Persidangan Pendidikan Muzik Malaysia 2005 (MusEd05)

IN THE MINDS OF CHILDREN: UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION TO LEARN MUSIC

By Ghaziah Mohd. Ghazali Faculty of Education Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam (ghazia62@yahoo.com)

Paper submitted for presentation at the National Music Education Conference (MusEd05) at Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris Tanjung Malim, Perak 28 30 November 2005

In the minds of children: Understanding motivation to learn music Ghaziah Mohd. Ghazali Universiti Teknologi MARA (ghazia62@yahoo.com)

Abstract Teachers all over the world have always been interested in and concerned about how to motivate their students in the classroom. Music teachers in particular, have a harder task of making sure interest to learn music is maintained so as to acquire a more productive learning environment in class. It is without a doubt that without the motivation to learn, all students, regardless of age, will not be willing to devote their time and patience to sit down and engage in the task of learning a skill, especially when they do not hold high regard for it. The aim of this paper is to look at the possible reasons why some students have better attitudes towards the learning of music while others do not. The paper discusses motivational issues related to the learning of music based on modern learning theories which have been applied in various studies on the learning of music. Learning theories such as the self-efficacy theory, self-regulation theory, attribution theory and the expectancy-value theory help to provide an explanation and an understanding of why there are differing attitudes towards learning music among primary and secondary school children. Reviews of past studies conducted on children in Western countries is included in order to provide a clearer idea of how the theories help us to understand the motivational forces at work. ___________________________________________________ Introduction The subject of motivation has interested psychologists, educators, and researchers all over the world in their quest to understand why people act and behave the way they do. Research on man, adults and children alike, being complex beings, with sophisticated drives, often require more intricate investigations on why they think and react towards certain stimulus. Efforts to understand human behaviour often have to take into consideration the role of the environment and ones cultural background and how it affects decision making and participation in activities. Similarly, within the smaller scope of learning within the school walls, motives to learn, willingness to expand effort, and desire to achieve are some aspects of behaviour that requires careful study in order to understand the complexities of external influences in the decision-making of students and children as a whole. The issue of school music has been much debated. In Western countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia, discussions regarding music advocacy has occurred long before Malaysia decided to implement the KBSR music curriculum. Debates as to its relevance in school and childrens education have prompted scores of studies, investigations and publications to support the discipline of music as a worthy area of study. Studies have shown that children do recognize the importance of education to their future success in life, more so in specific subjects such as language,

mathematics and science, than learning about sports, music and art (Eccles, Wigfield, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman and Yee, 1989). Children usually have preconceptions of what they perceive learning music to be like. These perceptions are often based on their pleasant experiences with music outside of school, which is associated with enjoyment and leisure. Consequently, learning music in school is perceived as musicking time where they get to enjoy themselves in school (Hallam, 1998). These enthusiastic anticipations towards learning music in primary school however, may not always fulfill childrens notions of being musically educated. Lower interests and motivation to learn music in school have been noted by researchers and music educators, not only in various studies carried out throughout the world (Eccles, Wigfield, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman & Yee, 1989; Austin & Vispoel, 1998; BoalPalheiros & Hargreaves, 2001; Campbell, 1998; Corenblum & Marshall, 1998) but also in Malaysia (Tahir & Shah, 2001; EPRD, 2000; Ghazali, 2005). A discussion regarding what causes this trend among children in primary school is made in this paper, with the hope of building an awareness of the myriad of causes and factors that influence childrens interest to learn music. Motivational theories of learning The interest in people behaviour and the reasons for their actions have generated a number of theories of learning. According to Pintrich and Schunk (1996), motivation may be defined in numerous ways as it can be looked at from a number of different perspectives. In order to gain an understanding of motivation and the thought processes that one engages in before an action is taken, the many concepts of goal-directed behaviour has to be studied. According to Hallam (2002),

motivational theories can be categorized into three main types: those that looked at motivation as deriving from the individual (self), motivation as a result of the environment, and motivation derived from an interaction of the self and the environment (p. 225). The following section briefly discusses four motivation theories; namely the self-efficacy, self-regulation, attribution, and expectancy-value theories. Self-efficacy theory Banduras (1994) self-efficacy theory examines beliefs and perceptions of ones capabilities to perform specific tasks. He describes the behaviour of highly efficacious people as those who set challenging goals and stay committed to achieving them even in the face of failure. The effects of self-efficacy beliefs can be seen in a number of ways. The effects are: it influences the choice of tasks one undertakes (choice), it determines the amount of effort one puts in a task (effort and persistence), it affects ones resilience in the face of difficulty (perseverance), and it influences the amount of stress or anxiety one experiences while engaging in the task (affective effects) (Pajares,

1997; Bandura, 1994; Alderman, 1999). In contrast, those with low self-efficacy often doubt their own abilities, frequently avoid difficult tasks, are often afraid of failure, as evident when they dwell on the many things that can go wrong (Bandura, 1994, p. 73), and perceive things are more difficult than they really are (Pajares, 1997). Studies on self-efficacy, especially in cross-cultural research provide valuable information about the differences in the formation of self-beliefs and efficacies among individuals from different cultural backgrounds and ethnicity. Research on how efficacy beliefs differ among children from different ethnic backgrounds especially with regards to schooling and learning music, help educators understand the link between belief formations and ones cultural background and upbringing (Pajares, 1997). With this theory, we are able to associate reasons for lack of participation in music as owing to childrens lack of personal beliefs that they have the capability of playing a musical instrument, or be musical enough to be successful in music. In addition, perceptions of low efficacy in music can be looked upon as another contributing factor to the varying degrees of childrens interest in musical activities at school, despite the fact that most children enjoy listening to music outside of school. Wanting to protect their self-esteem and the fear of appearing foolish doing silly music stuff in class, especially among older children with low self-efficacy in music may be another reason behind their appearance of disinterest towards the subject. Self-regulation theory Self-regulation theory focuses on the learners perception of their own competence for certain tasks and how they take control of their actions in order to monitor and control their own learning. Personal self-regulation comes in the form of self-observation of ones activities, self-judgment of ones performances, and self-reactions towards performances (Eccles, Wigfield & Schiefele, 1998). Self-regulated learners are those individuals who constantly set new goals for themselves and seek new challenges. In the field of music, self-regulatory behaviour can be seen in the way children evaluate their performances in different tasks and work towards improving themselves based on how they judge their success and failures in carrying out the tasks. For example, when a student perceive themselves as weak in playing arpeggios on their instrument, their methods of solving the problem and working towards achieving their goal of being able to play arpeggios smoothly is what is called self-regulation. Attribution theory Weiners (1986) attributional theory focuses on how individuals try to understand themselves and their environment, as well as the factors which they perceive to be the causes for events that happen in their lives. Causal determinants may comprise of environmental (external) and personal factors (internal), and these attributions influence how individuals perceive their success and failures 3

(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). Weiners (1986) model of the attribution process categorized causal factors into three dimensions, which are stability, locus and control (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 95). Perceived causes of achievement can be attributed to many complex sources such as aptitude, skills, ability, task difficulty, luck, interest, mood, health, weather, intelligence, effort, family background, personality, stress, government policies and a host of other causes which make sense to the individual (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). When applied to the field of music and music education, this theory helps explain the possible underlying factors for an individuals participation or non-participation in music activities, their good or poor performance in their music class, their interest or non-interest to learn music, and their attitudes and motivation towards music learning, based on their causal perceptions. Expectancy-value theory The expectancy-value theory was first developed by Atkinson in 1957 and has since evolved into a more modern conceptual framework developed by Eccles and her colleagues (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995, 2002). Where Atkinson devised a mathematical equation to explain the components of his theory, Eccles and Wigfield developed a model that help to visualize the different dimensions of motivational influences which affect childrens perceptions, decision making and participation in activities (Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Eccles, Wigfield & Schiefele, 1998). A simplified version of this model, shown in Figure 1, displays the conceptual framework of expectancy and valuing as a result of interactions between the social world (external forces) and the individuals cognitive and motivational beliefs (shown by the center area within the dashed lines). The observable behaviours are seen in the individuals choice, persistence, effort, engagement and performance in the task. In this theory, expectancies are measured by responses to questions such as Can I do this task?, while task values can be measured by responses regarding the importance, usefulness, enjoyment, interest and the cost of engaging in the task. These constructs reflect the effects on motivation towards participation in certain tasks, which are a result of influences from the social environment, culture, and society, together with the personal interpretations and perceptions about the task and ones abilities to carry out the task.

Social World

Cognitive Processes

Motivational Beliefs

Achievement Behavior

1. Cultural milieu 2. Socializers behaviors 3. Past performances and events

Perceptions of social environment

Affective memories

Task value Choice Persistence Quantity of effort

Interpretations and attributions for past events

1. Goals 2. Judgments of competence and self-schemas 3. Perceptions of task difficulty

Expectancy

Cognitive engagement Actual performance

Figure 1. Simplified version of the social expectancy-value model by Eccles and Wigfield and their colleagues (Source: Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 61)

Based on the theories above, it is clear that individuals make judgments about themselves and their environment and these perceptions often influence their decision making and subsequent actions. As studies have found that children as young as three years old are already capable of forming expectations and valuing for specific tasks (Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Eccles, Wigfield, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman & Yee, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, Yoon, Harold, Arbreton, Friedman-Doan & Blumenfeld, 1997), it is therefore assumed that by the time children reach school going age, they would have developed a more sophisticated understanding of themselves, their competencies, and achievement capacities. The following section therefore

discusses aspects of motivation in the field of music education, with focus on children in primary school. School music vs. Private music lessons It is without a doubt that learning music, especially on an instrument is a demanding one. Children who begin learning an instrument, for example, are often enthusiastic about starting to learn and making music on an instrument. The initial excitement of owning a musical instrument, the possible image or impression it represents, and the familys general pride in having a member of the family take up music often rubs off on the young beginner, increasing their enthusiasm and motivation to continue learning their instrument.

On the other hand, for children whose only opportunity to experience music learning is through the school curriculum, music functions not only as a diversion from the monotony of academic subjects but also as an avenue to explore their musical talents. For these children, the learning of musical concepts with the inclusion of practical activities on the recorder and percussive instruments serve as the only means for acquiring experience in formal music education. The demand for basic proficiencies on the recorder may be received with zeal among some students, while others may treat it as unimportant, trivial and not worth the effort of practising hard because they do not perceive it as a real instrument. Motivation for these children reflects their perception of musics importance and usefulness in their lives, as well as their expectations for engagement in it. In contrast, children who take private music lessons usually have different perceptions of music learning altogether. The involvement of parents or other family members in their musical training, such as providing transportation to classes, monitoring practice, reminders to practice, attending music classes with the child and active guidance during practice are some examples of important supportive encouragement which influence children to think of music in a positive light. However, the first few months to a year of musical training often requires active parental support and involvement before children may be self-regulated and able to perceive its value. Parental

involvement in childrens music learning has been reported to be the most important and influential aspects of achievement in music (Davidson, Howe, Moore & Sloboda, 1996; Davidson, Sloboda & Howe, 1996; Howe & Sloboda, 1991; Hurley, 1995; Lamont, Hargreaves, Marshall & Tarrant, 2003; MacKenzie, 1991; McPherson, 2000; McPherson & Davidson, 2002). Results show that children begin with keen interest to learn music during early childhood but that this interest declines by the time they reach the age of 11 (Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Eccles, Wigfield, Flanagan, Miller, Reuman & Yee, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, Yoon, Harold, Arbreton, Friedman-Doan & Blumenfeld, 1997). In Malaysia, it is not surprising therefore to find that childrens motivation to continue learning music in primary school decreases as they approach the sixth and final year, when their preparations for the UPSR examination become more intense. Factors influencing childrens motivation to learn music There are many reasons why children perceive learning music the way they do, whether it be private music lessons or learning music in school. Their ability to form preconceived ideas and beliefs about music, even without having previous experiences with them enables them to make decisions whether a particular activity is interesting or otherwise (Wigfield, Eccles, Yoon, Harold, Arbreton, Freedman-Doan & Blumenfeld, 1997; Eccles, Wigfield, Harold & Blumenfeld, 1993; Dai & Schader, 2001). The fact that children recognize the importance of musical ability and talent in order

to be successful in music (Asmus, 1994) indicates that they have a sense of what is required of them to be good at a task. Based on the expectancy-value theory, external factors surrounding the child plays an important role in the formation of their personal beliefs and valuing for an activity or task. This is so because children are active beings, constantly learning, absorbing, perceiving, comprehending and inferring the meaning of things that happen around them, especially those things which pertain to ideas, feelings, attitudes and opinions portrayed by those closest to them such as their parents and family members. Findings of past researches conducted in Western countries, including findings from studies conducted with Malaysian children (Tahir & Shah, 2001, EPRD, 2000; Ghazali, 2005) reveal certain similarities and trends in their perceptions, attitudes and opinions about music. Cultural background Childrens cultural background and ethnicity play an important role in their enculturation towards their own musical heritage (Campbell, 1998). Furthermore, the more positively children were brought up to believe that music is a natural part of their life, the more receptive and open they would be to learning it, either formally or informally. It is not difficult to say that all cultures throughout the world have their own musical identity. However, importance placed on music and the acquisition of skills in music differs across cultures and ethnic groups. For example, the high enrollment of Chinese children in music lessons outside of school indicates a stronger interest in musical knowledge among this group, which could be contributed by a general belief about the importance of an all-rounded and balanced education for their children (Li, 2002). In contrast, lower enrollment in music studies among the Malays suggests ambivalent attitudes towards musical knowledge. It is not surprising therefore, that when children have been brought up in environments and cultural background such as the above, perceptions towards the value of learning music in school would be affected to a certain degree. Family & home environment Research has shown that parents exert their influence in many ways (Howe & Sloboda, 1991; McPherson & Davidson, 2002; Zdzinski, 1996; Davidson, Howe, Moore & Sloboda, 1996; McPherson & Renwick, 2001; ONeill, 1997b; Sloboda, Davidson, Howe & Moore, 1996; HooverDempsey & Sandler, 1997; Dai & Schader, 2001; Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Spera, 2005; Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems & Holbein, 2005). As parents have the power to influence their

children towards or away from certain tasks, their role in encouraging and supporting their children in learning is crucial. Because this influence is more pronounced among younger children, the parents role in sustaining their childrens interest in music during the early years of music training is therefore very important (Davidson, Sloboda & Howe, 1996; Davidson, Howe, Moore & Sloboda, 7

1996). Parental attitudes, opinions and perceptions towards various things in life provide children with important role models from which to base their own attitudes. For example, parental attitude towards music and its place in their lives are often early benchmarks for childrens own perceptions towards it. The more positive the impression given towards music and the learning of music, the more favorable will be their childrens attitude towards it. There is also evidence that children with parents, siblings or other family members who play musical instruments may be influenced or encouraged to do the same themselves (Addison, 1990; Howe & Sloboda, 1991a). This availability of music and music making opportunities as well as access to music instruments at an early age at home often results in the perception that music is a normal part of their lives, and that progress to learning an instrument is a natural one (Howe, Davidson, Moore & Sloboda, 1995; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002). In addition, older siblings who play instruments provide children with role models and the possibility of learning to play (Howe & Sloboda, 1991a). Davidson, Howe, Moore and Sloboda (1996) found that encouragement and support from parents are crucial to the childs overall interest and persistence to learn music. Unfortunately, most parental encouragement to learn music occurs among parents of children who were learning privately. Rarely do we see parents encouraging their children to excel in their music classes at school. Anecdotal evidence from various primary school music teachers in the Klang valley reveal that not many parents provide strong support for the teaching of music in the schools. In fact, many consider it unnecessary, trivial and unimportant to the point that they do not oppose the omission of music classes in place of core subjects as their children approach the UPSR examinations. However, the fact that the Malaysian education system is highly exam oriented makes it difficult for children and parents to appreciate the benefits of music education to childrens cognitive, emotional and aesthetic development. There is evidence that parents who themselves are interested in music tend to place a higher value on musical activities (Addison, 1990; Cooper, 2001). Nevertheless, it has also been found that parents with no interest in music were equally keen for their children to learn a band or orchestral instrument (Addison, 1990). This finding is in line with anecdotal evidence from Malaysian parents (a majority of whom have no formal musical knowledge) who indicate that their support of music was because of the desire to provide their children with an all-rounded education, which they themselves missed when they were young (Cooper, 2001), and to ensure that their children are kept occupied at home with musical practice.

School The teaching of music in school varies from society to society. Designing a curriculum that could fulfill every aspect of childrens diverse needs and musical backgrounds may be an impossible task. On one end of the scale is the majority with minimal musical experience and on the other end are the minority, with formal music instruction and skills in playing an instrument or two at home. According to Campbell (1998) music teaching in schools could be made more interesting for children if they refrain from teaching and re-teaching what children already know. Instead, she advocates the use of more musical instruments in class to capture childrens interest and foster creativity. Her statement We can vary the complexity of what we teach: Some may be hungry for a quicker pace and a greater challenge (p. 218) show that children tend to lose interest in learning school music because of a lack of challenging and stimulating activities in class. Gammon (1996) suggest that school music should expand on the musical knowledge of children who are learning privately to avoid redundancies which normally lead to boredom. There is also some evidence that although children enjoy listening to music at home, their enjoyment of music may not originate from musical activities in school. Findings from North, Hargreaves and ONeill (2000) suggest that school music is out of touch with the needs of many pupils (p. 9) because some music brought into the classroom does not reflect the preferences of children (who obviously favour commercial or pop music), thus causing children to fail to see the relevance of what they learn in school to their everyday lives and their future. There is also evidence that older children regard classroom music as among the least popular subjects in school although music listening is a common leisure activity at home (North, Hargreaves & ONeill, 2000; Austin & Vispoel, 1998). Childrens personal self beliefs Research in various fields of education has found that young children begin with unrealistic selfcompetence beliefs for various tasks, and that their competence beliefs become more realistic as they grow older and become more critical of their abilities, as a result of peer comparisons and increased personal experiences of success and failures (Jacobs, Lanza, Osgood, Eccles & Wigfield, 2002; Wigfield, Eccles, Yoon, Harold, Arbreton, Freedman-Doan, et al., 1997; Lamont, 2002; Asmus, 1994; Eccles, Wigfield & Schiefele, 1998; Wigfield, Eccles & Rodriguez, 1998; Wigfield, 1994; Fredricks & Eccles, 2002). In addition, childrens interest to learn music tends to decrease once they perceive it to be not as easy and enjoyable as it first seemed (McPherson, 2000). This usually happens to most children once the novelty of learning music wears off and the demands of practice sinks in. In contrast, where school music is concerned, highly motivated children and children with musical training also begin to lose interest in school music once they encounter unchallenging and monotonous musical 9

activities in class. These children tend to perceive what they learn in school as too easy, simple and boring (Ghazali, 2005). Furthermore, research on talent beliefs reveal that childrens self-efficacy and beliefs about their own competencies often encourages or discourages participation in music activities. For example, Lamont, Hargreaves, Marshall, and Tarrants (2003) study of eight to fourteen year old children shows that there is a general awareness of the demands and benefits of music learning, therefore children were able to make informed judgments about whether or not to engage in music lessons outside of school. In the school context, beliefs about personal talents or abilities in music may be a strong influencing factor for childrens continued interest to learn what is taught in school, which may be portrayed by positive attitudes and behaviours in the music classroom. On the other hand, children who doubt their capabilities in music (lack of self-efficacy) may prefer not to show strong interest in it for fear of failure and also to protect their fragile self-esteem. Gender Gender differences in musical interest and participation reveal that girls tend to have more positive attitudes and competence beliefs towards learning music. Because they often have more positive musical identities compared to boys and perceive more musical talents, they are therefore more likely to be interested to play music instruments and learn music in school (Eccles, Wigfield, Harold & Blumenfeld, 1993; North, Hargreaves & ONeill, 2000; ONeill, 1997; ONeill, 2001). Age Studies have shown that motivation to learn music is affected by the age of the child; that is, the younger the child, the higher the interest to learn. As mentioned before, childrens interest to learn music decline as they grow older (Dai & Schader, 2001). It is not surprising therefore to find that as children reach Year 6 in primary school, their motivation to learn music in school is much lower than their younger peers. This could be attributed to their encounters with more interesting or more important things in their life which tend to minimize the importance of music. Implications towards learning music in schools Based on the above discussions about what affects attitudes, it can safely be assumed that children digest all the external and internal influences in their life regarding music and form perceptions about the importance and valuing of learning music in school. The overt behaviours teachers see in their music classrooms are a reflection of all these forces at work. While children may be taught to understand the benefits and values of music education by their respective music teachers in school, the influences and impact of the external factors discussed above have to be taken into

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consideration. Music teachers therefore need to be aware of the various backgrounds their students come from and the extent of their musical enculturation which led them to believe and perceive music as they do. Although teachers may take heart in the knowledge that all children enjoy music, the extent of their willingness to persist in learning it may require convincing effort not only by the teachers themselves but also by the support of other authority figures in the school environment as well as the society in which they live in. The role of parents in reinforcing the value of music education cannot be stressed enough. As mentioned earlier, parenting styles and the home environment is an important source of influence to the child who is just beginning to understand their social surroundings and themselves. Children may perceive the positiveness and negativeness of things around them by the behaviours of those around them, although they may be transmitted unintentionally or subconsciously. For example,

parents refusal to allow a child to participate in musical activities at school may be perceived by the child that music is a waste of time or unimportant. However, the popularity of pop and commercial music and the increase in music artistes in the music industry, as well as the hype about reality TV shows such as Akademi Fantasia, Malaysian Idol, Mentor and other music programmes highlighted by the media provides a different image of music. As a result, children may perceive conflicting messages regarding music as a worthy academic subject versus music for leisure and recreation, and also music as a career option. Conclusion It would be wonderful indeed if the status of music in Malaysia could be upgraded from just being a source of entertainment and recreation. The fact that the Malaysian society is ignorant about the many different types of musical knowledge proves that more effort need to be done to promote music advocacy. Only in this way will the hope for the image of music as a worthy area of study could be instilled in children. This is important because with adequate exposure to music learning in school and positive experiences in music, these children will grow up and be the agents of change later on when they become adults themselves. This however, may not be an easy task as there are differences in general attitudes towards music education among the different ethnic groups in Malaysia. Imbalances in music participation, both in and out of school between children of different ethnic groups show that there are ambivalent attitudes towards music among Malaysian society. Children are a product of their upbringing and lifestyles. Until society believes that music is not gift, but a right (Mills, 2003), the status of music education in Malaysia will forever remain within the realms of entertainment and leisure.

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