Ccna Wireless Lans

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY
CCNA Exploration (640-802)
Wireless LAN
w w w .h a n o ic tt.c o m

Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn to:

• Wireless LAN Concepts
• Deploying WLANs
• Wireless LAN Security
Wireless LAN Concepts


Wireless Data Technologies

Characteristics of Wireless Data

Technologies
Wireless Technology Characteristics
Infrared (IR) Very high data rates, low cost, very short distance
Narrowband Low data rates, medium cost, limited distance,

license required
Spread spectrum High data rates, medium cost, limited to campus
coverage
Personal communication service (PCS) Low data rates, medium cost, citywide coverage
3G service Mobile phone data technologies, medium cost,

worldwide coverage
Cellular, Cellular Digital Packet Data Low data rates, flat monthly rate, national
(CDPD), Mobitex, DataTAC coverage
Microwave transmissions Wireless data link using microwaves, medium

rage, high data rates possible, license required
Long range (LR) optical transmissions Data link using laser transmission, short range,
high data rates

Wireless Data Technologies (Cont.)

WAN
(Wide Area Network)
MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network)
LAN
(Local Area Network)
PAN
(Personal Area
Network)
PAN LAN MAN WAN

IEEE 802.11a, 802.16 GSM, GPRS,
Standards Bluetooth
802.11b, 802.11g MMDS, LMDS CDMA, 2.5–3G
Speed <1 Mbps 1–54+ Mbps 22+ Mbps 10–384 kbps
Range Short Medium Medium–long Long

PDAs, mobile
Peer to peer, Enterprise Fixed, last-
Applications device to device networks mile access
phones, cellular
access
Wireless LAN (WLAN)

• A WLAN is a shared network.
• An access point is a shared
device and functions like a
shared Ethernet hub.
• Data is transmitted over radio
waves.
• Two-way radio communications
(half-duplex) are used.
• To arbitrate the use of the
frequency, WLANs use the Carrier
Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
algorithm to enforce HDX logic
and avoid as many collisions as
possible.
• The same radio frequency is used
for sending and receiving
(transceiver).

What Are WLANs?

They are: They are not:
• Local • WAN or MAN networks
• In building or campus for • Cellular phones networks
mobile users • Packet data transmission
• Radio or infrared via celluar phone networks
• Not required to have RF – Cellular digital packet
licenses in most countries data (CDPD)
• Using equipment owned by – General packet radio
customers service (GPRS)
– 2.5G to 3G services
Similarities Between WLAN and LAN

• A WLAN is an 802 LAN.
– The IEEE defines standards for both, using the IEEE 802.3
family for Ethernet LANs and the 802.11 family for WLANs.
– Transmits data over the air vs. data over the wire
– Looks like a wired network to the user
– Defines physical and data link layer
– Both define a frame format with a header and trailer, with the
header including a source and destination MAC address field,
each 6 bytes in length.
– Both define rules about how the devices should determine
when they should send frames and when they should not.
• The same protocols/applications run over both WLANs and LANs.
– IP (network layer)
– IPSec VPNs (IP-based)
– Web, FTP, SNMP (applications)

Differences Between WLAN and LAN

• WLANs use radio waves as the physical layer.
– WLANs use CSMA/CA instead of CSMA/CD to access the network.
• Radio waves have problems that are not found on wires.
– Connectivity issues.
• Coverage problems
• Multipath issues
• Interference, noise
– Privacy issues.
• WLANs use mobile clients.
– No physical connection.
– Battery-powered.
• WLANs must meet country-specific RF regulations.

Wireless LAN Standard
Organizations That Set or Influence WLAN Standards
Organization Standardization Role
ITU-R Worldwide standardization of communications that use

radiated energy, particularly managing the assignment of
frequencies
IEEE Standardization of wireless LANs (802.11)
Wi-Fi Alliance An industry consortium that encourages interoperability of

products that implement WLAN standards through their Wi-Fi
certified program
Federal Communications The U.S. government agency with that regulates the usage of
Commission (FCC) various communications frequencies in the U.S.

Wireless LAN Standard
Feature 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g

Year ratified 1999 1999 2003
Maximum speed using DSSS ---------- 11 Mbps 11 Mbps
Maximum speed using OFDM 54 Mbps ---------- 54 Mbps
Frequency band 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz
Channels (nonoverlapped) 23 (12) 11 (3) 11 (3)
Speeds required by standard (Mbps) 6, 12, 24 1, 2, 5.5, 11 6, 12, 24
Service Set Identifier (SSID)

• The SSID is the name of the
wireless cell. SSID is used to
logically separate WLANs.
• The SSID must match on client and
access point.
• Access point broadcasts one SSID
in beacon. Therefore, clients can
be configured without SSID.
• Client association steps:
– Client sends probe request.
– Access point sends probe
response.
– Client initiates association.
– Access point accepts

association.
– Access point adds client MAC
address to association table.

Service Sets and Modes
Ad hoc mode:
• Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS):
– Mobile clients connect directly without an
intermediate access point.
Infrastructure mode:
• Basic Service Set:
– Mobile clients use a single access point for
connecting to each other or to wired
network resources.
• Extended Services Set:
– Two or more Basic Service Sets are
connected by a common distribution

system (DS).
Different WLAN Modes and Names
Mode Service Set Name Description
Ad hoc Independent Basic Allows two devices to communicate

Service Set (IBSS) directly. No AP is needed.
Infrastructure Basic Service A single wireless LAN created with
(one AP) Set (BSS) an AP and all devices that associate
with that AP
Infrastructure Extended Service Multiple APs create one wireless
(more than one AP) Set (ESS) LAN, allowing roaming and a larger
coverage area.

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)
• WLANs transmit data at Layer 1 by sending and receiving radio waves

• Many electronic devices radiate energy at varying frequencies. To prevent
the energy radiated by one device from interfering with other devices,
national government agencies, regulate and oversee the frequency ranges
that can be used inside that country. For example, Radio Frequency
Directorate (RFD) in the Vietnam regulates the electromagnetic spectrum
of frequencies.
• The wider the range of frequencies in a frequency band, the greater the
amount of information that can be sent in that frequency band

FCC Unlicensed Frequency Bands
Frequency Name Sample Devices

900 KHz Industrial, Scientific, Older cordless telephones
Mechanical (ISM)
2.4 GHz ISM Newer cordless phones and
802.11, 802.11b, 802.11g WLANs
5 GHz Unlicensed National Newer cordless phones and
Information Infrastructure 802.11a, 802.11n WLANs
(U-NII)
• Unlicensed frequencies can be used by all kinds of devices; however, the

devices must still conform to the rules set up by the regulatory agency. In
particular, a device using an unlicensed band must use power levels at or
below a particular setting. Otherwise, the device might interfere too much
with other devices sharing that unlicensed band


FCC Unlicensed Frequency Bands
• ISM (Industry, Scientific, and Medical) bands:

900 MHz and 2.4 GHz • No exclusive use
• U-NII (Unlicensed National Information • Best effort
Infrastructure) bands: 5GHz • Interference and degradation are
• No license required possible
• It is important to know the names of three general classes of encoding, in

part because the type of encoding requires some planning and
forethought for some WLANs.
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
– Uses all frequencies in the band, hopping to different ones.
– By using slightly different frequencies for consecutive transmissions,
a device can hopefully avoid interference from other devices that use
the same unlicensed band, succeeding at sending data at some
frequencies.
– The original 802.11 WLAN standards used FHSS, but the current
standards (802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g) do not.

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) followed as the next general

class of encoding type for WLANs.
– Designed for use in the 2.4 GHz unlicensed band,
– Uses one of several separate channels or frequencies.

– This band has a bandwidth of 82 MHz, with a range from 2.402 GHz to
2.483 GHz. As regulated by the FCC, this band can have 11 (North
America) or 13 (Europe) different overlapping DSSS channels.

802.11b/g (2.4 GHz) Channel Reuse


Using Nonoverlapping DSSS 2.4-GHz Channels in an ESS WLAN
• The devices in one BSS (devices communicating through one AP) can
send at the same time as the other two BSSs and not interfere with each
other, because each uses the slightly different frequencies of the
nonoverlapping channels

Encoding Classes and IEEE Standard WLANs
Name of Encoding Class What It Is Used By

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) 802.11
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 802.11b, 802.11g
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 802.11a

• The last of the three categories of encoding for WLANs is called Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). Like DSSS, WLANs that use OFDM can use
multiple nonoverlapping channels.
• NOTE: The emerging 802.11n standard uses OFDM as well as multiple antennas, a
technology sometimes called multiple input multiple output (MIMO).


Wireless Interference
• Radio frequencies are radiated into the air via an antenna, creating
radio waves. The following factors influence the transmission of radio
waves:
– Reflection: Occurs when RF waves bounce off objects (for
example, metal or glass surfaces).
– Scattering: Occurs when RF waves strike an uneven surface (for
example, a rough surface) and are reflected in many directions.
– Absorption: Occurs when RF waves are absorbed by objects (for
example, walls).
• Additionally, wireless communication is impacted by other radio
waves in the same frequency range.
• One key measurement for interference is the Signal-to-Noise Ratio

(SNR). This calculation measures the WLAN signal as compared to
the other undesired signals (noise) in the same space. The higher the
SNR, the better the WLAN devices can send data successfully.

Coverage Area, Speed, and Capacity
• A WLAN coverage area is the space in

which two WLAN devices can successfully
send data. The coverage area created by a
particular AP depends on many factors:
– The transmit power by an AP or WLAN
NIC cannot exceed a particular level
based on the regulations from
regulatory agencies such as the FCC
– The materials and locations of the
materials near the AP
• NOTE: The power of an AP is measured
based on the Effective Isotropic Radiated
Power (EIRP) calculation. This is the radio’s
power output, plus the increase in power
caused by the antenna, minus any power

lost in the cabling. In effect, it’s the power of
the signal as it leaves the antenna.


WLAN Speed and Frequency Reference
IEEE Standard Maximum Speed Other Speeds Frequency Nonoverlapping

(Mbps) (Mbps) (GHz) Channels
802.11b 11 1, 2, 5.5 2.4 3
802.11a 54 6, 9, 12, 18, 5 12

24, 36, 48
802.11g 54 Same as 5 3
802.11.a
• The speeds listed in bold text are required speeds according to the
standards. The other speeds are optional.
• NOTE: The original 802.11 standard supported speeds of 1 and 2 Mbps.
Media Access (Layer 2)

• The solution to the media access problem with WLANs is to use the carrier sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) algorithm.
• However, CSMA/CA does not prevent collisions, so the WLAN standards must have a
process to deal with collisions when they do occur.
• Because the sending device cannot tell if its transmitted frame collided with another
frame, the standards all require an acknowledgment of every frame. Each WLAN
device listens for the acknowledgment, which should occur immediately after the
frame is sent. If no acknowledgment is received, the sending device assumes that the
frame was lost or collided, and it resends the frame.
– Step 1: Listen to ensure that the medium (space) is not busy (no radio waves
currently are being received at the frequencies to be used).
– Step 2: Set a random wait timer before sending a frame to statistically reduce the
chance of devices all trying to send at the same time.
– Step 3: When the random timer has passed, listen again to ensure that the
medium is not busy. If it isn’t, send the frame.
– Step 4: After the entire frame has been sent, wait for an acknowledgment.
– Step 5: If no acknowledgment is received, resend the frame, using CSMA/CA

logic to wait for the appropriate time to send again.

Deploying WLANs
Wireless LAN Implementation Checklist

The following basic checklist can help guide the installation of a new BSS
WLAN:
• Step 1: Verify the Existing Wired Network
– Verify that the existing wired network works, including DHCP services,
VLANs, and Internet connectivity.
• Step 2: Install and Configure the AP’s Wired and IP Details
– Install the AP and configure/verify its connectivity to the wired
network, including the AP’s IP address, mask, and default gateway.
• Step 3: Configure the AP’s WLAN Details
– Configure and verify the AP’s wireless settings, including Service Set
Identifier (SSID), but no security.
• Step 4: Install and Configure One Wireless Client
– Install and configure one wireless client (for example, a laptop), again
with no security.
• Step 5: Verify that the WLAN works from the laptop

Wireless LAN Implementation

Step 1: Verify the Existing Wired Network
different
non-overlapping
or frequencies
channels for best
performance
For wireless voice networks, an overlap of 15 to 20 percent is recommended.


Step 2: Install and Configure the AP’s Wired and IP Details
• Just like an Ethernet switch, wireless APs operate at Layer 2 and do not
need an IP address to perform their main functions.
• However, just as an Ethernet switch in an Enterprise network should have
an IP address so that it can be easily managed, APs deployed in an
Enterprise network should also have an IP address.
• In particular, the AP needs an IP address, subnet mask, default gateway IP
address, and possibly the IP address of a DNS server.


Step 3: Configure the AP’s WLAN Details
• The following list highlights some of the features mentioned

earlier in this chapter that may need to be configured:
– IEEE standard (a, b, g, or multiple)
– Wireless channel
– Service Set Identifier (SSID, a 32-character text identifier for
the WLAN)
– Transmit power

Step 4: Install and Configure One Wireless Client
• To be a WLAN client, the device simply needs a WLAN NIC that supports the
same WLAN standard as the AP.
• When the client starts working, it tries to discover all APs by listening on all
frequency channels for the WLAN standards it supports by default.
• WLAN clients may use wireless NICs from a large number of vendors. To
help ensure that the clients can work with Cisco APs, Cisco started the
Cisco Compatible Extensions Program (CCX).
• With Microsoft operating systems, the wireless NIC may not need to be
configured because of the Microsoft Zero Configuration Utility (ZCF). This
utility, part of the OS, allows the PC to automatically discover the SSIDs of
all WLANs whose APs are within range on the NIC. The user can choose the
SSID to connect to. Or the ZCF utility can automatically pick the AP with the
strongest signal, thereby automatically connecting to a wireless LAN
without the user’s needing to configure anything.

• Note that most NIC manufacturers also provide software that can control the
NIC instead of the operating system’s built-in tools such as Microsoft ZCF.


Step 5: Verify that the WLAN works from the laptop
• if the new client cannot communicate, you might check the following:
– Is the AP at the center of the area in which the clients reside?
– Is the AP or client right next to a lot of metal?
– Is the AP or client near a source of interference, such as a microwave
oven or gaming system?
– Is the AP’s coverage area wide enough to reach the client?
• The following list notes a few other common problems with a new
installation:
– Check to make sure that the NIC and AP’s radios are enabled. In
particular, most laptops have a physical switch with which to enable or
disable the radio, as well as a software setting to enable or disable the
radio. This allows the laptop to save power (and extend the time before it
must be plugged into a power outlet again). It also can cause users to fail
to connect to an AP, just because the radio is turned off.
– Check the AP to ensure that it has the latest firmware. AP firmware is the
OS that runs in the AP.
– Check the AP configuration—in particular, the channel configuration—to
ensure that it does not use a channel that overlaps with other APs in the
same location.
Wireless LAN Security


Wireless Security
Encryption + Authentication = Security
• To provide a minimum level of security in a WLAN, you need two

components:
– A means to decide who or what can use a WLAN. This requirement
is satisfied by authentication mechanisms for LAN access control.
– A means to provide privacy for the wireless data. The requirement is
satisfied by encryption algorithms.
WLAN Security Issues

• The Cisco-authorized CCNA-related courses suggest several categories
of threats:
– War drivers
– Hackers
– Employees
– Rogue AP
• To reduce the risk of such attacks, three main types of tools can be used
on a WLAN:
– Mutual authentication
– Encryption
– Intrusion tools

WLAN Vulnerabilities and Solutions
WLAN Vulnerabilities and Solutions
Vulnerability Solution
War drivers Strong authentication

Hackers stealing information in a WLAN Strong encryption
Hackers gaining access to the rest of the network Strong authentication
Employee AP installation Intrusion Detection Systems

(IDS), including Cisco SWAN
Rogue AP Strong authentication,
IDS/SWAN
The Progression of WLAN Security Standards
Name Year Who Defined It
Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) 1997 IEEE
The interim Cisco solution while 2001 Cisco, IEEE 802.1x Extensible
awaiting 802.11i Authentication Protocol (EAP)
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) 2003 Wi-Fi Alliance
802.11i (WPA2) 2005+ IEEE


Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• WEP is based on the RC4 symmetric stream cipher.

• The symmetric nature of RC4 requires that matching WEP keys, either
40 or 104 bits in length, must be statically configured on client devices
and access points (APs).
• WEP was chosen primarily because of its low computational overhead.

Open Authentication with Differing WEP Keys
• Open authentication is a null authentication algorithm.

• Access control in Open authentication relies on the preconfigured WEP key
on the client and AP. The client and AP must have matching WEP keys to
enable them to communicate.

• If the client and AP do not have WEP enabled, there is no security in the
BSS. Any device can join the BSS and all data frames are transmitted
unencrypted.


Shared Key Authentication Process
• The following summarizes the Shared Key authentication process:

1. The client sends an authentication request for Shared Key authentication to the
AP.
2. The AP responds with a cleartext challenge frame.
3. The client encrypts the challenge and responds back to the AP.
4. If the AP can correctly decrypt the frame and retrieve the original challenge, the
client is sent a success message.

5. The client can access the WLAN.
• The premise behind Shared Key authentication is similar to that of Open
authentication with WEP keys as the access control means. The client and AP must
have matching keys. The difference between the two schemes is that the client cannot
associate in Shared Key authentication unless the correct key is configured

• The main problems were as follows:
– Static Preshared Keys (PSK): The key value had to be configured on
each client and each AP, with no dynamic way to exchange the keys
without human intervention. As a result, many people did not bother
to change the keys on a regular basis, especially in Enterprises with a
large number of wireless clients.
– Easily cracked keys: The key values were short (64 bits, of which only
40 were the actual unique key). This made it easier to predict the key’s
value based on the frames copied from the WLAN. Additionally, the
fact that the key typically never changed meant that the hacker could
gather lots of sample authentication attempts, making it easier to find
the key.
• Because of the problems with WEP, and the fact that the later standards
include much better security features, WEP should not be used today.

SSID Cloaking and MAC Filtering

• Normally, the association process occurs like this:
– Step 1: The AP sends a periodic Beacon frame (the default is every 100 ms) that
lists the AP’s SSID and other configuration information.
– Step 2: The client listens for Beacons on all channels, learning about all APs in
range.
– Step 3: The client associates with the AP with the strongest signal (the default), or
with the AP with the strongest signal for the currently preferred SSID.
– Step 4: The authentication process occurs as soon as the client has associated
with the AP.
• SSID cloaking is an AP feature that tells the AP to stop sending periodic Beacon
frames. This seems to solve the problem with attackers easily and quickly finding all
APs. However, clients still need to be able to find the APs. Therefore, if the client has
been configured with a null SSID, the client sends a Probe message, which causes
each AP to respond with its SSID. In short, it is simple to cause all the APs to
announce their SSIDs, even with cloaking enabled on the APs, so attackers can still
find all the APs.
• MAC address filtering: The AP can be configured with a list of allowed WLAN MAC
addresses, filtering frames sent by WLAN clients whose MAC address is not in the list.
As with SSID cloaking, MAC address filtering may prevent curious onlookers from
accessing the WLAN, but it does not stop a real attack. The attacker can use a WLAN
adapter that allows its MAC address to be changed, copy legitimate frames out of the
air, set its own MAC address to one of the legitimate MAC addresses, and circumvent
the MAC address filter.
The Cisco Interim Solution Between WEP and

802.11i
• The Cisco answer included some proprietary improvements for encryption, along
with the IEEE 802.1x standard for end-user authentication. The main features of
Cisco enhancements included the following:
– Dynamic key exchange (instead of static preshared keys)
– User authentication using IEEE 802.1x
– A new encryption key for each packet
• Cisco also added user authentication to its suite of security features.
• User authentication means that instead of authenticating the device by checking
to see if the device knows a correct key, the user must supply a username and
password. This extra authentication step adds another layer of security. That
way, even if the keys are temporarily compromised, the attacker must also know
a person’s username and password to gain access to the WLAN.

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)
• Wi-Fi alliance took the current work-in-progress on the 802.11i committee,

made some assumptions and predictions, and defined a de facto industry
standard.
• The Wi-Fi Alliance then performed its normal task of certifying vendors’
products as to whether they met this new industry standard, calling it Wi-Fi
Protected Access (WPA).
• WPA essentially performed the same functions as the Cisco proprietary
interim solution, but with different details. WPA includes the option to use
dynamic key exchange, using the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP).
(Cisco used a proprietary version of TKIP.)
• WPA allows for the use of either IEEE 802.1X user authentication or simple
device authentication using preshared keys. And the encryption algorithm
uses the Message Integrity Check (MIC) algorithm, again similar to the
process used in the Cisco-proprietary solution.
• NOTE: The Cisco-proprietary solutions and the WPA industry standard are
incompatible.
IEEE 802.11i and WPA-2
• Like the Cisco-proprietary solution, and the Wi-Fi Alliance’s WPA industry
standard, 802.11i includes dynamic key exchange, much stronger
encryption, and user authentication. However, the details differ enough so
that 802.11i is not backward-compatible with either WPA or the Cisco-
proprietary protocols.
• One particularly important improvement over the interim Cisco and WPA
standards is the inclusion of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) in
802.11i. AES provides even better encryption than the interim Cisco and
WEP standards, with longer keys and much more secure encryption
algorithms.
• The Wi-Fi Alliance continues its product certification role for 802.11i, but
with a twist on the names used for the standard. Because of the success
of the WPA industry standard and the popularity of the term “WPA,” the
Wi-Fi Alliance calls 802.11i WPA2, meaning the second version of WPA.
So, when buying and configuring products, you will more likely see
references to WPA2 rather than 802.11i.

Comparisons of WLAN Security Features
Standard Key Device User Encryption

Distribution Authentication Authentication
WEP Static Yes (weak) None Yes (weak)
Cisco Dynamic Yes Yes (802.1x) Yes (TKIP)
WPA Both Yes Yes (802.1x) Yes (TKIP)
802.11i (WPA2) Both Yes Yes (802.1x) Yes (AES)


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HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

CCNA Exploration (640-802)

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

In this chapter, you will learn to:

Wireless LAN Concepts

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Data Technologies

Characteristics of Wireless Data

Narrowband Low data rates, medium cost, limited distance,

3G service Mobile phone data technologies, medium cost,

Microwave transmissions Wireless data link using microwaves, medium

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Data Technologies (Cont.)

PAN LAN MAN WAN

Range Short Medium Medium–long Long

Wireless LAN (WLAN)

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

What Are WLANs?

Similarities Between WLAN and LAN

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Differences Between WLAN and LAN

• WLANs must meet country-specific RF regulations.

Wireless LAN Standard

Organizations That Set or Influence WLAN Standards

Organization Standardization Role

ITU-R Worldwide standardization of communications that use

Wi-Fi Alliance An industry consortium that encourages interoperability of

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless LAN Standard

Feature 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g

Service Set Identifier (SSID)

– Access point accepts

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Service Sets and Modes

connected by a common distribution

Different WLAN Modes and Names

Mode Service Set Name Description

Ad hoc Independent Basic Allows two devices to communicate

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

• WLANs transmit data at Layer 1 by sending and receiving radio waves

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

Frequency Name Sample Devices

• Unlicensed frequencies can be used by all kinds of devices; however, the

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

• ISM (Industry, Scientific, and Medical) bands:

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

• It is important to know the names of three general classes of encoding, in

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) followed as the next general

– Uses one of several separate channels or frequencies.

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

Name of Encoding Class What It Is Used By

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) 802.11b, 802.11g

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) 802.11a

HANOICTT NETWORKING ACADEMY

Wireless Transmissions (Layer 1)

• One key measurement for interference is the Signal-to-Noise Ratio