Fluid Motion

Complimentary course notes for
Fluid Mechanics III, MFM31

Central University of Technology, Free State,
South Africa
Dr. Eng. Karanja Kibicho (PhD., R.Eng.,MIEK)
Senior Lecturer
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology.
CUT: MFM31 FLUID MECHANICS III NOTES BY DR. KARANJA KIBICHO
JAN-MAY 2010
Contents
1 GENERAL INFORMATION 4
2 Fluid Motion 6
2.1 Types of Fluid Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Steady and unsteady ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2 Uniform and non-uniform ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Types of Flows 7
3.1 Reynolds Demonstration of Dierent Kind of Flows . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Viscous Flows 10
4.1 Laminar Flow in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Laminar Flow Between Parallel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 The Simple Cylindrical Dashpot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes 21
5.1 DarcyS Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3 Minor Losses in Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 Loss due to Sudden Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.5 Loss due to Sudden Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.6 Power Transmission through Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.7 Pipe in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.8 Pipes in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.9 Pipe Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.10 Branching-Pipe System of 3 Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6 Momentum Equation 44
6.1 Linear Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2 Angular Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 52
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.2 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.3 Geometric Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.4 Kinematic Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.5 Dynamic Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.6 Buckingham Pi Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.7 Determination of Pi Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.8 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . 57
7.8.1 Reynolds Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.8.2 Froude Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.8.3 Mach Number & Cauchy Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.8.4 Weber Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.8.5 Pressure, stress and force coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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7.8.6 Power coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.8.7 Strouhal number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.9 Modeling and Similitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.9.1 Theory of models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3
1 GENERAL INFORMATION
Course Title: Fluid Mechanics III
Course Code: MFM31BI
Lecturer: Dr. Karanja Kibicho
Oce: BHP 152
Email: kkibicho@eng.jkuat.ac.ke
Lectures: Tuesdays: 13:30-14:55pm and Wednesdays: 9:25-11:00am
Practicals: Thursdays: 13:30-15:40pm
Learning Units:
(i) Viscous ow
(ii) Turbulent ow in pipelines
(iii) Flow under variable head
(iv) Hydrodynamic Force of a Jet
(v) Free and Forced Vortexes
(vi) Dimensional analysis
(vii) Reciprocating pumps
Examination
Test 1 date to be announced cover unit 1 and 2
Test 2 Main Scheduled) cover unit3, 4 and 5
Test 3 date to be announced cover unit 6 and 7
Marks Distribution:
40% CA (Semester mark)
60% Main exam
Prescribed Text Books:
(i) Douglas J F & Matthews R D, 1996, Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics
(Volume 1), 3rd Ed., Longman Group Limited,
(ii) Douglas J F & Matthews R D, 1996, Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics
(Volume 2), 3rd Ed., Longman Group Limited,
JAN-MAY 2010
Reference Book
Douglas J F, Gasiorek JM, & Swaeld JA, 2001, Fluid Mechanics, 4th Ed., Pren-
tice Hall
Course Aims
(i) solve any problem related to ow under varying head,
(ii) determine which type of ow occurs in a pipeline. The student must also
be able to use all the losses in a pipeline to determine the discharge or the
required pipe diameters,
(iii) solve any problem relating to positive displacement pumps,
(iv) solve any problem relating to free and forced vortexes. The students must
also know the application of vortexes,
(v) know the dierence between laminar and turbulent ow to solve practical
directed problems,
(vi) consider and compare the relation between certain equations and units by
means of the basic dimensions (M,L,T).
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2 Fluid Motion
A uid is made up of millions of particles. In general, when a uid ows, there is net
motion of molecules from one point in space to another point as a function of time.
To be able to describe the motion, then it is apparent that we have to account for
the motion of individual molecules. Considering the number of particles involved,
then this approach is totally unrealistic.
Rather, we employ the continuum hypothesis and consider uids to be made up
of uid particles that interact with each other and the surroundings only.
The uid particles contain numerous molecules. The motion can thus be described
in terms of the velocity and acceleration of these uid particles.
With continuum hypothesis, a description of any uid ow property eg. pressure,
temperature, velocity and density, can be given as a function of the uids location.
2.1 Types of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Steady and unsteady ows
The ow parameters that describe a uid ow are generally velocity, pressure,
temperature and density (known as the dependent variables). Experience shows
that these parameters are not constant based on both time and space variations.
A ow is considered to be steady if the dependent uid variables at any point in
the ow do not change with time, i.e. the rate of change of the dependent variables
at a position is zero.
t
(dependent variables) = 0 (1)
A ow is said to be unsteady if the dependent uid variables alter with passage of
time at a position in the ow, thus,
t
(dependent variables) ,= 0 (2)
2.1.2 Uniform and non-uniform ows
A ow is said to be uniform at an instant of time if the dependent variable (in
magnitude and direction sense) is identical throughout the ow-eld. Thus the
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JAN-MAY 2010
dependent variable components at dierent positions of the ow are the same.
Thus, the space rate of change of the dependent variable components is zero. i.e.
s
(dependent variables) = 0 (3)
If the velocity components at dierent locations are dierent, the ow is said to
be non-uniform.i.e
s
(dependent variables) ,= 0 (4)
Steadiness therefore refers to no change with time while uniformity refers
to no change in space. Therefore a ow can be steady or unsteady quite
independent of its being uniform or non-uniform. Thus we have four possibilities;
(i) Steady-uniform ow - e.g. in a long straight pipe
(ii) Steady-non-uniform - e.g. in a tapering pipe
(iii) Uniform-non-steady - e.g. Accelerating a uid in a long straight pipe (think
of ow during start up of a pump)
(iv) Non-uniform-non-steady - e.g. Accelerating a uid in a tapered pipe (think
of ow during start up of a pump)
3 Types of Flows
3.1 Reynolds Demonstration of Dierent Kind of Flows
Sketch on Douglas text page 100
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Reynolds set up an experiment to investigate the types of ow that exist. The
apparatus was as shown above. The velocity of the water inside the glass tube
could be controlled by a valve. A ne nozzle connected to a small reservoir of a
liquid dye discharged a coloured lament into the inlet of the glass tube. At low
velocities, Reynolds observed that the lament of dye would pass down the tube
without mixing with the water and often so steadily as almost to seem stationary.
As he opened the valve further, therefore increasing the velocity of the water, this
type of ow persisted until a velocity was reached at which the stream of the dye
began to waver. Further increase in the velocity of water made the uctuations
in the stream of dye more intense, particulary towards the outlet end of the tube
until a state was reached in which the dye no longer travelled the whole of the tube
as a distinct unbroken thread but quite suddenly mixed more or less completely
with the water in the tube.
In the rst kind of ow, the particles of the uid are evidently moving entirely in
straight lines. This kind of ow is called laminar ow.
The second type of ow is known as turbulent ow. Turbulent motion is essentially
irregular motion with the movements of individual particles having no denite fre-
quency.
Consider a uid particle in motion. Assume that the uid is disturbed. The iner-
tial forces possessed by the moving uid particle will tend to carry it in the new
direction while the viscous forces due to the surrounding uid will tend to make
it conform to the motion of the rest of the stream.
In laminar ow, these viscous forces due to the viscous shear stresses are sucient
to eliminate the eects of any deviation, but in turbulent ow, they are not.
Consequently, the criterion which determines whether ow will be laminar or tur-
bulent is the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces acting on the particle.
By use of dimensional analysis, this ratio may be shown to be:
Inertial forces
Viscous forces
= constant
v
(5)
The quantity
v
is known as the Reynolds number. It is denoted by either R or

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JAN-MAY 2010
Re. It is the one that determines whether the ow will be laminar or turbulent.
Hence
Re =
v
(6)
and since it is a ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless.
Introducing the kinematic viscosity
=

Then
Re =
v
(7)
It is clear that Re is dependent on v. From the Reynolds experiment, we saw
that as the valve was opened further and further, a certain velocity was reached
when the ow transited from laminar to turbulent.That velocity is known as the
critical velocity and the Reynolds number associated with it is known as the crit-
ical Reynolds number. The critical Reynolds number is largely dependent on the
shape of the surfaces on which the uid ows.
For a circular pipe Re
critical
= 2000
For a at plate Re
critical
= 3.2 10
5
It is important to also note the Re
critical
is dependent on surface roughness, stabil-
ity of the ow, the ow surface, etc.
Example 1
If the critical velocity of water in a 50mm diameter pipe is 0.049m/s, nd the
critical velocity of air in m/s in a pipe of 150mm diameter given that the density
of water is 1000kg/m
3
and of air is 1.2kg/m
3
. The coecient of viscosity of water
is 1.2 10
3
kg/ms and of air is 1.8 10
5
kg/ms.
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4 Viscous Flows
4.1 Laminar Flow in Pipes
Although not all conduits used to transport uid from one location to another are
round in cross-section, most of the common ones are. Consider a general case of a
pipe inclined to the horizontal plane so that the eects of gravity are not ignored
Douglas book page 342
Let us consider equilibrium of a small cylindrical laminar layer of thickness r at
a radius r.
If the ow is assumed steady, then,
F
s
= 0
Assume also that the uid is incompressible.
The element is acted upon by the following forces;
(i) pressure forces
(ii) viscous forces
(iii) gravitational forces
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JAN-MAY 2010
in the direction of motion, the forces can be summed up as follows;
P2rr
_
P +
P
x
_
2rr+2rx
_
2rx +

r
(2rx)
_
r+W sin = 0
Note that = (r) by denition
Where P = ow static pressure, W = mg = Weight of element, and = shear
stress at radius r
But sin =
z
x
, and W = 2rrxg
The above equation simplies to:-
x
(P + gz) +
1
r
r
(r) = 0 (8)
The term (P + gz) in equation 8 is called the piezometric pressure usually de-
noted as P
. For a fully developed steady laminar ow P
is constant at a given
cross-section and is therefore independent of r.
Consequently, the piezometric pressure gradient is also independent of r.
P
x
,= f(r)
Equation 8 may be written as;
P
x
+
1
r
r
(r) = 0 (9)
We can now integrate equation 9 wrt r to get;
r
2
2
P
x
+ r + C
1
= 0 (10)
Recall the denition of the viscous shear stress
=
u
r
The ()ve implies that r is measured from the center of the pipe and
not from the pipe wall as the denition of shear stress would require!
Equation 10 can be written as
r
2
2
P
x
r
u
r
+ C
1
= 0 (11)
But we know that at r = 0, u = u
max
(a boundary condition, what is the value
of u when r = R?)
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Mathematically, points at a maximum, a minimum or a point of inexion are
known as turning points where the gradients must be zero. Consequently;
u
r
= 0 at r = 0
Applying the above boundary condition to equation 11, it is easy to see that the
constant of integration C
1
= 0, hence equation 11 becomes;
r
2
2
P
x
r
u
r
= 0
which can be rearranged as;
r
2
P
x

u
r
= 0 (12)
Further integration of equation 12 wrt r gives;
r
2
4
P
x
u + C
2
= 0 (13)
You must now know the no slip on the wall boundary condition. This requires
that at r = R, u = 0.
Applying this boundary condition to equation 13, we get
R
2
4
P
x
+ C
2
= 0
C
2
=
R
2
4
P
x
and therefore equation 13 can now be written as;
r
2
4
P
x
u
R
2
4
P
x
= 0
From which the velocity distribution can be worked out as;
u =
(R
2
r
2
)
4
P
x
(14)
At a given cross-section, equation 14 denes a parabolic velocity distribution pro-
le.
In the direction of ow (when u is (+)ve), since the term (R
2
r
2
) is always (+)ve,
the ()ve in equation 14 can only mean that the pressure gradient is ()ve in the
direction of ow.
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The maximum velocity occurs when r = 0 i.e. at the center of the pipe and
therefore;
u
max
=
R
2
4
P
x
(15)
For a small annular element, the discharge is;
Q = u2rr
Q =
_
R
0
u2rr
Writing the expression for u from equation 14 and simplifying
Q =
_
R
0

2
P
x
_
R
2
r r
3
_
dr
=

2
P
x
_
R
2
r
2
2

r
4
4
_
R
0
And hence;
Q =

8
P
x
R
4
(16)
Now, for a pipe ow with a pressure drop of P over a pipe length L, if we assume
a constant pressure drop gradient in the direction of ow, then
x
=
P
L
Application of this assumption to equation 16 gives,
Q =
P
R
4
8L
=
P
d
4
128L
(17)
Equation 17 is known as the Hagen-Poisseiule equation and can be used to
evaluate a ow rate by simply measuring a pressure drop in a pipe ow.
The mean velocity is given by
u =
Q
A
=
P
d
4
128L

d
2
4
=
P
R
2
8L
(18)
From equation 15 we can now write for the maximum velocity
u
max
=
P
R
2
4L
= 2
_
P
R
2
8L
_
(19)
Thus, by comparing equations 18 and 19, we can deduce that;
u =
1
2
u
max
(20)
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Example 1
An oil having a viscosity of 0.0098kgs/m
2
and specic gravity of 1.59 ows through
a horizontal pipe of 5cm diameter with a pressure drop of 0.06kg/cm
2
per metre
length of pipe. Determine;
(i) the rate of ow in kilogram per minute
(ii) the shear stress at the pipe wall
(iii) the total drag for 100m length of pipe
(iv) power required for 100m length of pipe to maintain the ow.
4.2 Laminar Flow Between Parallel Plates
We wish to establish the velocity prole between two innitely long plate. To make
the analysis simple, we assume that:-
(i) the uid incompressible
(ii) the ow is uniform and laminar
(iii) the plates are parallel and innitely long so that end eects may be ignored
Consider the ow shown below:-
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JAN-MAY 2010
A small element at a distance y from the lower plate is of length x and breadth
y and unit width. It is acted upon by static pressure forces and shearing forces.
Since the ow is steady, we expect that in the axial direction,
F
s
= 0
and hence we can sum the forces in the gure above as;
Py
_
P +
P
x
x
_
y + W sin x +
_
x +

y
(x)y
_
= 0 (21)
But
W = xy 1 g and sin =
z
x
Knowing that
lim
x0
z
x
=
dz
dx
and applying it to equation 21 and simplifying we get;
P
x
xy gxy
dz
dx
+

y
(x)y = 0
Since x ,= x(y), the above equation simplies to
d
dx
(P + gz) +
d
dy
= 0
dP
dx
+
d
dy
= 0
Recall that dP
/dx ,= f(y), hence the above equation may be integrated wrt y as;
_
d =
_
dP
dx
dy
=
dP
dx
y + C
1
(22)
and since
=
du
dy
then
du
dy
=
dP
dx
y + C
1
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Which may be re-arranged as;
du =
1
dP
dx
ydy +
C
1
dy
Integration of this equation wrt y gives;
u =
1
dP
dx
y
2
2
+
C
1
y + C
2
(23)
The boundary conditions are such that at;
y = 0, u = 0
y = c, u = V
Applying these boundary conditions to equation 23 we get;
C
2
= 0
C
1
=
V
2

C
2
dP
dx
Which when substituted to equation 23 gives;
u =
1
2
dP
dx
_
y
2
yc
_
+
yV
c
(24)
Equation 24 represents the velocity prole across the gap between the two plates,
and is a general equation from which a number of restricted cases may be consid-
ered.
(i) Horizontal plate with no movement of the upper plate
dz
dx
= 0, V = 0 and P
= P
Thus equation 24 becomes
u =
1
2
dP
dx
_
y
2
yc
_
(25)
(ii) Horizontal plates with upper plate in motion
dz
dx
= 0, V = V and P
= P
which makes equation 24 to become
u =
1
2
dP
dx
_
y
2
yc
_
+
yV
c
(26)
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(iii) Horizontal plates with upper plate in motion and no pressure gradient
dz
dx
= 0, V = V and
dP
dx
= 0
and hence from equation 24 we get;
u =
yV
c
(27)
Equation 27 tells us that there will be a uid ow even if there is no pressure
gradient. This is called coutte ow.
Let us now use the general equation 24 to obtain the ow rate between the two
plates.
For the element under analysis,
Q = uy per unit width.
Q =
_
dQ =
_
y=c
y=0
udy
Q =
_
c
0
_
1
2
dP
dx
(y
2
yc) +
yV
c
_
dy
=
_
1
2
dP
dx
_
y
3
3

cy
2
2
_
+
y
2
V
2c
_
c
0
Q =
cV
2

1
12
c
3
dP
dx
(28)
Example 2
Fluid of density 1260kg/m
3
and viscosity 0.9Ns/m
2
passes between two innitely
long parallel plates 2cm separation. If the ow rate is 0.5litres/sec per unit width,
calculate the pressure drop per unit length if;
(i) both plates are stationary
(ii) plates are inclined at an angle 25
to the horizontal
(iii) the upper plate in case (ii) moves at a velocity o.75m/s relative to the lower
plate in the direction of ow.
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4.3 The Simple Cylindrical Dashpot
A dashpot is a device for damping vibrations of machines or rapidly reciprocating
motion.
It uses a cylinder and a uid of relatively high viscosity.
If a force is applied on the piston downwards, oil is displaced from underneath it
and passes through the clearance.
For high viscosity, the ow in the clearance may be considered as laminar and
occurs simply as a result of the pressure developed underneath the piston.
This action may be considered as laminar ow between parallel plates with relative
velocity with the piston as the moving plate.
Recall equation 28;
Q =
cV
2

1
12
c
3
dP
dx
per unit width of the plates
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The plate may be considered to be bent around the circle of width D
Q =
_
cV
2

1
12
c
3
dP
dx
_
D
The uid velocity is in opposite direction to that of the plate (piston). If u
p
is the
velocity of the piston, then u
p
= V
Q =
_
c(u
p
)
2

1
12
c
3
dP
dx
_
D
=
_
cu
p
2

1
12
c
3
dP
dx
_
D
Recall;
x
=
P
L
Q =
_
1
12
c
3
P
L

cu
p
2
_
D
The term cu
p
/2 is usually small and may be neglected.
Considering the displacement of uid caused by motion of the piston;
Q =
D
2
4
u
p
D
2
4
u
p
= Q =
_
1
12
c
3
P
L

cu
p
2
_
D
Therefore;
u
p
_
D
2
+ c
_
=
1
6
c
3
L
(29)
Example 3
The radial clearance between an hydraulic plunger and the cylinder wall is 0.1mm,
the length of the plunger is 0.3m and the diameter 100mm. Find the velocity and
the rate of leakage past the plunger at an instant when the dierence of the pressure
between the two ends of the plunger is 9m of water. Take = 1.31 10
3
kg/ms.
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TUTORIAL SHEET 3 - VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN SOLID
BOUNDARIES
(i) A hydraulic system operates at a gauge pressure of 20MPa and 55
C. The hy-
draulic uid is SAE10W oil of specic gravity 0.92 and viscosity 0.018kg/ms.
A control valve consists of a piston 25mm in diameter tted to a cylinder
with a mean radial clearance of 0.005mm. Determine the leakage ow rate
if the gauge pressure on the low pressure side of the piston is 1Mpa and the
length of the piston is 15mm.
(ii) A viscous oil ows steadily between parallel plates. The ow is laminar and
fully developed. The velocity prole is given by;
u =
h
2
8
P
x
_
1
_
2y
h
_
2
_
where the total gap width between the plates, h=3mm, and y is measured
from the centerline of the gap. The oil viscosity is 0.5Ns/m
2
and the pressure
gradient is -1200N/m
2
/m. Find the magnitude and direction of the shear
stress on the upper plate and the volume ow rate through the channel, per
meter width.
(iii) (a) The gure below shows a uid coupling for power transmission between
input and output shafts. It comprises two at circular discs of 300mm
diameter D, separated by a 1.2mm space, h, lled with oil of viscosity
, 0.5Ns/m
2
. Assuming that the velocity variation is linear, show that
the torque, T available at the output shaft is
T =
D
4
(
1
2
)
32h
1
,
2
are input and output shaft speeds respectively in rad/s.
(b) The input shaft is rotating at 900rpm and is supplied with power of
500W. Calculate speed, torque and power available at the output shaft.
(c) If the input speed remains constant at 900rpm, determine the maximum
output power available from the coupling and the corresponding output
speed.
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JAN-MAY 2010
5 Turbulent Flow in Pipes
5.1 DarcyS Equation
Turbulent ow in a pipe was classied as that ow whose Re > 2000. The ows
are characterized by mixing and random motion of uid particles which involve ex-
change of momentum between these particles. At macroscopic levels, the average
velocity due to this exchange of momentum is constant apart from a region near
the wall where velocity grows from zero to this constant average velocity, known
as the boundary layer.
Recall the denition of shear stress: Fluid layers must move at dierent velocities
for the shearing force and hence shear stress to exist. Basically, a velocity gradient
must exist for a shear stress to exist.
Going by our description of a turbulent pipe ow, then it is only in the region next
to the wall (boundary layer) that the velocity gradient exists. Thus we can only
talk of a shearing retarding force that is conned to the region near the wall. We
shall call this, the wall shear stress and denote it by
0
(some people prefer to
denote it by
w
).
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Recall the denition of Re
Re =
u
Most ows in engineering involve uids of low kinematic viscosity and large charac-
teristic lengths. Consequently, turbulent ows are the most common in engineering
applications. Unfortunately, due to the complex nature in turbulent ows (inter-
action of uid particles through exchange of energy and momentum of the mean
and uctuating ow-elds is quite complex), analytical solutions to turbulent ow
problems are unavailable. To make progress, we result in using empirical relation-
ships, that borrow heavily from the experimental data, to carry out any meaningful
analysis.
The following assumptions are made;
(i) the uid is incompressible
(ii) the ow is fully developed, uniform and steady
(iii) the velocity gradient existing within the boundary layer introduces a shearing
stress
0
at the wall
Consider a general case of a pipe inclined at an angle ,
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JAN-MAY 2010
where;
S=Wetted perimeter (contact with uid)
A=X-sectional area
0
=Wall shear stress.
For steady ow
F
s
= 0
P
1
A P
2
A
0
s + W sin = 0 (30)
But W = Ag and sin =
z
Noting that P = P
2
P
1
Equation 30 can be written as;
PA
0
S A g
z

= 0
Dividing through by A and dening the hydraulic mean depth m, as;
m =
A
s
We get
(P + gz)

0
m
= 0
and thus;

0
m
= 0 (31)
Recalling that
P
=
P
x
equation 31 then becomes
P
x
=

0
m
(32)
Let us now dene a new parameter called ow friction factor, f, as;
f =

0
v
2
/2
(33)
where v is the average velocity.
By using equations 32 and 33, we can write
f
v
2
2
= m
P
x
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JAN-MAY 2010
x
= f
v
2
2m
(34)
If we denote the frictional head loss by h
f
for a length , then if the pressure drop
is purely out of frictional losses (read shear stress losses), then;
P
x
=
gh
f
(35)
Combining equations 34 and 35, we get
f
v
2
2m
=
gh
f
h
f
=
f v
2
2gm
(36)
For a circular pipe;
m =
A
s
=
d
2
4

1
d
=
d
4
Substituting this to equation 36
h
f
=
f v
2
2gd/4
=
4f
d

v
2
2g
(37)
Equation 37 is called the Darcys equation.
In terms of pressure head, Darcys equation may be written as;
gh
f
= P =
4f
d

v
2
2g
g
P =
4f
d

v
2
2
(38)
Some authors prefer to write (4f) as f
so that
h
f
=
f
d

v
2
2g
(39)
Though equation 37 is more frequently used. Experimentally, it has been found
out that;
f = ( v, d, , , k) (40)
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Figure 1: Moodys Chart
By using dimensional analysis, it can be shown that
f =
_
Re,
k
d
_
(41)
Experimentally, Blasius in 1913, showed that for turbulent ows in smooth pipes
f = 0.079Re
1/4
for Re > 10
5
(42)
Other researchers have shown that
f = 0.316Re
1/4
for 4 10
3
< Re < 10
5
(43)
However, a reference fvsRe plots are most convenient. The carpet plot takes
into account the variation of f wrt Re as well as the relative roughness of the
pipe. Nikuradse compiled these plots after extensive experimentation into what is
frequently referred to as Stanton or Moody diagram shown in the gure 1.
For laminar ow, the Hagen-Poiseuille equations.
Q =
Pd
4
128
and since Q = v
d
2
4
v
d
2
4
=
Pd
4
128
but P = gh
f
v =
Pd
2
32
=
gh
f
d
2
32
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and thus,
h
f
=
32 v
gd
2
=
4f
d

v
2
2g
from Darcys equation
f =
16
vd
=
16
Re
(44)
Example 1
Water at a density of 998kg/m
3
and kinematic viscosity 110
6
m
2
/s ows through
a smooth tubing at a mean velocity of 2m/s. If the tube diameter is 30mm,
calculate the pressure gradient per unit length necessary. Assume that friction
factor for turbulent ow is given by 0.079Re
1/4
. If instead of water, oil of density
800kg/m
3
and viscosity 0.027kg/ms was used, what would be the pressure gradient
per unit length?
5.2 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flows
Let us use the dimensional analysis to build up a case. For a fully developed
turbulent ow, we may assume the local velocity u at a distance y is related to
only the following parameters;
u = u(, ,
0
, R, y, k) (45)
By using dimensional analysis, we may show that
u
_
0
/
= u
_
R
,
y
R
,
k
R
_
(46)
The term
_
0
/ = u
is referred to as the shear stress velocity.
u
u
= u
_
u
,
y
R
,
k
R
_
(47)
The term k/R is signicant close to the wall, while the term u
R/ is only im-
portant in the laminar sub-layer.
Equation 47 can therefore be written as;
u
u
= u
_
y
R
_
(48)
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Since equation 48 is a result of dimensional analysis and a ratio of two velocities,
if we consider the centreline velocity to be the maximum, u
max
, we can generally
write equation 48 as
u
u
max
=
_
y
R
_
(49)
Prandtl proposed that the velocity distribution can be represented by
u
u
max
=
_
y
R
_
n
(50)
Experimentally, n = 1/7 for Re > 10
5
, leading to equation 50 being referred to as
the one-seventh power law.
For a symmetrical ow however, we expect that at the centre when y = R, then
u/y = 0 , which obviously cannot be satised by equation 50.
Near the wall, we know also that the viscous eects are dominant and hence;
u
u
= (Re
) where Re
=
u
Further, at y = 0, the velocity must be zero.

To satisfy these two requirements then the velocity prole must be dened such
that
u
u
= Aln Re
+ A
1
(51)
The velocity prole given by this equation is known as the universal velocity dis-
tribution. Both A and A
1
are determined experimentally.
In the laminar sub-layer viscosity is predominant and since
=
u
y
Hence by integration
u =
_
y
_
+ E
At y = 0, u = 0 and thus E = 0 which results in
u =
y
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u
_
/
=
u
u
=
y
1/2
1/2
=
u
= Re
up to Re
8 (52)
Nikuradse experimentally showed that for Re
> 30, A = 2.5 and A

1
= 5.5 and
thus;
u
u
= 2.5 ln Re
+ 5.5 (53)
Empirical relationships that include f are found in literature. An example is the
Colebrook-White equation.
1
f
= 4 log
_
k
3.71d
+
1.26
Re
f
_
(54)
Example 2
(i) Assuming the velocity distribution in a circular pipe is given by the one-
seventh power law, calculate the ratio between mean velocity and maximum
velocity.
(ii) the radius at which the actual velocity is equal to mean velocity.
5.3 Minor Losses in Pipe Flow
Consider ow in the following pipeline;
Draw a pipe line with all sorts of pipe ttings
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The ow can be analyzed by taking Bernoullis equation between any 2 points.
Thus between points 1 and 2;
Energy at 1/wt+energy added by pump/wt=Energy at 2/wt+losses of energy/wt+energy
removed by turbine/wt.
The losses in the pipeline are due to
(i) Major losses due friction (out of uid viscosity and pipe roughness)
(ii) Minor losses due to
(a) Entrance (tank-pipe entry; velocity being created)
(b) Exit (pipe-tank-atmosphere; velocity being destroyed)
(c) Sudden expansion (change of velocity)
(d) Sudden contraction (change of velocity)
(e) Bends, elbows, ttings and valves (change in magnitude and direction
of velocity)
(f) Gradual expansion and contraction (change of velocity) e.t.c.
Quantitative expression for minor losses are hard to develop except for some cases
and since these losses are small compared to the frictional losses, it has been found
convenient to express these losses as a fraction of velocity head i.e.
h
l
= k
v
2
2g
(55)
Where k is the loss coecient and can only be determined experimentally.
5.4 Loss due to Sudden Expansion
Due to sudden enlargement, the ow is decelerated abruptly, separates from the
walls develops eddies and loss of energy (pressure) results. The ow then reat-
taches downstream.
A lot of experimental evidence exists about this behavior (Read backward facing
steps).
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Applying Bernoullis equation between points 1 and 2, we get
P
1
g
+
v
2
1
2g
=
P
2
g
+
v
2
2
2g
+ h
e
(56)
From the conservation of momentum across the expansion, we expect that;
Force on expansion=Rate of change of momentum.
Thus;
P
1
A
1
+ P
0
(A
2
A
1
) P
2
A
2
= Q( v
2
v
1
)
Experimentally, it has been found that P
0
P
1
.
P
1
A
1
+ P
1
(A
2
A
1
) P
2
A
2
= Q( v
2
v
1
) = v
2
A
2
( v
2
v
1
)
P
1
P
2
= v
2
( v
2
v
1
) (57)
From equation 56 we can show that
P
1
P
2
=
v
2
2
v
2
1
2
+ gh
e
(58)
Thus comparing equations 57 and 58, it is easy to show that;
h
e
=
1
2g
( v
2
v
1
)
2
(59)
and since
v
2
A
2
= v
1
A
1
then we again can easily show that
h
e
=
v
2
1
2g
_
A
1
A
2
1
_
2
(60)
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For a given expansion the term
_
A
1
A
2
1
_
2
= constant = k
which then makes equation 60 become
h
e
= k
v
2
1
2g
(61)
If A
2
A
1
for example when discharging to the atmosphere or a large tank;
_
A
1
A
2
1
_
2
(0 1)
2
k 1
and hence
h
e

v
2
1
2g
(62)
5.5 Loss due to Sudden Contraction
Due to sudden contraction, the streamlines converge to a minimum cross-section
called the vena contracta and then expand to ll the downstream pipe.
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Loss due to sudden contraction=Loss up vena contracta+Loss due sudden expan-
sion beyond vena contracta
h
c
= Negligibly small +
( v
c
v
2
)
2
2g
h
c

( v
c
v
2
)
2
2g
But A
c
v
c
= A
2
v
2
and if A
c
= C
c
A
2
where C
c
is referred to as coecient of
contraction, then
h
c
=
_
1
C
c
1
_
2
v
2
2
2g
(63)
Again for a given contraction;
k =
_
1
C
c
1
_
2
h
c
= k
v
2
2
2g
(64)
Experimentally, it has been found that
C
c
= 0.62 + 0.38
_
A
2
A
1
_
3
(65)
Typical values of loss coecient are available in the literature.
Example 3
A 150mm diameter pipe reduces in diameter abruptly to 100mm diameter. If the
pipe carries water at 30liters/sc, calculate the pressure loss across the contraction
and express this as a percentage of the loss to be expected if the ow was reversed.
Take the coecient of contraction as 0.6.
Example 4
The dierence in water surface elevations in two reservoirs A and B is 10m and
the gauge pressure of air space in A is 50kN/m
2
. They are connected by a single
pipe 200m long and 20cm in diameter. If the friction factor for the pipe is 0.02,
calculate the discharge.
Example 5
Water ows from a reservoir through a series of pipes joined as shown in the
gure below. If the exit is 20m below the free level in the reservoir, calculate the
discharge. Find the percentage error in discharge if the minor losses are neglected.
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5.6 Power Transmission through Pipes
We employ pipes while transmitting hydraulic power in conjunction with hydraulic
machines.
Consider the pipe shown below used for transmitting power
Draw a pipe line to suit the notations
H
2
= H
1
h
f
= H
1
4f
d
u
2
2g
But u = 4Q/d
2
, where H
1
is the head available given as
P
1
+
u
2
1
2g
+ z
1
= H
1
H
2
= H
1
4f
d
16Q
2
2
d
4
2g
= H
1
0.33
Q
2
f
d
5
(66)
If P = Power available at exit = gH
2
Q then,
P = g
_
H
1
Q0.33
f
d
5
Q
3
_
(67)
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For a given value of H
1
, we can thus plot a curve of P against Q as shown the
gure below.
and we can also plot for eciency against ow rate as;
Clearly from the two graphs, the maximum eciency does not occur at the max-
imum Q. It is thus important to establish the conditions under which a pipeline
will transmit maximum power for a given pipe size. And also to determine for a
given condition what the smallest pipe size to transmit maximum power will be.
To maximize power at the exit, then
P
Q
= 0 = g
_
H
1
0.99
f
d
5
Q
2
_
= g(H
1
3h
f
)
h
f
=
H
1
3
(68)
Therefore, to get maximum power at exit, we must ensure that head lost in friction
is one-third the head available at entry.
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By denition
Eciency of transmission, =
Power output
Power input
100
Thus
=
H
2
H
1
100 =
H
1
H
1
/3
H
1
100 = 66.67% (69)
If a nozzle is tted at the exit, discharging to the atmosphere at a velocity u
n
,
then
H
2
=
u
2
n
2g
and H
1
=
u
2
n
2g
+ 0.33
Q
2
f
d
5
=
u
2
n
2g
+ 0.20
f
d
u
2
We know that ud
2
= u
n
d
2
n
u
2
= (d
n
/d)
4
u
2
n
, thus
H
1
=
u
2
n
2g
+ 0.20
f
d
_
d
n
d
_
4
u
2
n
u
2
n
=
H
1
_
0.05 + 0.20
f
d
_
d
n
d
_
4
_ (70)
As stated earlier, the power, P transmitted =gH
2
Q, which we can write as a
function of the nozzle geometry for a given head H
1
as;
P = g
u
2
n
2g

d
2
n
4
u
n
=
d
2
n
8
_
_
H
1
_
0.05 + 0.20
f
d
_
d
n
d
_
4
_
_
_
3/2
(71)
Thus for a given available head H
1
and pipe, the power can be maximized with
respect to nozzle diameter d
n
by setting P/d
n
= 0 in equation 71.
With this in mind, it is easy to show that power will be maximum when
d
n
=
_
d
5
8f
_
1/4
(72)
Example 6
A power transmission pipe 10cm diameter and 500m long is tted with a nozzle at
the exit. The inlet is from a lake with water level 60m above the discharge nozzle.
Taking f = 0.0075, calculate the maximum power which can be transmitted, and
the diameter of the nozzle required.
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5.7 Pipe in Series
If dierent pipes of dierent diameters are connected end-end, then the pipes are
said to be in series. We are usually interested in designing for a known ow rate;
(i) Pipe diameters
(ii) Pipe lengths and materials
(iii) Determining the pipe pressures
Total loss of energy per unit weight = Loss due friction in each pipe + minor losses
in each pipe
Taking energy per unit weight between the two ends of the combination we get
H
1
H
3
= KQ
2
With Q
1
= Q
2
= . . . = Q
n
Example 7
A pipeline 30m long connects two tanks which have a dierence of water level of
12m. The rst 10m of pipeline from the upper tank is 40mm diameter, and the
next 20m is 60mm diameter. At the change of section a valve is tted. Calculate
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the rate of when the valve is fully open assuming that the resistance is negligible
and that f for both pipes is 0.0054. In order to restrict the ow, the valve is then
partially closed. If k for the valve is now 5.6, nd the percentage reduction in ow.
5.8 Pipes in Parallel
Consider two tanks connected by several pipes that run parallel to each other.
Flow of uid may be through either pipe. The head causing ow however will
be the same in each pipe and this is what will overcome frictional and secondary
losses. Bernoullis equation can therefore be applied to each pipe independently
and continuity requires that
Q
T
= Q
1
+ Q
2
= . . . = Q
n
sum of the volumetric ow rate in each pipe
Example 8
Two reservoirs are connected by 0.45m diameter pipeline 1km long. In order to
augment the discharge, another pipeline is introduced parallel to the rst
(i) for the entire length
(ii) in the second half of the length
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Neglecting minor losses, nd the percentage increase in discharge for each proposal,
if f = 0.03 for both pipes and the dierence between the reservoir water levels is
20m and remains the same.
5.9 Pipe Networks
The most common pipe networks are water distribution systems for municipalities.
These systems have one or more sources (discharges of water into the system) and
numerous loads. One for each household or commercial establishment.
Consider junction J on the network shown below.
Flow can be through numerous paths. Whichever is the path, it requires that the
value of pressure at J be unique. It is impossible to have two values of pressure
for the same point!
Thus for example;
h
J
= h
A
h
f1
= h
B
h
f2
= h
C
h
f3
= h
D
h
f4
(73)
Also
h
f1
=
4f
1
1
Q
2
1
12d
5
1
(74)
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and similarly for pipes 2, 3, 4 and 5. So we may write generally,
h
fi
=
4f
i
i
Q
2
i
12d
5
i
(75)
which will give n equations for n junctions.
Continuity requires that the net mass outow from a junction be zero. Thus
Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3
Q
4
= 0 (76)
which gives an extra 1 equation. Hence we have a total of n + 1 equations. For
this example, we have 5 equations.
The engineer is faced with either of the following problems;
(i) To determine d
i
and head h
J
for prescribed values Q
i
, f
i
, and
i
e.g. a new
network (requires n+1 equations)
(ii) To determine Q
i
and head h
J
for prescribed values d
i
, f
i
, and
i
e.g. expan-
sion of an existing network (requires n+1 equations)
In either of the above cases, we need n+1 equations. These equations are available
from the head and continuity equations above and the problem is closed.
In general we can achieve these equations if we are able to satisfy the following 2
conditions
(i) Continuity: The ow into a junction of the network must be equal to the
ow out of the junction and must be satised for all junctions
(ii) The head loss between any two junctions in a closed loop must be the same
regardless of the path in the series of pipes taken to get from one junction to
the other. This means that the algebraic sum of head losses around a given
loop must be equal to zero -(ve) or +(ve) head loss being given by the sense
of the ow wrt loop, eg clockwise or counterclockwise
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h
l
clockwise
= h
l
AB
+ h
l
BC
h
l
anticlockwise
= h
l
AD
+ h
l
DC
h
l
AB
+ h
l
BC
= h
l
AD
+ h
l
DC
(77)
These equations are written for all junctions and loops in the network. We can
obviously see how cumbersome it is to simultaneously solve this huge number of
equations. Iteration is in this case used where an initial guess is made and the two
conditions checked for an improved guess
5.10 Branching-Pipe System of 3 Reservoirs
Consider ow in the following three reservoirs.
Assume that the pipe lengths, diameters and friction factors are pre-determined.
Normally minor losses are neglected in this complex ow. We can not say by visual
inspection whether junction J is fed by tank B or it feeds tank B.It is better and
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usual to assume that the highest point feeds point J and the lowest point is fed by
J. We can determine the direction of ow in pipe if we know the pressure head at
J and at B. We will normally be required to evaluate one of the following 3 types
of problems;
(i) If elevations A, B and C are known, evaluate Q
1
, Q
2
and Q
3
(ii) If elevations A and B and Q
1
are known, evaluate elevation C, Q
2
and Q
3
(iii) If elevations of A and C and Q
2
are known determine elevation of B, Q
1
and
Q
3
.
Whichever condition, we wish to solve for, we need to evaluate h
J
before ow
direction in pipe 2 can be established.
Thus we are posed with the problem of evaluating 4 parameters (three parameters
plus h
J
). We therefore need 4 equations to be able to solve this ow problem.
They are set up as follows: (recall; neglect minor losses)
h
f1
= h
A
h
J
=
4f
1
1
Q
2
1
12d
5
1
h
f2
=[ h
B
h
J
[=
4f
2
2
Q
2
2
12d
5
2
h
f3
= h
J
h
C
=
4f
3
3
Q
2
3
12d
5
3
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
= 0
(78)
Example 9
A system of 3 interconnected reservoirs A, B, and C by pipes 1,2 and 3 to form a
junction J has the following data:
Pipe 1; 0.8m dia; 2000m long, f=0.005
Pipe 2; 0.5m dia; 500m long, f=0.00625
Pipe 3; 0.6m dia; 1000m long, f=0.0075
The elevations of water surfaces in reservoirs A, B and C are 30m, 20m and 5m
respectively. Determine the discharge through each pipe.
As will be demonstrated through this worked example, obviously when the network
involves more number of loops, the procedure becomes more laborious and calls
for elaborate iterative procedures. Numerical iteration is more commonly used.
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TUTORIAL SHEET 4 - FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPES,
PIPE SYSTEMS AND PIPE NETWORKS
(i) Consider fully developed laminar ow due to gravity in a vertical tube. As-
sume that the pressure is atmospheric at both the tube inlet and outlet.
Show that the relationship between tube diameter and Reynolds number
may be expressed as;
D =
_
32Re
2
g
_
1/3
(ii) Consider fully developed laminar ow in the annulus between two concentric
pipes. The inner pipe is stationary and the outer pipe moves in x-direction
with a speed v
0
. Assume the axial pressure gradient to be zero. Obtain
a general expression for the shear stress, the velocity distribution and the
volumetric ow rate.
(iii) The velocity prole for a turbulent ow through smooth pipes is often rep-
resented by the empirical equation;
u
U
=
_
1
r
R
_
1/n
Show that the ratio of the average velocity

U to the centerline velocity U is
given by;
U
U
=
2n
(n + 1)(2n + 1)
(iv) If the pump eciency is 70%, what power must be supplied to the pump in
order to pump fuel oil of relative density 0.94 at a rate of 1m
3
/s to the upper
reservoir. Assume that the conduit is a steel pipe and = 5 10
5
m
2
/s.
42
JAN-MAY 2010
(v) Two reservoirs are connected by three pipes in series;
d 4f
First Pipe 300m 30cm 0.02
Second Pipe 250m 25cm 0.025
Third Pipe 200m 20cm 0.03
Calculate the discharge to the lower tank if the elevation dierence of levels
is 20m.
(vi) Two reservoirs are connected by three pipes in parallel;
d 4f
First Pipe 100m 20cm 0.02
Second Pipe 250m 20cm 0.02
Third Pipe 100m 10cm 0.02
The total discharge is o.2m
3
/s. Calculate the dierence in elevation of free
surfaces in the reservoirs for each pipe.
(vii) Three reservoirs with water elevations 20m, 30m and 40m respectively above
a level datum are connected by 200m, 300m and 400m long pipes forming a
common junction. Take f=0.02 for each pipe. Calculate; (a)the discharge
in each pipe (b)the piezometric head at the junction
43
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6 Momentum Equation
6.1 Linear Momentum Equation
Sometimes, it is necessary to determine/know forces on bodies due to owing u-
ids or know the forces required to give a owing uid its owing velocities. The
momentum equation which helps us to determine these forces is derived from the
Newtons second law of motion.
Newtons law of motion;The net force acting on a body in any xed direction is
equal to the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction.
The analysis is made under the following assumptions;
(i) that the uid is ideal
(ii) that the uid is incompressible
(iii) that the ow is steady
(iv) the velocities of all particles for a given cross-section are the same.
Consider a stream tube shown below;
Assume that after time t the uid occupying stream tube ABCD now occupies
stream tube A
Taking the velocity and density at planes AB and CD to be v

1
,
1
and v
2
,
2
,
respectively.
Then for a small t, distance travelled by particles at AB, i.e.
AA
= v
1
t (79)
44
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Particles at CD will travel,
CC
= v
2
t (80)
Since continuity still holds (i.e. mass of uid remains unchanged)
Mass in AA
BB
= Mass in CC
DD

2
A
2
v
2
t =
1
A
1
v
1
t
As the uid changes the velocity from v
1
at AB to v
2
at CD, the total momentum
must also change.
(Note: This is equivalent to replacing the uid in AA
BB
of velocity v
1
with uid
in CC
DD
of velocity v
2
)
Thus, momentum of uid in AA
BB
;
M
1
=
1
A
1
v
1
t v
1
=
1
A
1
v
2
1
t
And momentum in uid CC
DD
M
2
=
2
A
2
v
2
t v
2
=
2
A
2
v
2
2
t
Hence the change of momentum of the uid between AB and CD
M = M
2
M
1
=
2
A
2
v
2
2
t
1
A
1
v
2
1
t
The rate of change of momentum between AB and CD is;
M
t
=
2
A
2
v
2
2
1
A
1
v
2
1
(81)
Recall continuity requirement for ow within a stream tube
m =
1
A
1
v
1
=
2
A
2
v
2
Equation 81 can be written as;
M
t
=
2
A
2
v
2
.v
2
1
A
1
v
1
.v
1
= m(v
2
v
1
) (82)
And therefore
M
t
= Mass owing per unit time velocity change
45
JAN-MAY 2010
But from Newtons 2nd law of motion, the rate of change of momentum is equiva-
lent to the force acting on the uid element ABCD in the direction of motion, F.
Thus;
F = m(v
2
v
1
) (83)
Equation 83 is known a momentum equation for one dimensional ow.
By applying Newtons third law, we expect that the uid will exact an equal but
opposite reaction to the surrounding. Thus, in x direction;
F
x
= R
x
m(v
2x
v
1x
) (84)
For a two-dimensional ow, consider the following ow,
Let F
x
and F
y
be the components of the resultant force F in x and y directions,
respectively.
F
x
= Rate of change of momentum of uid in x-direction
F
x
= m(v
2x
v
1x
) (85)
Similarly;
F
y
= m(v
2y
v
1y
) (86)
These components will give a resultant force, F,
F =
_
F
2
x
+ F
2
y
(87)
F is assumed positive in the positive direction of v.
46
JAN-MAY 2010
In dierential form, the momentum equation can be presented as;
F =
D(mu)
Dt
=
_
s
uu.dA +

t
_
V
udV (88)
For a steady ow;
t
= 0
F=External surface and body forces
_
s
uu.dA = Rate of eux of momentum across a control surface
t
_
V
udV = Rate of change of momentum within the control volume
6.2 Angular Momentum Equation
An alternative manifestation of the Newtons 2nd law when expressed as net ex-
ternal moment on a system equals the rate of change of angular momentum is the
angular momentum equation.
For steady ows:-
T = r
2
u
2
2
A
2
r
1
u
1
1
A
1
= m(r
2
u
2
r
1
u
1
) (89)
where
T = Torque about an axis of rotation
u
1
, u
= absolute circumferential velocities of the uid entering and leaving at

radial locations r
1
and r
2
, respectively.
6.3 Examples
Example 1
A uniform pipe 75m long containing water is tted with a plunger. The water
is initially at rest. If the plunger is forced into the pipe in such a way that the
water is accelerated uniformly to a velocity of 1.7m/s, in 1.4s, what will be the
pressure on the face of the plunger assuming that the water and pipe are not elastic.
Example 2
A jet of water strikes a at plate inclined to it. Work out the distribution of
discharge over the plate and the force of impact on it, if
(i) the plate is stationary
47
JAN-MAY 2010
(ii) the plate moves in the same direction as the incoming ow.
Example 3
A jet of water 50mm diameter with a velocity 18m/s strikes a at plate inclined
at an angle 25
to the axis of the jet. Determine the normal force exerted on the
plate
(i) when the plate is stationary
(ii) when the plate is moving at 4.5m/s in the direction of the jet and
(iii) determine the work done and eciency for case (ii)
(iv) determine the distribution of ow rates for case (i)
Example 4
Consider a water jet that is deected by a stationary vane such as is shown in the
gure below. If the jet speed and diameter are 30.5m/s and 25cm respectively and
the jet is deected 60
, what force is exerted on the vane by the jet?

48
JAN-MAY 2010
Example 5
A jet of water delivers 85dm
3
/s at 36m/s onto a series of vanes moving in the
same direction as the jet at 18m/s. If stationary the water which enters tangen-
tially would be diverted through and angle of 135
. Friction reduces the relative

velocity at exit from the vanes to 0.80 of that at entrance. Determine the mag-
nitude of the resultant force on the vanes and the eciency of the arrangement.
Assume no shock at entry.
Example 6
A reducing bend is incorporated in a pipeline so that the direction of ow is turned
through 60
in the horizontal plane and the pipe diameter is reduced from 0.25m
to 0.15m. The velocity and pressure at the entry to the bend are 1.5m/s and
300kN/m
2
gauge respectively.At the exit the pressure is 287.2kN/m
2
gauge. Find
the magnitude and direction of the reaction force on the bend in the horizontal
plane due to the owing water.
Example 7
Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the steady rate of
1000m/s as is shown in the gure below. The exit area of each of the nozzles
is 30mm
2
and the ow leaving each nozzle is 200mm.
(i) Determine the resisting torque required to hold the sprinkler head stationary
(ii) Determine the resisting torque associated with the sprinkler rotating with a
constant speed of 500rpm
(iii) Determine the speed of the sprinkler if no resisting torque is applied
49
JAN-MAY 2010
TUTORIAL SHEET 2 - MOMENTUM EQUATION AND
ITS APPLICATIONS
(i) Water ows through a 180
vertical reducing bend as shown in the gure

below. The discharge is 0.25m
3
/s and the pressure at the centre of the inlet
of the bend is 150kPa. If the bend volume is 0.1m
3
and it is assumed that
Bernoullis equation is valid, what reaction is required to hold the bend in
place? Assume that the bend weighs 500N.
(ii) Determine the power produced by a sprinkler-like turbine that rotates in a
horizontal plane at 500rpm. The radius of the turbine is 0.5m. Water enters
the turbine from a vertical pipe that is co-axial with the axis of rotation
and it exits through two nozzles, each of which has across-sectional area of
10cm
2
. The exit velocity of water is 50m/s with respect to the nozzle. The
water density is 1000kg/m
3
and the pressure at the exit is atmospheric.
(iii) Two large tanks containing water have small smoothly contoured orices of
equal area. A jet of liquid issues from the left tank. Assume the ow is
uniform and unaected by friction. The jet impinges on a at plate covering
the opening of the right tank. Obtain an expression for the height h required
to balance the hydrostatic force on the plate from water in the right tank.
50
JAN-MAY 2010
(iv) A jet of water is directed against a vane which could be a blade of a turbine
or in any piece of hydraulic machinery. The water leaves the stationary,
50mm in diameter nozzle at a speed of 20m/s and enters a vane tangent
to the surface A. The inside surface B makes an angle = 150
with the
x-direction. Compute the force that must be applied to maintain the vane
at constant speed u = 5m/s.
(v) A square plate, mass 12.7kg of uniform thickness and 300mm edge is hung
so that it can freely swing about its upper horizontal edge. A horizontal jet
20mm in diameter strikes the upper plate with a velocity of 15m/s and the
centerline of the jet is 150mm below the upper edge of the plate so that when
the plate is vertical, the jet strikes the plate normally at the center. Find
what force must be applied to the lower edge to keep the plate vertical and
what inclination to the vertical the plate will be if allowed to swing freely
under the action of the jet.
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7 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude
7.1 Introduction
Due to the complexities involved in analyzing uid mechanics problems, the ana-
lytical tools presently available are not capable of yielding exact solutions to many
of the problems. It is possible to get exact solutions for all hydrostatic problems
and for many laminar-ow problems.
However, the most general equations solved on the largest computers yield only
fair approximations for turbulent ow problems. Hence the need for experimental
evaluation and verication.
Again, since most ows of engineering applications are turbulent, experimental
analysis are complex. An obvious goal of any experiment is to make the results as
widely applicable as possible. We use the concept of similitude so that measure-
ments made on one system (models) can be used to describe the behavior of other
systems called prototype.
7.2 Dimensional Analysis
A qualitative description of any physical quantity can be given in terms of basic
dimensions such as mass, M, length, L, and time, T. Alternatively we could use
force, F, L and T as basic dimensions.
We shall use the symbol
.
= to indicate dimensional equality. For example if we use
the MLT system of measurement then;
P
.
= ML
2
T
2
.
= ML
3
.
= ML
1
T
1
u
.
= LT
1
(90)
Consider experimentation for an incompressible steady ow through a long, smooth-
walled, horizontal circular pipe. Of interest to an engineer designing this pipeline
would be the pressure drop that develops per unit length as a result of friction.
When planning for this experiment, one needs to decide on the factors (variables)
that would aect the pressure drop per unit length. We can thus write;
P
= (D, , , u) (91)
The nature of the function is unknown and the purpose of experiment is to
determine the nature of this function. We would thus be expected to perform the
52
JAN-MAY 2010
following experiments:
These experiments are only valid for a specic pipe and uid. Furthermore, some
of the experiments are dicult to carry out, eg. how can one vary the density of
the uid while holding the viscosity constant?
The other diculty faced in this approach is;-after we have obtained the various
curves, how do we combine them so that the functional relationship would be valid
for any similar pipe system.
Dimensional analysis helps us eliminate these diculties, if we can be able to group
these variables into dimensionless groups such that;
DP
u
2
=
_
uD
_
(92)
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Thus instead of working with ve variables, we end up with only two variables.
We can get this curve by choosing a pipe of a convenient diameter, a uid easy to
work with and only vary the velocity, while measuring DP
.
These are easily measurable quantities. Furthermore, it is very easy to vary the
velocity experimentally. These results can however be used to interpret data for
any other combination of pipe and uid. Obviously saving cost of experimentation
and time. This type of forming dimensionless groups is called dimensional analysis.
There are several techniques of forming the dimensionless groups such as;
(i) Buckingham Pi Method
(ii) Rayleigh Method
(iii) Bridgman Method
(iv) Indices Method
(v) Matrix-Tensor Method
The logic in any method selected in forming the dimensionless groups is the same.
We shall however only discuss the Buckingham Pi Method. But before we do
that, we recognize that the relative importance of the dimensionless groups such
as Reynolds, Froude or Mach numbers can only be determined through model
testing. This is carried out in wind tunnels as it might be experimentally dicult
to carry out such tests on the prototypes such as aircrafts, trains, cars, buildings,
ships etc.
To apply dimensional analysis in model testing there are two types of similarity
that must be observed
54
JAN-MAY 2010
(i) Geometric similarity
(ii) Dynamic similarity
7.3 Geometric Similarity
This requires that between a model and a prototype, the ratio of ALL correspond-
ing linear dimensions be the same. For any model testing, geometric similarity
must be observed.
7.4 Kinematic Similarity
This requires that between a model and prototype, the velocities of all correspond-
ing points are in the same direction and their scale factors are constant throughout.
7.5 Dynamic Similarity
This requires that between a model and a prototype, the ratio of all the forces for
corresponding points remain the same which ensures that ow pattern between
model and prototype remain the same. Whenever the condition of dynamic simi-
larity is met, geometric similarity is also met.
7.6 Buckingham Pi Method
Consider a situation where a dependent parameter is a function k 1 independent
parameters.
We may express the relationship as;
q
1
= (q
2
, q
3
, . . . . . . , q
k
) (93)
The Buckingham Pi theorem states:
Given a relation among k parameters of the form:
g(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
, . . . . . . , q
k
) = 0,
then if the variables are dimensionally homogeneous, the k parameters can be
grouped into k r independent dimensionless ratios called parameters such
that;
1
= (
2
,
3
, . . . . . . ,
kr
)
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JAN-MAY 2010
where r is the minimum number of reference (basic) dimensions required to de-
scribe the variables
In our case, we shall use the MLT system throughout and hence r = 3 at all times.
7.7 Determination of Pi Groups
The following steps are taken in determining the Pi groups;
(i) List all the variables that are involved in the problem.
It is important that the experimenter has adequate knowledge of the phys-
ical laws that govern the phenomenon. Incorrect decision at this point will
make the analysis wrong. As a guide, choose variables that are necessary to
describe geometry of the system, variables that dene any uid properties,
and variables that indicate any external eects.
(ii) Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions: For typical uid
mechanics problems, the basic dimensions we shall use are M, L and T
(iii) Determine the required number of Pi groups. Use the Buckigham theorem
such that
Number of Pi groups =k r
where k is determined in step (i) and r is determined in step (ii)
(iv) Select a number of repeating variables, where the number required is equal
to the number of reference dimensions.
From the original list, select variables that you think have the greatest in-
uence on the dependent variables such that
(a) the list does not include the dependent variable
(b) all the reference dimensions must be included within the group
(c) the dimensions of each repeating variable are dierent and cannot be re-
produced by for example (product of the remaining repeating variables)
so that they themselves cannot form a dimensionless group
(v) form a Pi group by multiplying one of the non-repeating variables by the
product of the repeating variables, each raised to an exponent that will make
the combination dimensionless.
(vi) repeat step (v) for all the remaining non-repeating variables
(vii) check all the resulting Pi groups to make sure they are dimensionless
56
JAN-MAY 2010
(viii) express the nal form as a relationship among the Pi groups and think about
their physical meaning such that
1
= (
2
,
3
, . . . . . . ,
kr
)
1
should contain the dependent variable in the numerator.
The functional relationship can however only be determined experimentally.
Example 1
A thin rectangular plate having a width w and a height h is located so that it
is normal to a moving stream of uid. Assume the drag force F
D
, that the uid
exerts on the plate is a function of w and h, the uid viscosity and density, and
, respectively, and the velocity u of the uid approaching the plate. Determine a
suitable Pi groups to study this problem experimentally.
7.8 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
Common variables in uid mechanics are
(i) Acceleration due to gravity, g
(ii) Bulk modulus, E
v
(iii) Characteristic length,
(iv) Density,
(v) Frequency of oscillating ow,
(vi) Pressure, p or p
(vii) Speed of sound, c or a
(viii) Surface tension,
(ix) Velocity, u
(x) Viscosity,
These variables are not encountered at the same time in all problems. By applying
any dimensional analysis technique, these variables can be grouped into various
dimensionless groups. It is often possible to provide the physical interpretation
to the dimensionless groups which can be helpful in assessing their inuence in a
particular application.
57
JAN-MAY 2010
To be able to provide the physical meaning of these groups, we think of the possible
forces that can occur in uid mechanics problems (whether dynamic or static)
(i) Inertia forces u
2
2
(ii) Viscosity forces u
(iii) Pressure forces P
2
(iv) Gravitational forces gu
2
2
(v) Surface tension forces
(vi) Compressibility forces E
v
2
Inertia forces are very important in most uid mechanics problems. The ratio of
inertia forces to other forces lead to the several fundamental dimensionless groups
found in uid mechanics.
7.8.1 Reynolds Number
The ratio between inertia forces of an element to the viscous forces. The criteria
of establishing whether a ow is laminar or turbulent.
Re =
Inertial Forces
Viscous Forces
=
u
(94)
In bounded ows, free surface eects are absent. If the ow is slow, then eects of
compressibility may also be ignored. In such cases Reynolds number equivalence
would be required. Sometimes the geometric similarity might make adherence of
Re very costly and required velocities to be unachievable. In such cases the Re
equivalence requirement is relaxed.
7.8.2 Froude Number
A measure of the ratio between the inertia forces of an element to its weight.
Important in ows involving a free surface like open channel ows since gravity
aects these ows. Used as a criteria of establishing whether a ow is sub-critical
or super-critical.
Fr =
Inertial forces
Gravitational forces
=
u
g
(95)
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JAN-MAY 2010
7.8.3 Mach Number & Cauchy Number
A measure of the ratio between inertia and compressibility forces. Important where
compressibility is a signicant factor. Used as a criteria to establish whether a ow
is subsonic or supersonic in cases of compressible ows.
Ma =
Inertial forces
Compressibility forces
=
u
c
(96)
and since c =
_
E
v
/
Ca =
u
2
E
v
= u
2

E
v
= Ma
2
(97)
Some people prefer to see Mach number as the ratio between the ow velocity to
the velocity of sound in the owing uid. Mach numbers becomes signicant when
it exceeds 0.25 and compressibility eects are thus signicant.
7.8.4 Weber Number
The ratio between inertia forces and surface tension forces. Important in problems
that involve an interface between two uids. In cases where We >> 1, then surface
tension eects may be ignored.
We =
Inertial forces
Surface tension forces
=
u
2
(98)
7.8.5 Pressure, stress and force coecients
Measure of ratio of inertia forces to pressure forces where pressure forces are im-
portant.
C
p
=
Pressure forces
Inertial forces
=
P
1/2u
2
(99)
The ratio 1/2 is introduced for convenience so that the denominator physically
means that we are non-dimensionalizing pressure head with the velocity head.
Sometimes when the pressure forces to inertial forces are to be used to determine
whether a certain physical phenomena occurs or not (e.g. to determine whether
cavitation takes place or not on the suction side of the pump), then the Eulers
number is used:
Eu =
Pressure forces
Inertial forces
=
P
u
2
(100)
When we want to talk of force coecients, then we introduce area into the pressure
coecients. Such coecients are lift and drag coecients;
C
D
, C
L
=
P
2
1/2u
2
2
(101)
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JAN-MAY 2010
7.8.6 Power coecients
Useful in denition of pump, fan and turbine characteristics in terms of other ow
variables included in other common dimensionless groups.
Power coecients =
P
u
2
3
(102)
7.8.7 Strouhal number
This number is important in unsteady oscillating ow problems in which oscillating
frequency is . It represents a measure of the ratio of inertial forces due to the
unsteadiness (local acceleration) to the inertial forces due to changes in velocity
from point to point in the ow eld (convective acceleration). Examples are the
vortex sheet ows formed by a ow after a solid body.
St =
Inertial forces (local)
Inertial forces (convective)
=

(103)
7.9 Modeling and Similitude
A model is a representative of a physical system that may be used to predict the
behavior of the system in some desired respect. The physical system for which the
predictions are to be made is called prototype.
Usually, the model is smaller than the prototype so that it can be easily handled
in a lab and less expensive to construct.
Occasionally, we have models bigger than the prototype, e.g., if we want to study
the motion of red blood cells.
A model therefore is a physical system that resembles the prototype but are gen-
erally of a dierent size, may involve dierent uids, and often operate under
dierent conditions (pressure and velocities, etc)
7.9.1 Theory of models
By use of dimensional analysis, we showed that:
1
= (
2
,
3
, . . . . . . ,
n
) (104)
In formulating this relationship, only a knowledge of the general nature of the
physical phenomenon and the variables involved is required.
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JAN-MAY 2010
Specic values for variables (sizes of components, uid properties and so on) are
not needed to perform the dimensional analysis. Thus equation 104 describes the
behavior of a particular prototype. A similar relationship can be written for a
model of this prototype. Thus
1m
= (
2m
,
3m
, . . . . . . ,
mn
) (105)
where remains the same for both equations.
Therefore if;
2m
=
2
3m
=
3
.
.
.
.
.
.
nm
=
n
(106)
Then,
1m
=
1
(107)
These are the model design conditions also called similarity requirements or mod-
eling laws.
For this to happen, certain physical conditions (discussed earlier) must be met;
(i) geometric similarity
(ii) kinematic similarity
(iii) dynamic similarity
Example 2
A long structural component of a bridge has the X-section shown in the gure
below. It is known that when a steady wind blows past this type of blu body,
vortices may develop on the downwind side that are shed in a regular fashion at
some denite frequency. Since these vortices can create harmful periodic forces
acting on the structure, it is important to determine the shedding frequency. For
the specic structure of interest, D=0.1m, H=0.3m and a representative wind
velocity is 50km/hr. Standard air can be assumed. The shedding frequency is
to be determined through the use of a small-scale model that is to be tested in
a water tunnel. For the model D
m
=20mm and the water temperature is 20
C.
Determine the model dimension, H
m
and the velocity at which the test should be
performed. If the shedding frequency for the model is found to be 49.9Hz, what is
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JAN-MAY 2010
the corresponding frequency for the prototype?
62
JAN-MAY 2010
TUTORIAL SHEET 5 - SIMILARITY LAWS AND DI-
MENSIONAL ANALYSIS
(i) Show by dimensional analysis for a completely submerged body, the drag
force (resistance) is given by;
F
D
=
2
v
2
(Re)
(ii) An airplane wing of 1m chord moves through still air at 20
C at 180km/hr.
A 1:15 scale model of this wing is placed in a wind tunnel with air blowing
at 75m/s at the same temperature as that in the ight. What should be the
pressure in the travel?
(iii) A sphere when dropped in water moving at a velocity of 1.6m/s experi-
ences a resistance of 22N. Another sphere twice the diameter is placed in
a wind tunnel. What should be the velocity of wind in the tunnel for dy-
namic similarity? What is the corresponding drag?
air
= 1.28kg/m
3
and
air
= 13
water
.
(iv) At its optimum point of operation, a given pump with an impeller diameter
of 50cm delivers 3.2m
3
/s of water against a head of 25m when rotating at
1450rpm.
(a) if its eciency is 82%, what is the brake power of the diving shaft?
(b) If a homologous pump with an impeller diameter of 80cm is rotating at
1200rpm, what would be the discharge, head and shaft power? Assume
both pumps operate at the same eciency.
(v) The following wind tunnel test data from a 1:16 scale model of a bus are
available;
Air speed (m/s) 18.0 21.8 26.0 30.1 35.0 38.5 40.9 44.1 46.7
Drag force (N) 3.1 4.41 6.09 7.99 10.7 12.9 14.7 16.9 18.9
Using the properties of standard air, calculate and plot the dimensionless
aerodynamic drag coecient;
C
D
=
F
D
1/2u
2
A
versus Reynolds number Re =
u
where is the model width. Find the minimum test speed above which C
D
remains constant. Estimate the aerodynamic force and power requirement
for the prototype vehicle at 100km/hr. The width and the frontal area of
the prototype vehicle are 8ft and 8ft
2
respectively.
63

Fluid Motion

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Complimentary course notes for

Fluid Mechanics III, MFM31

is known as the Reynolds number. It is denoted by either R or

. For a fully developed steady laminar ow P

is referred to as the shear stress velocity.

Further, at y = 0, the velocity must be zero.

> 30, A = 2.5 and A

Taking the velocity and density at planes AB and CD to be v

= absolute circumferential velocities of the uid entering and leaving at

, what force is exerted on the vane by the jet?

. Friction reduces the relative

vertical reducing bend as shown in the gure

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