How to design a Shaft when Fluctuating Loads are to be considered.

1. Determine External Loads. 2. Choose Preliminary Dimensions. 3. Identify Critical Shaft Sections. 4. Determine Stresses. 5. Combine Stresses. 6. Choose Failure Criterion. 7. Choose Material & Material Properties. 8. Determine Fatigue & Safety Factors. 9. Compare Stresses & Strength. 10. Specify Shaft.

Use in conjuction with the Guide, How to design a Shaft for Strength and Rigidity.

Determine External Loads

Actual loads must be determined with reference to the functional requirements of the system. The diagram shows typical loads applied to a shaft during power transmission and the resultant deflections (assumed to be small for the purposes of this guide). Not all the loads shown will be present in every case. Torsional loads: due to the torque being transmitted Transverse loads: applied by many transmission elements (e.g.: belts) Axial loads: result from the use of some transmission elements (e.g.: helical and worm gears) Twist: due to torsional load Deflection: due to bending moment NOTE: The applied loads may fluctuate giving rise to cyclic stresses.

2. Choose Preliminary Dimensions for Shaft

Preliminary dimensions depend on:

the geometrical and functional requirements of the system the bearing arrangement used for shaft support

Place the bearings as close as possible to the line of application of the load and avoid long slender shafts. It is important to consider existing designs and mechanical principles of force transmission. As a preliminary step, it is sometimes convenient to confirm approximate dimensions by assuming steady loads. Use the Guide, Component Design - Shaft for Strength and Rigidity, to do this.

3. Identify Critical Shaft Sections

Critical sections are sections likely to be subjected to high stresses. Locate critical sections by inspection, with reference to the applied loads. Critical sections are usually associated with changes of shaft section or points of load application. When considering fluctuating loads, features which produce high stress concentrations are particularly critical. You may need to consider more than one potentially critical section.

4. Determine Stresses
There are normally both direct (tensile (+) or compressive (-)) and shear cyclic stresses. For both of these determine:
1. maximum & minimum stress 2. mean stress 3. alternating stress

The following table shows the nomenclature used.

Direct Shear (f ) (T) maximum f max Tmax minimum f min Tmin T mean fm m Stress

4.1 Determine Maximum & Minimum Stresses

Maximum stress is the peak value of stress attained during a typical stress cycle. Minimum stress is the least value of stress during the cycle.

Determine the maximum and minimum stresses for both direct and shear stresses. Maximum & Minimum Direct Stresses: To determine f max and f min, combine all the applied direct stresses, taking account of sign conventions. Maximum & Minimum Shear Stresses: To determine Tmax and Tmin, combine all the applied shear stresses. See the Guide, Component Design - Shaft Strength and Rigidity, for more detail.

4.2 Determine Mean Stresses

Mean stress is half the algebraic sum of the maximum and minimum stresses in a typical stress cycle. Determine the mean stress for both direct and shear stresses. Mean Direct Stress: f m = 1/2 [f max + f min] Mean Shear Stress: Tm = 1/2 [Tmax + Tmin]

5. Combine Stresses
Most power transmission shafts experience two types of combination of stresses:

the combination of alternating stresses with mean stresses

Use the Soderburg relationship for ductile materials. This covers the majority of cases. Direct Stresses: f m/f y + f alt/f e = 1 Shear Stresses: Tm/Ty + Talt/Te = 1

The combination of direct stresses with shear stresses

In most power transmission shafts both shear stresses and direct stresses are fluctuating, often in phase with one another since they are the result of a single system element (eg: belt ). Use an equivalent static stress, for both direct and shear stresses, as an estimate of their combined effect. This has the same effect as the combined effect of the mean and alternating stresses. Static Direct Stress: f s = f m + c.f alt (where c = f y/f e) Static Shear Stress: Ts = Tm + c'.Talt (where c' = Ty/Te) Using these equivalents the maximum shear stress in the (ductile) material may be found in the conventional manner. Refer to a standard text for this purpose.

6. Choose Failure Criterion

The failure criterion is a function of the material chosen.

Since most shaft materials are considered 'ductile', the maximum shear stress criterion is most appropriate. If a brittle material is considered, then the maximum principle stress criterion should be used.
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7. Choose Material & Material Properties

Material choice is constrained by many considerations involving performance, manufacturing and commercial factors. In practice, the apparently wide choice is limited (for shafts) to only a few. Fatigue data is not always quoted and may have to be assumed. In this case, calculate Fatigue Ratio using the following relationships: f e' = 0.5f u (for steels) f e' = 0.4 f u (for cast irons) Quoted fatigue data may be restricted to 'rotating-bending' tests. In the absence of validated data for other stress types use the following relationships: f e'(t) = 0.85 f e' (for tensile/compressive loads) f e'(T) = 0.6 f e' (for torsion loads) Consult the standard references or the British Standards for other material properties. The table shows mechanical properties (particularly fatigue related data) for some typical shaft materials.
FATIGUE ULTIMATE YIELD FATIGUE BS 970 TREATMENT STRENGTH STRENGTH STRENGTH RATIO SPECn. MN/m2 (107) MN/m2 MN/m2 fe'/fu 070M20 N 193 400/430 200/230 0.45/0.48 CARBON 070M26 N 201 430/500 220/250 0.40/o.47 STEEL 080M30 N 232 460/500 230/250 0.46/0.50 080M40 H&T 278 620/780 390/460 0.37/0.45 En22 H&T 525 772/850 590/680 0.61/0.68 LOW ALLOY 722M24 H&T 293 850/1080 650/760 0.27/o.35 STEEL 653M31 H&T 432 770/1000 590/680 0.43/0.56 976M33 H&T 486 950/1050 770/820 0.46/0.54 070M20 N 193 400/430 200/230 0.45/0.48 CARBON 070M26 N 201 430/500 220/250 0.40/o.47 STEEL 080M30 N 232 460/500 230/250 0.46/0.50 080M40 H&T 278 620/780 390/460 0.37/0.45 MATERIAL

8. Determine Fatigue and Safety Factors

Quoted data for material property values is based on laboratory tests carried out under specific conditions. To take account of the real conditions of service, apply fatigue factors to the material fatigue strength in order to de-rate the allowable stress. The designer must estimate fatigue factors. These may include some or all of the following:

Residual Stress

Temperature Stress Concentrations Surface Finish Size Reliability Application of Factors Factor of Safety

8.1 Residual Stress

Residual stress, in a shaft subject to fluctuating loads, affects the maximum allowable stress in service. A compressive residual stress can improve the fatigue strength of a material by inhibiting crack initiation and growth. Thus, manufacturing processes such as shot peening, hammering, and cold rolling, are preferable to processes that result in tensile residual stress, such as chromium plating. It is difficult to estimate a factor for residual stress, but it is unlikely to fall outside the range 0.5 < Ka <1.5. In the absence of special treatment, a machined shaft would be expected to have Ka = 0.9.

8.2 Temperature
An increase or decrease in a given temperature affects the performance of the chosen material. An environmental temperature above the given temperature reduces the mechanical strength of the material and results in a reduction in fatigue strength. An environmental temperature below the given temperature may render the material brittle and result in an increase in notch sensitivity. For Example: A temperature range of 0 < T < 400 0 C for a carbon steel, is not expected to affect the endurance limit significantly. For T > 400 0 C, Kd = 1 - 0.003 (T - 400).

8.3 Stress Concentrations

Stress concentrations must be minimized in component design. They are especially important when fluctuating loads are present because fatigue failures are often the result of a geometrical discontinuity (notch), where the local value of stress is greater than the nominal. The severity of the concentration depends entirely on:

the local geometrical shape of the component

The geometrical shape gives rise to a theoretical stress concentration factor, Kt. Kt = (maximum level of stress attained)/ (average level of stress at section)

Consult standard texts on the subject and the Engineering Sciences Data Unit Item No. (Elastic Stress Concentration Factors) for Kt.

69021 values

the material sensitivity to the notch its

The material sensitivity factor, q, is related to metallurgical properties. q = (1 + a/r)-l You can now calculate the fatigue strength reduction factor (Kf). Kf ={1 + q (Kt - 1)}-1

8.4 Surface Finish

Small irregularities form on the surface of the component during and after the manufacturing process. These may produce a similar effect to stress concentrations but their effect is more difficult evaluate precisely. The surface finish factor, Ks, depends on both the surface roughness and the material tensile strength.
Values of Surface Finish Factor for a range of finishes.

8.5 Size
The size of the component relative to the test piece used in laboratory testing, has a direct effect on the apparent fatigue strength, since the larger the part, the more chances of faults within the structure. The size factor, Kv, is quantified from a comparison between the volume of the component, V, and the volume of the highly stressed portion of the test piece, Vo. Kv = {V/Vo} 1/30

8.6 Reliability
Use the reliability factor, Kr, to de-rate the allowable fatigue strength and so reduce the probability of failure of the component. Kr = (1 - 0.08 D) where values of D are as given.

8.7 Application of Factors

Application of factors depends on the ductility of the chosen material. For ductile materials (the most likely case for shafts) apply factors to the fatigue strength. For brittle materials apply factors also to the tensile strength. Except for Ka and Kv, which are sometimes greater than unity, all factors de-rate the material strength. fe = ( Ka . Kd . Kf . Kr . Ks . Kv ) fe'

Values of Deviation Factor, D Required Survival Rate Deviation Factor (D) (%) 90 1.3 95 1.6 The factor of safety reflects the designer's confidence in the data used and the consequences of 99 2.3 failure. 99.9 3.1 Use the factor of safety to reduce the predicted strength of the material. For ductile materials, 99.99 3.7

8.8 Factor of Safety

apply it to both the yield strength and the fatigue strength. Uncertainty exists in:

load magnitude material properties manufacturing quality service conditions

A factor within the range 1.25 to 4.0, based on the material yield strength, normally suffices. Equation 1 may now be written: N.fm/fy + N.fa/K.fe' (where K is the product of all the relevant fatigue and safety factors)
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9. Compare Factored Stresses with Material Strength

Validation of the shaft dimensions, involves ensuring that the total combined applied stress on the component at the most critical section, is less than the fully factored relevant material property, with reference to the failure criterion chosen. If this is not so, one or more of the design parameters must be changed (eg: material, manufacturing process, shape, and so on) and the validation process repeated.

10. Specify Shaft

Shaft specification involves the use of a detailed manufacturing drawing to a recognized standard (e.g.: BS 308).
It should include all information necessary to ensure the required quality. This includes: material

dimensions tolerances surface finishes treatments inspection procedures