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Hormonal Effects
major processes
reproduction growth & development body defenses mobilization blood electrolytes, H2O, nutrient balance maintainence cellular metabolism regulation energy balance
interacts with nervous system (NS) to coordinate and integrate body cell activity endocrinology
scientific study of hormones and endocrine organs
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Glands
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endocrine~ductless
lack ducts release hormones into surrounding tissue rich vascular and lymphatic drainage
exocrine
have ducts more numerous secrete products onto skin or into body cavities examples
mucous, sweat, oil, salivary, liver
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pituitary thyroid parathyroid hypothalamus (neuroendocrine) adrenal pineal thymus pancreas gonads
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amino acid-based
majority of hormones molecule size varies
simple to long polymers
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Target Cell
cell capable of responding to a hormone because it bears receptors to which a hormone can bind
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response
dependent on target cell type
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Target Cells
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respond to a hormone bear receptors changed by a hormone via stimulus five ways
protein receptors
specific location
target cell PM interior response hormone binding
performance preprogrammed function
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Target Cells
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five ways
change in MP or electrical state enzyme synthesis enzyme activation or inhibition secretory activity gene activation
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Half-Life
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up-regulation
formation of additional receptors blood hormonal levels greater target cell response to stimulation
down-regulation
prolonged [high hormone] desensitization loss of hormonal receptors less target cell response to stimulation
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estrogen
cause progesterone receptor production (same cells) enhances response to progesterone
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limited
20 min to several hours
effects
disappear rapidly
with decreasing blood levels
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negative feedback
original stimulus contributes to homeostasis ex. glucose blood levels
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positive feedback
initial stimulus enhances hormonal response rarely contributes to homeostasis ex. blood clotting
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Hormonal Stimuli
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hormonal release
response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs
example
ant pit
regulated by hypothalamus hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release hormones blood hormonal levels inhibition pit hormones and final target hormone release
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Humoral Stimuli
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hormonal secretion
direct response to changing blood levels
ions, nutrients
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promotes rhythmic hormone release ing and ing hormone blood levels some endocrine organs respond to multiple stimuli
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Neural Stimuli
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hormonal release
response to nerve fiber stimulation
examples
oxytocin release (hypothalamus) ADH release (hypothalamus) SNS stimulation
epi and nor release (adrenal medulla)
stress
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Posterior Lobe
aka neurohypophysis consists of lobe and infundibulum composed of pituicytes (glia-like supporting cells) and nerve fibers releases neurohormones produced in hypothalamus hormone storage area
not true endocrine gland
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Hormones
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Anterior Lobe
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~ 14 required description producing organ primary body effect secretion regulation other hormonal influences source of regulating hormones
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master endocrine gland regulates activity of other endocrine glands 6 distinct hormones known
specific physiological actions proteins
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Adenohypophyseal Hormones
acts directly or indirectly via insulin-like growth factors (IGF or somatomeidins s) regulation
GHRH and GHIH (hypothalamus) low levels GH 2o triggers
estrogen hypoglycemia a.a. (blood) f.a. exercise other stressors
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Adenohypophyseal Hormones
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GH LH FSH PRL
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Hyposecretion of GH
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action
stimulates most body cells to size and divide
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homeostatic imbalance causes pituitary dwarfism (children) slowed long bone growth max ht - 4 ft usually no problems - adults rare cases
severe deficit progeria
premature aging and atrophy of body tissues
anabolic hormone
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Hypersecretion of GH
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Gonadotropins
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prepuberty
virtually absent
blood of prepubertal boys & girls
puberty
gonadotrope cells (ant pit) are activated gonadotropin levels begin to rise
cause gonads to mature to adult state
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enlarged extremeties overgrowth of bony areas (hands, feet, face) still 49 2/10/2003 responsive to GH
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Gonadotropins
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Gonadotropin Regulation
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FSH
in both sexes stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
LH
estrogen (females) testosterone (males)
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LH
Homeostatic Imbalances
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females
works w/ FSH
maturation of egg-containing ovarian follicle triggers expulsion egg from follicle (ovulation) promotes synthesis & release of ovarian hormones
estrogen & progesterone
hyposecretion
failure of sexual maturation
hypersecretion
no important effects
males
stimulates testosterone production
testesinterstitial cells
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Prolactin (PRL)
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protein hormone similar to GH stimulates milk production (breast) enhances testosterone production (male) brief rise in levels prior to menstration
breast swelling & tenderness (some) no milk production
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dramatic rise at end of pregnancy (pregnant women) infant suckling stimulates release (afterbirth)
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Neurohypophyseal Hormones
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Neurohypophyseal Hormones
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ADH Regulation
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inhibition
drinking alcohol
urine output morning afterdry mouth dehydration
composed of nine a.a. differ only in two a.a. different physiological effects on target organs
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ADH
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ADH Effects
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action
influence body H2O balance
prevents dehydration prevents H 2O overload
pressor effect
high [blood] vasoconstriction
primarily visceral b.v.
target organ
kidneys
tubule cells reabsorb more H2O from urine return H2O to bloodstream urine and BV [solute] ADH release
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ADH Regulation
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Homeostatic Imbalance
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low BP
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Oxytocin
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action
strong stimulant of uterine contractions hormonal trigger for milk ejection in women actively producing milk (in response to PRL)
positive feedback
suckling event
Oxytocin
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TH Calcitonin
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Thyroid Hormone
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Thyroid Hormone
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actions
BMR O 2 consumption body heat production maintains BP
# of adrenergic receptors in BV
TSH
thyroid-stimulating hormone adenohypophyseal hormone regulates TH secretion
TRH
thyrotropin-releasing hormone secreted by hypothalamus triggers TSH release *can overcome negative feedback controls
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TRH Regulation
Stimulus for TRH release
(low levels of T4 )
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blood [iodine]
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Hypothyroid Disorders
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2. T4 and T 3 bind to target tissue receptors 3. T3 binds more avidly and is more active
conversion of T4 to T3 most T3 generated in target organs by enzymatic action
removal of one iodine group
adults
myxedema
- children
- cretinism
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Myxedema
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Cretinism
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low MR chills constipation thick, dry skin puffy eyes edema lethargic mental sluggishness
severe hypothyroidism short, disproportionate body thick tongue and neck mentally retarded genetic deficiency of thyroid gland lack of dietary iodine (maternal)
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Myxedema
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Cretinism
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if result of lack of iodine thyroid gland enlargement AKA endemic (colloidal) goiter follicle cells cannot take up iodine or make functional hormone pituitary secretes TSH TH
tx
preventable by TH replacement therapy
before developmental abnormalities and mental retardation
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Myxedema
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Grave Disease s
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tx
iodine supplements hormone replacement therapy surgery
goiter belt
parts of US
iodine poor soil no access to iodine-rich shellfish
hyperthyroid pathology autoimmune ds MR sweating rapid, irregular heartbeat nervousness weight loss (despite food intake) serum contains abnormal AB
mimic TSH TH release
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Grave Disease s
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Calcitonin Regulation
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protrusion of eyeballs
exophthalmos
stimulus
humoral Ca 2+ blood levels
~20% above normal
tx
surgical removal thyroid gland
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inhibition
Ca 2+ blood levels
inhibit C cell secretory activity
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Calcitonin
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action
lower blood Ca 2+ levels direct antagonist of PTH weak hypocalcemic agent
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Calcitonin
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target organ
skeleton (bone sparing effects)
1. inhibits osteoclast activity
bone resorption release of ionic Ca2+ (bony matrix)
2. stimulates Ca 2+ uptake
incorporation into bony matrix ?
usually 4 glands
number varies
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chief cells
secrete PTH
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PTH Regulation
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stimulus
Ca 2+ blood levels Ca 2+ blood levels
hypocalcemia
inhibition
target organs
skeleton (bone) kidneys intestines
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Vitamin D
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skeleton (bone)
activates osteoclasts
(bone resorption~removal)
kidneys
promotes activation of vitamin D Ca 2+ reabsorption
required for absorption of Ca2+ ingestion of food produced in skin inactive form converted in kidneys to active vitamin D form
calcitrol stimulated by PTH
intestines
promotes activation of vitamin D Ca 2+ absorption
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paired pyramid shaped organs perched on top kidneys (caps) enclosed in a fibrous capsule & cushion of fat two endocrine organs
structurally & functionally
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Adrenal Cortex
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Mineralocorticoids
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synthesized from cholesterol by adrenal cortex large, lipid cortical cells arranged in three layers (zones)
corticosteroids produced
zona glomerulosa (outer) zona fasciculata (middle) zona reticularis (inner)
aldosterone
most potent of all mineralocorticoids accounts for over 95% of mineralocorticoids produced
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Aldosterone
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zona glomerulosa
secrete primarily mineralocorticoids
control electrolyte balance in ECF
primarily Na and K ions
action
maintain Na 2+ balance
reduces excretion of Na from the body enhances Na reabsorption
perspiration, saliva and gastric juice
zona fasciculata
arranged in linear cords secrete glucocorticoids
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significance
Na 2+ regulation crucial to overall body homeostasis
where Na 2+ goes, H2O follows BV & BP changes in
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Aldosterone
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target organ
distal part of kidney tubules
stimulates reabsorption of Na 2+ from forming urine
return of Na2+ to bloodstream
zona reticularis
produce small amts of gonadocorticoids
sex hormones
**division of labor in corticosteroid production all corticosteroids are produced in all 3 layers
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Aldosterone
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stimulus
rising blood levels of K + low blood levels of Na, BV and BP
inhibition
rev erse conditions low blood levels of K + high blood levels of Na, BV and BP
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releasing hormone
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Aldosterone
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1) renin-angiotensin system
major regulator of aldosterone release
kidney cells release renin BP
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Cortisol
target organs
body cells
promote gluconeogenesis
prime metabolic effect formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules fats proteins
promote hyperglycemia
mobilization of fats for energy metabolism
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Glucocorticoids
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Cortisol
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hormones
cortisol (hydrocortisone)
secreted in significant amts
target organs
body cells
stimulate protein catabolism assist body resist stressors enhances vasoconstrictive effects of epi
BP and circulation ensure adequate nutrient distribution to cells
cortisone corticosterone
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Cortisol
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Cortisol Regulation
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action
influence the metabolism of most body cells help resistance of stressors help body adapt to intermittent food intake
maintain constant blood sugar levels
stimulation
promoted by ACTH (ant pit)
triggered by CRH (hypo)
inhibition
cortisol levels
feedback to hypo and ant pit
shut off CRH release ACTH and cortisol secretion
maintain BV
prevent shifts of H2O into tissue cells
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Cortisol Regulation
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blood levels
peak
shortly after rising (morning)
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lowest
evening just before and shortly after sleep ensues
Undesirable Effects 1) depress cartilage and bone formation 2) inhibit inflammation and prevent vasodilation 3) depress the immune system 4) promote changes in cardiovascular, neural and GI fnc
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*ideal amts promote normal fnc
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Stress
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Cushing Ds s causes
ACTH releasing tumor of pit ACTH releasing malignancy of lungs, pancreas, or kidneys tumor of adrenal cortex clinical administration of glucocorticoid meds
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dramatic losses in muscle & bone protein water and salt retention
HTN, edema
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Cushing-oid Signs
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Gonadocorticoids
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action
not fully understood adrenal androgen levels rise continuously between ages of 7 and 13
boys and girls
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contribute to onset of puberty and the appearance of axillary and pubic hair
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Gonadocorticoids
action
responsible for sex drive
adult women
trt (only)
removal of the cause
surgery drug discontinuation
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Gonadocorticoids
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Gonadocorticoids
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inhibition
mechanism not understood
ACTH does not exert feedback control
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Hypersecretion of Gonadocorticoids
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Adrenal Medulla
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location
ctr of the adrenal gland
surrounded by the adrenal cortex
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Hypersecretion of Gonadocorticoids
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Adrenal Medulla
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prepubertal males
dramatic effects maturation of reproductive organs and appearance of secondary sex characteristics occur rapidly
norepinephrine
greater influence on peripheral vasoconstriction & bp
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Hypersecretion of Gonadocorticoids
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Catecholamine Regulation
stimulus
body fight-or-flight status by short-term s stressor or emergency
SNS is mobilized
blood sugar bv consriction heart beat bp blood diversion from nonessential organs to brain, heart, skeletal muscles
females
androgenital syndrome (virilization of females)
~adrenogenital syndrome beard development masculine pattern of body hair distribution clitoris grows to resemble a small penis
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mixed gland
composed of endocrine and exocrine gland cells
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Pancreatic Cells
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glucocorticoids
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cortisol
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catecholamines
cause fairly brief responses to stress
adrenocortical hormones
promote long-lasting responses to stress
beta cells
insulin producing cells more numerous
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Pancreatic Islets
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Glucagon Regulation
stimulus
humoral
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opposite effects
glucagon hyperglycemic hormone insulin hypoglycemic hormone
inhibition
blood sugar levels somatostatin
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Glucagon
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polypeptide extremely potent hyperglycemic agent 1 molecule release of 100 mil molecules of glucose in blood
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Glucagon
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target organ
liver
glycogenolysis
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Insulin
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gluconeogenesis
synthesis of glucose lactic acid noncarbohydrate molecules (fats, a.a)
2O effect
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Insulin
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target organ
liver
blood sugar levels (main effect)
enhances membrane transport of glucose and other simple sugars into body cells
especially muscle & fat cells
Insulin Regulation
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inhibition
sugar plasma levels somatostatin (indirect)
does not accelerate glucose entry into liver, kidney and brain tissue
easy access to blood glucose regardless of insulin levels
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Insulin
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target organ
liver
other effects
influence protein & fat metabolism
promotes protein synthesis & fat storage
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Insulin Regulation
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stimulation
blood glucose levels (primary) plasma levels of a.a, f.a. (secondary) other direct or indirect effects
hyperglycemic hormones
glucagon epinephrine GH thyroxine glucocorticoids
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Metabolic Rate
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calorimetry measurement
direct method of measuring MR person enters a chamber (calorimeter) heat liberated by body is absorbed by water circulating around the chamber rise in water temp is directly related to heat produced by the person body s
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Metabolic Rate
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respirometry measurement
indirect method of measuring MR
O 2 use and heat liberation directly proportional
during food oxidation
person breathes into a respirometer the total amt of oxygen consumed during testing is measured for each L of O 2 the body produces ~4.8 kcal of
heat
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Metabolic Rate
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Metabolic Rate
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total heat produced by all chemical rxns and mechanical work of the body measured
calorimeter (directly)
heat liberated by the body
reclining position mentally & physically relaxed temperature is 20-25 degrees Celsius measurements obtained
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
respirometer (indirectly)
O 2 consumption
directly proportional to heat production
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young person
higher BMR
require large amts of energy for growth
old age
decrease BMR
skeletal muscle atropy
w/out caloric intake wt
males
higher BMR
more muscle, more active
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age sex size stress body surface area thyroxine levels food effects muscular activity
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females
fatty tissue in greater relative amts
metabolically sluggish
body temperature
rises and falls w/ MR fev ers MR
stress
higher MR
mobilizes the SNS
epi and nor MR stimulate fat catabolism
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Calculation of BMR
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thyroxine
most important hormonal factor in determining BMR AKA metabolic hormone
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thyroxine
direct effects
on most body cells (exception: brain cells)
increase oxygen consumption increase use of ATP to operate Na-K pump decrease in ATP reserves acceleration in ATP cellular respiration more thyroxine produced higher BMR
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