Markt ist eingesetzt, jedoch in jungerer Zeit in seiner Brauchbarkeit fur Konservierungszwecke angezweifelt. Der Beitrag befaBt sich deshalb mit der Langzeitstabilitat dieses Klebers. Hierzu wurden kiinstlich gealterte Proben des Klebstoffes mit kiinstlich gealterten Proben eines Cellulosenitratklebers ohne Weichmacher verglichen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, daB der Abbau von Cellulosenitrat wesentlich durch die Weichmacher in dem Klebstoff verzogert wird. Von mit Celluslosenitratklebern behandelten Objekten, wo der Zeitpunkt der Anwendung bekannt war, wurden ebenfalls Proben genommen und untersucht. Die Ergebnisse wurden mit denen der ktinstlich gealterten Proben verglichen und bewertet. Zusammenfassend sieht es so aus, daB Cellulosenitratklebermindestens 30 Jahre stabil sind. In Breitengraden mit gemaBigtem Klima und unter kontrollierten musealen Klimabedingungen kann wohl von eine Lebenszeit von 50 bis 100 Jahren ausgegangen werden. 119

5 6 7 8
9

10 11 12

13 14

nitrates', Nature 165 (1950) 561-564. Display and Storage of Museum Objects containing Cellulose Nitrate, Canadian Conservation Institute Notes, No. 15/3. BILLMEYER, and SALTZMAN, Principles of F., M., Colour Technology, Interscience Publishers (1967). EDGE, et al., 'Mechanisms of deterioration in M., cellulose nitrate base archival cinematograph film', European Polymer Journal 26 (1990) 623-630. HON, D. N.-S., and GUI, T. L., 'Photodegradation of cellulose nitrate', Polymer Photochemistry 7 (1986) 299-310. MELLAN,I., Industrial Plasticisers, Pergamon Press (1963) 157.

YVONNE SHASHOUA obtained a BSc (Hons) degree in Industrial Chemistry from the City University, London, in 1984. She researched the formulation and properties of industrial coatings in the paint industry before joining the Conservation Research Section of the British Museum in 1988. Current interests include developing protocols for mechanical testing and polymers for use in conservation, consolidants for degraded leather, removal of soluble nylon from ceramics and the effects of cleaning on textiles. Author's address: Department of Conservation, The British Museum, London WCIB 3DG, UK.
SUSAN BRADLEY joined the British Museum in 1972.

Since then she has conducted research into the deterioration and conservation of a wide range of materials including metals, ceramics, stone and waterlogged materials. Her current research interests are the manipulation of environments for passive conservation and aspects of the conservation of stone. She is now Head of Conservation Research in the British Museum's Department of Conservation. Author's address: as for Shashoua. Studies in Conservation37 (1992) 113-119

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