Ch bin: Thy gio : Nguyn Xun Trng Sch gio khoa ho hc 10 I.

Cu to nguyn t
1. Thnh phn cu to ca nguyn t. Kch thc, khi lng nguyn t a) Thnh phn cu to ca nguyn t 1. Lp v Gm cc ht mang in m gi l electron (hay in t). Khi lng ca cc electron u bng nhau v xp x bng 1/1840 khi lng ca nguyn t hiro l nguyn t nh nht, tc l bng: me = 9,1095.10-31 kg hay bng 0,00055 n v Cacbon (v.C). in tch ca cc electron u bng nhau v bng -1,6.10-19 Culng. l in tch nh nht, v vy c gi l in tch nguyn t. 2. Ht nhn Ht nhn nguyn t gm cc ht proton v ntron. Proton. Proton c in tch ng bng in tch ca electron nhng ngc du tc l bng +1,6.10-19 Culng. Nh vy proton v electron cng mang mt in tch nguyn t, c du ngc nhau. thun tin, ngi ta quy c ly in tch nguyn t lm n v, coi in tch ca electron l 1- v in tch cu proton l 1+. Ntron. Ht ntron khng mang in, c khi lng xp x bng khi lng ca proton v bng: mp = mn = 1,67.10-27 kg hay xp x bng 1 v.C. b) Kch thc, khi lng ca nguyn t Kch thc: Nu hnh dung nguyn t nh mt khi cu th n c ng knh khong 10-10 m. biu th kch thc nguyn t, ngi ta dng mt n v l Angxtrom v k hiu l 1 = 10-10 m hay 1 = 10-8 cm Nguyn t nh nht l hiro c bn knh khong 0,53 . ng knh ca ht nhn nguyn t cn nh hn, vo khong 10-4 , nh vy ng knh ca nguyn t ln hn ng knh ca ht nhn khong 10.000 ln. Ta tng tng nu phng i mt nguyn t vng ln 109 ln (mt t ln !) th n c ng knh l 30 cm ngha l nguyn t va bng qu bng r. Trong khi th ht nhn nguyn t vng c mt ng knh nh hn 0,003 cm ngha l c kch thc ca mt ht ct nh. Bng - Khi lng v in tch ca cc ht cu to nn nguyn t Tn Electron Proton Ntron K hiu e p n Khi lng 3 me = 9,1095 10 kg me 0,549 10 v.C 27 mp = 1,6726 10 kg mp 1v.C 27 mn = 1,6750 10 kg mn 1v.C
31

in tch -1,602.10-19 C +1,602.10-19 C 0

ng knh ca electron v proton li cn nh hn nhiu : khong 10-7 . Electron chuyn ng xung quanh ht nhn. Gia electron v ht nhn l chn khng : t ta thy nguyn t c cu to rng ! Khi lng : Khi lng ca mt nguyn t vo khong 10-26 kg. Nguyn t nh nht l hiro c khi lng l 1,67.10-27 kg. Khi lng ca nguyn t cacbon l 1,99.10-26 kg. Mt lng cht rt nh cng cha mt s nguyn t ln ti mc ta kh m hnh dung c. V d : Trong 2 gam cacbon c1023 nguyn t cacbon. Mt lt nc cng cha ti khong 9.1025 nguyn t hiro v oxi. 2. Ht nhn nguyn t - Nguyn t ho hc - ng v a) Ht nhn nguyn t 1. in tch ht nhn V in tch ca mi proton bng mt n v in tch dng (1+) nn trong ht nhn nu c Z proton, th in tch ca ht nhn s l Z+. Thc nghim cho bit nguyn t trung ho in nn s proton trong ht nhn bng s electron chuyn ng quanh ht nhn. Nh vt, trong nguyn t: in tch ht nhn = S proton = S electron V d: in tch ht nhn nguyn t oxi l 8+, nh vy nguyn t oxi c 8 proton v c 8 electron. Bit c in tch ht nhn nguyn t (cng nh bit c s proton v s electron) tc l nm c cha kha nhn bit nguyn t. 2. S khi Tng s ht proton (k hiu l Z) v tng s ht ht ntron (k hiu l N) trong ht nhn gi l s khi ca ht nhn (k hiu l A). A=Z+N V d: Trong ht nhn nguyn t clo c 17 proton v 18 ntron, vy s khi ca ht nhn nguyn t clo l: 17 + 18 = 35. 3. Khi lng nguyn t Khi lng ca nguyn t bng tng khi lng ca proton, ntron v electron c trong nguyn t. Nhng v khi lng ca electron rt nh so vi khi lng ca proton v ntron nn khi lng ca nguyn t coi nh bng khi lng ca cc proton v ntron trong ht nhn nguyn t. V d: Ht nhn ca nguyn t nhm c 13 proton v 14 ntron, xung quanh ht nhn c 13 electron. Xc nh khi lng nguyn t nhm. Khi lng ca nguyn t nhm coi nh bng khi lng ca 13 proton v 14 ntron. Khi lng ca mi proton v mi ntron xp x bng 1 v.C. Vy khi lng nguyn t nhm bng 27 v.C. Nh vy, ht nhn tuy rt nh so vi c nguyn t nhng li tp trung hu nh ton b khi lng ca nguyn t.

b) Nguyn t ho hc
1. nh ngha Tt c cc nguyn t c cng in tch ht nhn u thuc cng mt nguyn t ho hc. Nh vy, cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t ho hc c cng s proton v cng s electron. V d : Tt c cc nguyn t c cng in tch ht nhn l 17+ u thuc nguyn t clo. Cc nguyn t ca nguyn t clo u c 17 proton v 17 electron.

Cho n nay, ngi ta bit 92 nguyn t t nhin v khong 17 nguyn t nhn to (tng s khong 109 nguyn t). Cc nguyn t nhn to cha c pht hin thy trn Tri t hay bt k ni no khc trong v tr m c iu ch trong phng th nghim. Tnh cht ca mt nguyn t ho hc l tnh cht ca tt c cc nguyn t ca nguyn t . 2. S hiu nguyn t in tch ht nhn nguyn t ca mt nguyn t c gi l s hiu nguyn t ca nguyn t . S hiu nguyn t c trng cho mt nguyn t ho hc v thng c k hiu l Z. V d : S hiu nguyn t ca nguyn t urani l 92. Vy : in tch ht nhn nguyn t urani l 92+ ; c 92 proton trong ht nhn v 92 electron ngoi lp v. 3. K hiu cc nguyn t c trng y cho mt nguyn t ho hc, bn cnh k hiu thng dng, ngi ta cn ghi cc ch dn sau

A Z
X : k hiu ca nguyn t Z : s hiu nguyn t A : s khi A = Z + N V d :

T k hiu trn ta c th bit c : - S hiu nguyn t ca nguyn t clo l 17 ; in tch ht nhn nguyn t l 17+ ; trong ht nhn c 17 proton v (35 - 17) = 18 ntron. - Nguyn t clo c 17 electron chuyn ng quanh nhn. - Khi lng nguyn t ca clo l 35 v.C. c) ng v Khi nghin cu cc nguyn t ca cng mt nguyn t ho hc, ngi ta thy rng trong ht nhn ca nhng nguyn t , s proton u nh nhau nhng s khi c th khc nhau do s ntron khc nhau. Ngi ra gi nhng nguyn t c cng s proton nhng khc nhau v s ntron l nhng ng v. Chng hn oxi c ba ng v : C ba ng v u c 8 proton trong ht nhn nhng s ntron ln lt l 8, 9, 10. Hu ht cc nguyn t ho hc l hn hp ca nhiu ng v, ch c vi nguyn t c mt ng v. Ngoi nhng ng v tn ti trong t nhin (khong 300), ngi ta cn iu ch c cc ng v nhn to (khong 1000).

Cn nhiu ng v c ng dng quan trn trong vic s dng nng lng ht nhn nguyn t nh ng v ca hiro (gi l teri) ng v ca urani (gi l urani 235). Cc ng v ca cng mt nguyn t c tnh cht ho hc ging nhau. i vi nguyn t hiro, ngi ta bit ba ng v

Khi lng nguyn t trung bnh ca cc nguyn t ho hc. V hu ht cc nguyn t ho hc l hn hp ca nhiu ng v nn khi lng nguyn t ca cc nguyn t l khi lng nguyn t trung bnh ca hn hp cc ng v c k n t l phn trm ca mi ng v.

3. V nguyn t

a) S chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t

Lc u ngi ta cho rng cc electron chuyn ng xung quanh ht nhn nguyn t theo nhng qu o hnh trn hay bu dc nh qu o ca cc hnh tinh chuyn ng xung quanh Mt tri mu hnh tinh nguyn t ca Rzfo-Bo (Rutherford-Bohr).

Mu Rzfo-Bo c nh hng rt ln n s pht trin l thuyt cu to nguyn t, nhng n t ra khng y gii thch mi tnh cht ca nguyn t. V sau, nh cng trnh nghin cu ca nhiu nh bc hc ngi ta bit rng chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t khng theo mt qu Nguyn t hiro. Electron o xc nh. chuyn ng rt nhanh trong khu vc xung quanh Electron l mt phn t mang in, li chuyn ng rt nhanh (tc hnh nghn km/s) trong khu vc xung quanh ht nhn to thnh mt m ht nhn to thnh mt m my electron my electron. Mt in tch ca m my ny khng u, khu vc c mt in tch ln nht khu vc trong kh nng c mt electron l ln nht. Ngi ta gi khu vc ny l obitan nguyn t. Chng hn trong nguyn t hir, electron c th c mt khp ni trong vng bao quanh ht nhn to thnh m my electron, nhng mt in tch ca m my electron ln nht bn trong mt hnh cu c ng knh l 1 (ht nhn tm). khu vc , kh nng c mt ca electron l ln nht (ti 90%). Ta tng tng nu trong mt giy ta chp c 1000 tm nh nguyn t hiro th trong 900 tm nh electron s c mt khu vc trn. V sao trong nguyn t, mi electron li c khu vc tn ti u tin ca mnh? l do trong nguyn t, mi electron c mt nng lng ring.

b) Lp electron
Trong nguyn t, ht nhn mang in tch dng ht cc electron mang in tch tri du. Mun tch electron ra khi v nguyn t cn cung cp nng lng cho n. Thc nghin chng t rng khng phi mi electron u lin kt vi ht nhn cht ch nh nhau. Nhng electron gn ht nhn nht lin kt vi nhau cht ch nht. Ngi ta ni: chng mc nng lng thp nht. Ngc li, nhng electron xa ht nhn nht c mc nng lng cao nht ; chng d b tch ra khi nguyn t hn cc electron khc. Chnh nhng electron ny quy nh tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t. Tu theo mc nng lng cao hay thp m cc electron c phn b theo tng lp electron (hay mc nng lng). Cc electron c mc nng lng gn bng nhau thuc cng mt lp. Cc lp electron t trong ra ngoi c nh s n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .... hoc k hiu bng dy ch ci ln: K, L, M, N ....

c) Phn lp electron (hay phn mc nng lng)

Mi lp electron li phn chia thnh phn lp electron. Cc electron trong mi phn lp c mc nng lng bng nhau. Cc phn lp c k hiu bng cc ch ci thng s, p, d, f. S phn lp bng s th t ca lp. Lp th 1 c 1 phn lp, l phn lp 1s. Lp th 2 c 2 phn lp, l phn lp 2s v phn lp 2p. Lp th 3 c 3 phn lp, l phn lp 3s, 3p v phn lp 3d, v.v.... Cc electron phn lp s c gi l electron s ; phn lp p, c gi l electron p, v.v....

d) Obitan
trn, khi ni v chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t, ta bit rng obitan l khu vc khng gian xung quanh ht nhn trong kh nng c mt electron l ln nht (khu vc c mt m my electron ln nht). S v dng obitan ph thuc vo c im ca mi phn lp electron. Phn lp s c 1 obitan c dng hnh cu.

Obitan s Obitan p Phn lp p c 3 obitan c dng hnh s 8 ni. Phn lp d c 5 obitan v phn lp f c 7 obitan. Obitan d v obitan f c dng phc tp hn. Mi obitan ch cha ti a 2 electron. Khi mt obitan c 2 electron, ngi ta ni rng cc electron ghp i. Cc electron ghp i thng khng tham gia vo vic to thnh lin kt ho hc. Khi mt obitan ch c 1 electron, ngi ta gi l electron c thn. Trong a s cc trng hp, ch c cc electron c thn mi tham gia vo to thnh lin kt ho hc.

S electron ti a trong mt phn lp, mt lp

T s electron ti a trong mt obitan, ta c th suy ra s electron ti a trong mi phn lp v mi lp. - Phn lp s c 1 obitan nn c ti a 2 electron. Phn lp p c 3 obitan nn c ti a 6 electron. Phn lp d c ti a 10 electron v phn lp f c 14 electron. - Lp th 1 c 1 phn lp s nn c ti a 2 electron. Lp th 2 c phn lp s v phn lp p nn c ti a 8 electron. Lp th 3 c cc phn lp s, p, d, nn c ti a 18 electron. T suy ra lp th 4 c ti a 32 electron v.v... Mt lp cha s electron ti a c gi l lp electron bo ho.

e) S electron ti a trong cc lp v cc phn lp (t n = 1 n n = 3)

S th t ca lp n = 1 (lp K) n = 2 (lp L) n = 3 (lp M) S electron ti a ca lp 2 8 18 S electron phn b vo cc phn lp 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10

f) Cu trc electron trong nguyn t cc nguyn t

Nguyn l vng bn : Trong nguyn t, cc electron ln lt chim cc mc nng lng t thp n cao. Cng xa ht nhn, cc lp v phn lp electron ni chung c mc nng lng cng cao. C th mc nng lng ca cc lp tng theo th t t 1 n 7 v ca phn lp tng theo th t s, p, d, f. Sau y l th t sp xp cc phn lp theo chiu tng ca mc nng lng xc nh bng thc nghim : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s v.v.... Da vo nguyn l vng bn, ng thi ch n s electron ti a trong mi phn lp, ta c th vit c s phn b electron trong nguyn t ca bt k nguyn t no khi bit s hiu nguyn t Z ca nguyn t . V d:

- Nguyn t hiro : Z = 1, c 1 electron. Electron ny chim phn mc nng lng thp nht l 1s. - Nguyn t heli : Z = 2, c 2 electron. C 2 electron u chim phn mc 1s. Nh vy, nguyn t hiro v nguyn t heli ch c 1 lp electron, lp K. - Nguyn t liti : Z = 3, c 3 electron. Hai electron u chim phn mc 1s : v phn mc 1s ch nhn ti a 2 electron nn electron th 3 chim phn mc 2s. Nh vy nguyn t liti c 2 lp electron, lp K gm 2 electron v lp L, 1 electron v.v... Cu hnh electron Mun biu din s phn b electron theo cc lp v phn lp, ngi ta dng cu hnh electron ghi theo cch sau: - Lp electron c ghi bng ch s. - Phn lp c ghi bng ch ci thng s, p, d... - S electron c ghi bng s pha trn bn phi ca ch ci ch phn lp, cc phn lp khng c electron khng ghi. V d: Cu hinh electron ca cc nguyn t 1H, 2He, 3Li, 13Al c ghi nh sau: 1 1H : 1s 2 2He : 1s 2 1 3Li : 1s 2s 2 2 6 2 1 13Al : 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p Ngoi cch vit cu hnh electron nh trn, mun biu din s phn b electron theo cac obitan, ngi ta lm nh sau : K hiu mi obitan bng mt vung, mi electron bng mt mi tn, cc electron ghp i c k hiu bng hai mi tn ngc chiu. Sau y l s phn b electron vo cc obitan trong nguyn t ca 10 nguyn t u tin.

g) c

im ca lp electron ngoi cng

- i vi nguyn t ca tt c cc nguyn t, lp ngoi cng c ti a l 8 electron.

- Cc nguyn t c 8 electron lp ngoi cng u rt bn vng, chng khng tham gia vo cc phn ng ho hc. l cc nguyn t kh him. - Cc nguyn t c 1, 2, 3 electron lp ngoi cng l nhng nguyn t kim loi. - Cc nguyn t c 5, 6, 7 electron lp ngoi cng l nhng nguyn t phi kim. Cc electron lp ngoi cng (gi tt l cc electron ngoi cng) hu nh quyt nh tnh cht ho hc ca mt nguyn t. Bit c s phn b electron trong nguyn t, nht l bit c s electron lp ngoi cng, ngi ta c th d on c nhng tnh cht ho hc tiu biu ca nguyn t . 4. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc

a) Nguyn tc sp xp
- Cc nguyn t c xp theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn. - Cc nguyn t c cng s lp electron trong nguyn t c xp thnh mt hng. - Cc nguyn t c s electron ngoi cng bng nhau c xo thnh mt ct Mt bng cc nguyn t c sp xp nh trn c gi l h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc (hay bng tun hon). b)

Bng tun hon

A - S th t Trong bng tun hon, s th t ca mi nguyn t bng s hiu nguyn t ca nguyn t . cng chnh l in tch ht nhn, l s proton v s electron trong nguyn t ca nguyn t . V d : Urani chim 92 trong h thng tun hon, vy s hiu nguyn t ca urani l 92, in tch ht nhn l 92+ trong ht nhn c 92 proton v lp v nguyn t c 92 electron. B - Chu k Bng tun hon (dng bng ngn) gm 10 hng ngang, ng vi 7 chu k. Cc chu k 1, 2, 3 v 7 (chu k cha y ) gm 1 hng. Cc chu k cn li gm 2 hng. Chu k gm nhng nguyn t m nguyn t ca chng c cng s lp electron. S th t ca chu k (nh s t 1 n 7) bng s lp electron. Chu k 1 Gm 2 nguyn t l hiro (Z = 1) v heli (Z = 2) Nguyn t ca hai nguyn t ny ch c mt lp electron : lp K. Chu k 2 Gm 8 nguyn t bt u t liti (Z = 3) v tn cng l neon (Z = 10). Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t ny c 2 lp electron : lp K (gm 2 electron) v lp L. S electron ca lp L tng dn t 1 n 8 khi Z tng t 3 n 10. Lp electron ngoi cng t ti kin trc bn vng nguyn t ca nguyn t neon. Z K hiu nguyn t S electron lp ngoi cng 3 Li 1 4 Be 2 5 B 3 6 C 4 7 N 5 8 O 6 9 F 7 10 Ne 8

Chu k 3 Gm 8 nguyn t bt u t natri (Z = 11) v tn cng l agon (Z = 18).

Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t ny c 3 lp electron : lp K (gm 2 electron), lp L (gm 8 electron) v lp M. S electron ca lp M tng dn t 1 n 8 khi Z tng t 11 n 18. Lp electron lp ngoi cng t ti kin trc bn vng nguyn t ca nguyn t agon. Chu k 4 Gm 18 nguyn t bt u t kim loi kim kali (Z = 19) v tn cng l kh him kripton (Z = 36). Chu k 5 Cng gm 18 nguyn t bt u t kim loi kim rubii (Z = 37) v tn cng l kh him xenon (Z = 54). Chu k 6 Gm 32 nguyn t bt u t kim loi kim xesi (Z = 55) v tn cng l kh him raon (Z = 86) Chu k 7 Cha y . Hin nay chu k 7 mi c 22 nguyn t. Cc chu k 1, 2, 3 c gi l chu k nh. Mi chu k nh l mt hng. Cc chu k 4, 5, 6 c gi l chu k ln. Mi chu k ln (hng di) c ct thnh 2 hng : hng trn 10 nguyn t hng di 8 nguyn t. Nhn xt. 1. Chu k no cng m u bng mt kim loi kim v tn cng bng mt kh him. 2. Trong mi chu k, s electron lp ngoi cng tng ln lt t 1 n 8, v vy ha tr cao nht ca cc nguyn t trong cc hp cht vi oxi cng tng tng ng t 1 n 7 (tr cc kh him c 8e ngoi cng, khng tham gia phn ng). C - Nhm v phn nhm 1. Nhm Bng tun hon gm 8 ct, mi ct l mt nhm. Nhm c nh s bng ch s La M t I n VIII. Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t trong cng nhm u c s electron ho tr bng nhau (v bng s th t ca nhm). Nh vy nhm gm cc nguyn t c ho tr cao nht i vi oxi bng nhau (v bng s th t ca nhm). 2. Phn nhm Mi nhm li chia thnh hai phn nhm : phn nhm chnh v phn nhm ph. Phn nhm chnh gm cc nguyn t thuc c chu k nh v chu k ln. Phn nhm ph ch gm cc nguyn t thuc chu k ln. V d : Nhm VII gm hai phn nhm : phn nhm chnh l phn nhm halogen, phn nhm ph l phn nhm mangan. Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t trong cng mt phn nhm c s electron ngoi cng bng nhau, do c tnh cht ho hc cn bn ging nhau. Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm chnh c s electron lp ngoi cng bng s th t ca nhm. D - Gii thiu mt vi phn nhm chnh 1. Phn nhm chnh nhm VIII Cn c gi l nhm kh him, gm cc nguyn t sau :

Z 2 10 18 36 54

Tn Heli Neon Agon Kripton Xenon

K hiu He Ne Ar Kr Xe

Electron lp ngoi cng 1s2 - 2s2 2p6 - 3s2 3p6 - 4s2 4p6 - 5s2 5p6

Tr heli ra, nguyn t ca tt c cc nguyn t trong nhm u c lp ngoi cng gm 8 electron (c 8 electron u ghp i) : l cu hnh electron bn vng. Thc t cho thy cc nguyn t kh him hu nh khng tham gia vo cc phn ng ho hc (v vy cn gi l kh tr). Di dng n cht, cc phn t kh him ch gm c mt nguyn t v u trng thi kh iu kin thng. 2. Phn nhm chnh nhm I. Cn gi l nhm kim loi kim, gm cc nguyn t sau : Z 3 11 19 37 55 Tn Liti Natri Kali Rubii Xesi K hiu Li Na K Rb Cs Electron lp ngoi cng - 2s1 - 3s1 - 4s1 - 5s1 - 6s1

Nguyn t ca tt c cc kim loi kim ch c 1 electron lp ngoi cng. So vi v nguyn t ca cc kh him gn nht trong bng tun hon, th nguyn t ca cc kim loi kim c d 1 electron. V vy trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc kim loi kim c khuynh hng nhng i 1 electron t ti cu hnh electron ca kh him. Do , trong cc hp cht, cc kim loi kim ch c ho tr 1+. dng n cht, l cc kim loi in hnh. - Tc dng mnh vi oxi to thnh cc oxit baz tan trong nc, v d Li2O, Na2O v.v... - Tc dng mnh vi nc nhit thng to thnh hiro v hiroxit kim mnh : NaOH, KOH v.v... - Tc dng vi cc phi kim khc to thnh mui : NaCl, K2S. 3. Phn nhm chnh nhm VII. Cn c gi l nhm halogen, gm cc nguyn t sau : Z 9 17 35 53 Tn Flo Clo Brom Iot K hiu F Cl Br I Electron lp ngoi cng - 2s2 2p5 - 3s2 3p5 - 4s2 4p5 - 5s2 5p5

Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t halogen c 7 electron lp ngoi cng. So vi nguyn t ca cc kh him gn nht trong bng tun hon th nguyn t ca cc halogen cn km 1 electron. V vy, trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc halogen c khuynh hng thu thm 1 electron t ti cu hnh electron bn vng ca kh him. Do trong cc hp cht vi kim loi, cc halogen c ho tr 1-. dng n cht, cc halogen gm nhng phn t hai nguyn t : F2, Cl2, I2. l nhng phi kim in hnh :

- Tc dng mnh vi cc kim loi cho cc mui nh KBr, MgCl2. - Tc dng vi hiro to ra nhng hp cht kh HF, HCl, HBr, HI. Trong dung dch nc, l nhng axit. - Hiroxit ca cc halogen l nhng axit, v d : HClO, HClO3. c) Nhn

xt v s bin i cu trc electron ca nguyn t cc nguyn t trong bng tun hon

Khi sp xp cc nguyn t theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn th sau mt s nguyn t, cu trc electron trong nguyn t c lp i lp li, ta ni rng : chng bin i mt cch tun hon. Chng hn, t nguyn t c Z = 3 n Z = 10, s electron lp ngoi cng tng ln lt t 1 n 8. n cc nguyn t tip theo t Z = 11 n Z = 18, s electron lp ngoi cng li tng ln lt t 1 n 8 v c tip tc lp li nh vy cc chu k sau. Nh vy, s electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t cc nguyn t bin thin tun hon khi in tch ht nhn tng dn. Ta bit rng, cu trc electron trong nguyn t cc nguyn t, c bit l s electron lp ngoi cng quyt nh tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t. V vy, s bin i tun honsoos electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t cc nguyn t khi in tch ht nhn tng dn chnh l nguyn nhn ca s bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t. l ni dung ca nh lut tun hon Menelep.

II. Lin kt hoa hoc

1. Lin kt cng ho tr

a) S to thnh lin kt cng ho tr

A - V sao cc nguyn t li lin kt vi nhau ? Ngi ta bit rng trong t nhin cc nguyn t kh him u tn ti trng thi t do cn nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc nh hiro, clo v.v... li lin kt vi nhau to thnh phn t. S d nh vy v cc nguyn t kh him c lp electron ngoi cng bn vng (2 electron i vi heli, 8 electron i vi cc kh him khc). Nguyn t hiro ch c 1 electron lp ngoi cng, cu trc ny khng bn bng cu trc electron ca heli l kh him gn n nht. Nguyn t clo c 7 electron ngoi cng, khng bn bng cu trc electron ca kh him neon gn n nht. V vy cc nguyn t lin kt vi nhau t ti cu trc electron ca kh him bn hn cu trc electron ca tng nguyn t ng ring r. B - Cc nguyn t lin kt vi nhau nh th no ? S to thnh cp electron chung. Phn t hiro Mi nguyn t hiro c mt electron. l electron s. My electron s (obitan s) c dng hnh cu. Khi hai nguyn t hiro li gn nhau, ht nhn ca nguyn t ny ht m my electron ca nguyn t kia lm cho hai m my xen ph vo nhau mt phn. Do s xen ph cc m my electron m mt in tch m trong khu vc gia hai ht nhn tng ln, c hai electron u u tin c mt ti khu vc ny. Mi electron trc y ch thuc mt nguyn t, nay tr thnh chung cho c hai nguyn t, to thnh cp electron chung.

S xen ph ca obitan s-s S xut hin mt khu vc c mt in tch m ln gia hai ht nhn mang in dng lm tng sc ht ca mi ht nhn vi my electron vng ny, lm cn bng lc y tng h gia hai ht nhn, gi cho hai nguyn t lin kt vi nhau : lin kt ho hc c hnh thnh. Do cp electron c to thnh thuc v c hai nguyn t nn trong phn t hiro mi nguyn t u c 2 electron tc l ging cu trc ca kh him heli bn vng. Ta c th biu din s to thnh phn t hiro nh sau : H + H : H (cng thc electron) Nhng du chm t xung quanh k hiu mt nguyn t biu din s electron lp ngoi cng. Hai du chm t gia k hiu hai nguyn t biu din mt cp electron chung. n gin ngi ta thay cp electron chung bng mt gch ni : H - H (cng thc cu to) Mi gch ni t gia k hiu hai nguyn t biu din mt lin kt cng ho tr c to thnh do s dng chung mt cp electron. Phn t clo Mi nguyn t clo c 7 electron ngoi cng. Khi hai nguyn t clo li gn nhau, mi nguyn t gp 1 electron to thnh cp electron chung. Nh vy lp ngoi cng ca mi nguyn t clo u c 8 electron ging cu trc ca v kh him neon bn vng. n gian, xung quanh k hiu ca nguyn t clo, ngi ta khng ghi cc electron khng lin kt m ch ghi cp electron lin kt gia cc nguyn t. Cng thc electron v cng thc cu to ca phn t clo : Cl : Cl ; Cl - Cl Phn t hiro clorua, nc, amoniac Cng tng t nh trn, cng thc electron v cng thc cu to ca cc phn t hiro clorua, nc, amoniac c biu din nh sau : H : Cl hay H - Cl H : O : H hay H - O - H

Phn t kh cacbonic CO2 Cng thc electron v cng thc cu to ca phn t kh cacbonic : O :: C :: O hay O = C = O Trong phn t kh cacbonic, nguyn t cacbon lin kt vi mi nguyn t oxi bng hai lin kt cng ho tr Ngi ta gi l lin kt i. Lin kt i bn hn lin kt n trong cc phn t H - H, Cl Cl, H - Cl v.v... Phn t nit

Nguyn t nit c 5 electron ngoi cng. Khi to thnh phn t nit, mi nguyn t gp 3 electron hnh thnh 3 cp electron chung. Hai nguyn t nit lin kt vi nhau bng 3 lin kt cng ho tr. l lin kt ba. Lin kt ba bn hn lin kt i. Do c lin kt ba nn cc phn t nit rt bn, km hot ng ho hc nhit thng. Tm li : Lin kt cng ho tr l lin kt gia cc nguyn t bng nhng cp electron chung.

b) Lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc v c cc

Lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc Trong phn t cc n cht nh H2, Cl2, O2, N2 v.v... cp electron chung khng b lch v pha no. Lin kt cng ho tr trong cc phn t trn l lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc (hay khng phn cc). Lin kt cng ha tr c cc Ly trng hp phn t hiro clorua lm v d. Trong phn t HCl, nguyn t clo c tnh phi kim mnh hn nguyn t hiro nn ht cp electron chung v pha mnh mnh hn. Ngi ta ni rng nguyn t clo c m in mnh hn nguyn t hiro. m in c trng cho kh nng ca nguyn t trong phn t ht electron v pha mnh. V clo c m in mnh hn nn trong phn t HCl, pha clo c mt phn int tch m, ngc li pha hiro c mt phn in tch dng. Hiro clorua l mt phn t c cc : mt u l cc m, mt u l cc dng. Lin kt cng ho tr trong cp electron chung b lch v pha mt nguyn t c gi l lin kt cng ho tr c cc hay lin kt cng ho tr phn cc. Trong cng thc biu din lin kt trong cc phn t c cc, ngi ta t cp electron chung lch v pha k hiu ca nguyn t ht cp electron mnh hn (c in m ln hn). V d : H : Cl Lin kt trong cc phn t HF, H2O, H2S, NH3.... u l lin kt cng ho tr c cc. Lin kt cng ho tr c cc c to thnh gia nhng nguyn t t khc nhau v tnh cht ho hc, v d gia cc phi kim vi nhau v.v... 2. Lin kt ion

a) S to thnh ion
Trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc nguyn t kim loi c khuynh hng nhng electron, cc nguyn t phi kim c khuynh hng thu thm electron ca cc nguyn t khc lp v ngoi cng tr nn bn vng ging cu hnh electron ca kh him. Khi nhng hoc thu thm electron, nguyn t tr thnh phn t mang in gi l ion. Ion dng V d : s to thnh ion natri t nguyn t natri. Nguyn t natri c 11 proton trong nhn v 11 electron ngoi v : n trung ho in. Khi nguyn t natri mt i 1 electron, lp v ch cn 10 electron, trong khi s proton trong ht nhn vn l 11. Nh vy l d ra 1 in tch dng. Nguyn t natri khng cn dng nguyn t trung ho in na m bin i thnh mt phn t mang in dng : l ion dng natri. Ta c th biu din qu trnh trn bng phng trnh sau : Na Na+ + e

Nhng nguyn t kim loi (lp ngoi cng c 1, 2, 3 electron) u d nhng electron bin i thnh ion dng. V d : K K+ + e Mg Mg2+ + 2e Al Al3+ + 3e Ion dng c gi l cation. Ngi ta gi tn cation bng tn kim loi tng ng nh ion kali (K+), ion magie (Mg2+), ion nhm (Al3+), ion st II (Fe2+), ion st III (Fe3+) v.v... Ion m V d : s to thnh ion clorua t nguyn t clo. Nguyn t clo c 17 proton v 17 electron. Khi thu thm 1 electron, s electron tng ln l 18 trong khi s proton trong nhn vn l 17. Nh vy l d ra 1 in tch m. Nguyn t clo khng cn dng nguyn t trung ho in na m bin i thnh phn t mang in m : l ion m clorua. Ta c th biu din qu trnh trn bng phng trnh sau : Cl + 1e Cl Cc nguyn t phi kim (lp ngoi cng c 5, 6, 7 electron) u d thu thm electron bin i thnh ion m. V d : F + 1e F O + 2e O2 S + 2e S2 Cc ion m c gi l cc anion. Ngi ta thng gi tn cc anion bng tn cc gc axit tng ng. V d F, Cl, S2 v.v... c gi l ion florua, clorua, sunfua.....

b) S to thnh lin kt ion

Xt phn ng t chy natri trong kh clo. Nguyn t natri d dng nhng 1 electron duy nht lp ngoi cng cho nguyn t clo bin i thnh ion natri Na+ vi lp v ngoi bn vng ging cu hnh electron ca kh him neon gn n nht trong h thng tun hon. Nguyn t clo c 7 electron lp ngoi cng, sn sng nhn 1 electron ca natri tr thnh ion Cl c 8 electron ngoi cng ging kh him agon gn n nht. Hai ion mi c to thnh mang in ngc du : chng ht ln nhau v to thnh phn t natri clorua. l qu trnh hnh thnh lin kt ion. Ta c th biu din qu trnh trn bng s hay bng phng trnh phn ng sau :

Ly mt v d khc : s to thnh magie oxit. Cng tng t nh trn, khi t magie trong oxi xy ta qu trnh sau :

Cc hp cht c to nn t cc ion c gi l hp cht ion. V d : natri clorua, magie oxit v.v... Lin kt ion c to thnh khi cc kim loi in hnh ho hp vi cc phi kim in hnh trong c s chuyn hn 1 hay 2, 3 electron lp ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t kim loi sang lp ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t phi kim to ra cc ion mang in ngc du. Vy lin kt ion c hnh thnh do lc ht tnh in gia cc ion mang in tch ngc du.

c) Kt lun v vic to thnh lin kt ho hc

Trong cc phn ng ho hc, cc nguyn t kt hp vi nhau to ra cho mi nguyn t lp electron ngoi cng bn vng ging cu trc ca kh him. Qu trnh c th xy ra theo hai cch : 1. Hoc hnh thnh nhng cp electron chung cho cc nguyn t : l lin kt cng ho tr. Lin kt cng ho tr c to thnh gia nhng nguyn t ging nhau (lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc) hoc gia nhng nguyn t ca nhng nguyn t c tnh cht gn ging nhau (lin kt cng ho tr c cc). 2. Hoc chuyn hn 1 hay 2, 3 electron t nguyn t ny sang nguyn t khc, do cc nguyn t bin thnh nhng ion mang in ngc du; chng ht nhau bng lc ht tnh in. Lin kt ion c to thnh gia hai nguyn t c tnh cht ho hc rt khc nhau. Tht ra, khng c ranh gii r rt gia lin kt cng ho tr v lin kt ion. V d : Ta xt cc phn t sau : Cl : Cl H : Cl Na+ Cl
Phn t khng c cc Phn t c cc Phn t ion

Trong phn t c cc c mt phn ion. Lin kt cng ho tr c cc l dng chuyn tip gia lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc v lin kt ion. Trn thc t, cc phn t n cht (c lin kt cng ho tr khng c cc) v cc hp cht ion khng nhiu lm, cn a s l cc cht c lin kt cng ho tr c cc. Ghi ch : Quy tc "Cc nguyn t lin kt vi nhau t ti cu hnh electron ca kh him c 8 electron bn vng" ng vi a s cc hp cht thng thng, nhng trong mt s trng hp, quy tc ny khng ph hp. 3. Ho tr ca cc nguyn t:

* Ho tr ca cc nguyn t
Electron ho tr l nhng electron lp bn ngoi c kh nng tham gia vo vic to thnh lin kt ho hc. Ho tr ca mt nguyn t trong hp cht ion (gi l in ho tr) bng s in tch ca ion : Cc ion kim loi c ho tr dng, cc ion phi kim c ho tr m.

V d : trong hp cht NaCl ho tr ca natri bng 1+, ca clo bng 1 trong CaO, ho tr ca canxi bng 2+, ca oxi bng 2 v.v... Ho tr ca mt nguyn t trong hp cht cng ho tr bng s lin kt m nguyn t ca nguyn t c th to thnh vi cc nguynn t ca nguyn t khc. Thng thng, mt lin kt cng ho tr c to nn bi m cp electron chung. V d : trong phn t CH4

trong phn t CO2 4. Cc tinh th

O :: C :: O ho tr ca oxi l 2, ho tr ca cacbon l 4.

a) Tinh th nguyn t
Ta ly tinh th kim cng lm v d : Nguyn t cacbon c electron ngoi cng. Trong tinh th kim cng, mi nguyn t cacbon lin kt vi 4 nguyn t cacbon ln cn gn nht bng 4 cp electron chung. Cc nguyn t cacbon ny nm trn 4 nh ca mt t din u. Mi nguyn t cacbon nh li lin kt vi 4 nguyn t cacbon khc.

1 Nguyn t C tm v 4 nguyn t C Mng tinh th kim cng (mi nguyn t khc 4 nh ca hnh t din u cacbon c 4 nguyn t ln cn gn nht) Lc lin kt cng ho tr rt ln, v vy cc tinh th nguyn t u bn vng, kh cng, kh nng chy, kh bay hi. Kim cng, thch anh... l nhng tinh th nguyn t. Kim cng cng nht trong cc cht.

b) Tinh th phn t
Ta ly tinh th nc lm v d : Trong tinh th nc , mi phn t nc c 4 phn t nc ln cn gn nht nm trn 4 nh ca mt t din u. Mi phn t nc nh li c 4 phn t ln cn nm 4 nh ca mt t din u khc v c tip tc nh vy.

Tinh th nc . Trong tinh th nc , mi phn t nc l 1 n v cu trc

Trong tinh th nc , cc phn t lin kt vi nhau bng lin kt gia cc phn t. V lc ht gia cc phn t yu hn nhiu so vi lc lin kt cng ho tr v lc ht tnh in gia cc ion nn nc d nng chy, d bay hi. 00C nc b phn hu mt phn. Cc phn t nc dch chuyn li gn nhau lm cho t khi ca nc (lng) ln hn nc , v vy nc ni ln mt nc lng. y l c im cu to tinh th nc . Cc tinh th naphtalen (bng phin), iot, tuyt cacbonic CO2 v.v... l nhng tinh th phn t, chng cng d b nng chy, bay hi. Ngay nhit thng, mt phn tinh th naphtalen v iot b phn hu. Cc phn t tch ri khi mng tinh th v khuych tn vo khng kh lm cho ta d nhn ra mi ca chng. Trong tinh th phn t, cc phn t vn tn ti nh nhng n v c lp.

c) Tinh th ion
Ta ly tinh th NaCl lm v d

Tinh th natri clorua NaCl Trong tinh th NaCl, cc ion Na v Cl c phn b lun phin u n trn cc nh ca mt hnh lp phng. Xung quanh mi ion u c 6 ion ngc du gn nht. V lc ht tnh in gia cc ion ngc du ln nn tinh th ion rt bn vng. Cc hp cht ion u kh rn, kh bay hi, kh nng chy. V d nhit nng chy ca mui n NaCl l 8000C. Dung dch cc hp cht ion ho tan trong nc v cc hp cht ion nng chy u dn in v cc ion (l nhng phn t mang in) khi c th chuyn ng t do.
+

d) Tinh th kim loi

Trong s 109 nguyn t bit th c hn 80 nguyn t l kim loi.

Tinh th st. Mi nguyn t tm (lp phng) c 8 nguyn t ln cn gn nht 8 nh ca hnh lp phng Tr thu ngn, tt c cc kim loi u l cht rn nhit thng v u c cu to tinh th nh hnh trn. Lin kt gia cc nguyn t kim loi trong tinh th l lin kt kim loi (s hc trong chng trnh ho hc lp 12). Nhng tnh cht c trng ca kim loi nh tnh dn in, dn nhit, d dt mng, ko di v.v... l do lin kt kim loi quyt nh. Lin kt kim loi kh vng chc nn cc kim loi u kh nng chy, kh bay hi. 5. Mol

i vi cc ht vi m nh nguyn t, phn t, ion ngi ta dng mt n v lng cht thch hp : l mol. Mol l lng cht cha 6.1023 ht vi m. Khi dng n v mol phi ch r ht vi m ang xt l nguyn t, phn t hay ion. Tr s 6.1023 l s nguyn t cha trong 12g cacbon 12 Ngi ta gi s l s Avgar (Avogadro) v k hiu l N. Nh vy : 1 mol nguyn t bng N nguyn t 1 mol phn t bng N phn t 1 mol ion bng N ion 1) Khi lng mol nguyn t Khi lng mol nguyn t ca mt nguyn t l khi lng ca mt mol nguyn t ca nguyn t . Theo nh ngha trn th khi lng mol nguyn t chnh l nguyn t gam ca mt nguyn t. V d : MH = 1 g/mol (M l k hiu khi lng mol) MC = 12 g/mol 2) Khi lng mol phn t Khi lng mol phn t ca mt cht l khi lng ca mt mol phn t cht . Nh vy khi lng mol phn t ca mt cht chnh l phn t gam ca cht . V d :

nh lut Avgar nhng iu kin nhit , p sut nh nhau, nhng th tch bng nhau ca mi cht kh u cha cng mt s phn t. V mt mol ca bt k kh no cng u cha N phn t nn ta c h qu sau : Th tch chim bi mt mol phn t ca bt k kh no cng bng nhau ( cng nhit , p sut) Thc nghim cho bt, iu kin tiu chun (t = 00C, p = 1at) th tch l 22,4 lt. Vy : Th tch mol phn t ca mt kh l th tch chim bi mt mol phn t kh . Th tch mol phn t ca bt k kh no iu kin tiu chun cng bng 22,4 lt. Ch : V mol l mt n v c bn trong h o lng quc t nn t nay cc tn ring nguyn t gam, phn t gam, ion gam, th tch phn t gam vn quen dng trc y c thay bng tn chung : khi lng mol nguyn t, khi lng mol phn t, khi lng mol ion, th tch mol phn t.

6. T khi ca cht kh T khi ca kh A i vi kh B l t s khi lng ca mt th tch kh A chia cho khi lng ca cng th tch kh B cng nhit , p sut : M d= 29 T khi cho bit kh A nng hay nh hn kh B bao nhiu ln. Theo nh lut Avgar th nhng th tch bng nhau ca kh A v kh B ni trn phi cha cng mt s phn t, mc du khi lng phn t ca chng khc nhau. Nh vy, t khi cng cho bit mt phn t kh A nng hay nh hn mt phn t kh B bao nhiu ln. T ta c : M d= A MB Trong : MA l khi lng phn t ca kh A. MB l khi lng phn t ca kh B. V d 1 : Oxi nng hn hiro bao nhiu ln ? Theo (2) ta c : M 32 d= A = = 16 MB 2 Vy t khi ca oxi i vi hiro l 16 ngha l oxi nng hn hiro 16 ln. V d 2 : Tm khi lng phn t ca mt cht kh bit rng t khi ca n so vi nit l 2. Nu kh nng hn nit 2 ln th mt phn t kh nng hn phn t nit 2 ln. M d= =2 M N2 V d 3 : Kh cacbonic nng gp bao nhiu ln khng kh ? Khng kh l mt hn hp kh. Khi lng ca 22,4 lt khng kh iu kin tiu chun l 29 gam. Ngi ta gi l khi lng mol trung bnh ca khng kh. T ta c : M d= 29 Ta bit khi lng mol kh cacbonic l 44 gam Vy : 44 d= = 1,5 ln 29 V d 4 : Xc nh khi lng phn t ca kh sunfur bit rng t khi ca n i vi khng kh l 2,2. M d= Ta c : 29 M = d . 29 M = 2,2 , 29 64 Khi lng mol ca kh sunfur l 64 gam. Vy khi lng phn t ca kh l 64 v.C.

7. S bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t ho hc

a) Tnh kim loi, phi kim

Tnh kim loi l tnh cht ca mt nguyn t m nguyn t ca n d mt electron tr thnh ion dng. Nguyn t cng d mt electron, tnh kim loi ca nguyn t cng mnh. Ngc li tnh phi kim l tnh cht ca mt nguyn t m nguyn t ca n d thu electron tr thnh ion m. Nguyn t cng d thu electron th tnh phi kim ca nguyn t cng mnh. Trong h thng tun hon : tnh kim loi, phi kim ca cc nguyn t bin i theo quy lut sau - Trong mi chu k, theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn, tnh kim loi ca cc nguyn t yu dn, ng thi tnh phi kim tng dn. Ta ly chu k 3 lm v d : Chu k 3 bt u t nguyn t Na (Z = 11), mt kim loi in hnh. Ri ln lt n magie (Z = 12) l kim loi mnh nhng hot ng km natri. Nhm (Z = 13) l mt kim loi nhng hiroxit c tnh lng tnh. Silic (Z = 14) l mt phi kim. T photpho (Z = 15) n lu hunh (Z = 16), tnh phi kim mnh dn. Clo (Z = 17) l mt phi kim in hnh, ri n kh him agon (Z = 18). Quy lut trn c lp li i vi mi chu k. Da vo thuyt cu to nguyn t, ta c th gii thch quy lut bin i tnh cht trn nh sau : Trong mt chui k, s lp electron ca nguyn t cc nguyn t bng nhau. Khi in tch ht nhn tng dn, sc ht ca ht nhn vi cc electron lp ngoi cng tng ln lm cho bn knh nguyn t gim dn. V d : Nguyn t : Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Bn knh nguyn t () : 1,86 1,60 1,43 1,17 1,10 1,04 0,99 V din tch ht nhn tng dn, bn knh nguyn t gim dn nn kh nng d mt electron c trng cho tnh kim loi gim dn, ng thi kh nng thu electron c trng cho tnh phi kim tng dn.

Bn knh nguyn t ca mt s nguyn t c biu din bng Angxtrom (1 = 10-8 cm)

Qua hnh trn ta thy : Trong mi chu k bn knh nguyn t gim t tri qua phi. Trong mi phn nhm chnh, bn knh nguyn t tng theo chiu t trn xung di.

- Trong mt phn nhm chnh, i t trn xung di, tnh kim loi ca cc nguyn t mnh dn, ng thi tnh phi kim yu dn. Ta ly phn nhm chnh nhm I v nhm VII lm v d : Trong phn nhm chnh nhm I : Tnh cht kim loi tng r rt t liti n franxi. V sao ? Trong mt phn nhm chnh, theo chiu t trn xung di, in tch ht nhn tng dn nhng ng thi s lp electron cng tng nn bn knh nguyn t cc nguyn t tng nhanh. V d : - Nguyn t : Li Na K Rb Cs - Bn knh nguyn t () : 1,52 1,86 2,31 2,44 2,62 Bn knh ca nguyn t liti nh nht, ca franxi ln nht. Do kh nng d mt electron ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t kim loi kim cng tng t liti n franxi. Nguyn t franxi d mt electron nht so vi cc nguyn t khc trong nhm ; n l kim loi mnh nht. Phn nhm chnh nhm VII (nhm halogen) gm nhng phi kim in hnh : chng u c khuynh hng thu thm electron. Nhng tnh phi kim gim dn t flo n atatin, tc l kh nng thu thm electron gim dn. l do bn knh nguyn t tng t flo n atatin. Nguyn t flo c bn knh nh nht nn d thu thm electron hn c ; n l phi kim mnh nht nhm.

b) m in ca cc nguyn t
m in ca mt nguyn t c trng cho kh nng ca nguyn t ca nguyn t trong phn t ht electron v pha mnh. Nh vy m in ca mt nguyn t cng ln th tnh phi kim ca n cng mnh ; ngc li m in ca mt nguyn t cng nh th tnh kim loi ca n cng mnh. V nguyn t flo l phi kim mnh nht, ngi ta quy c ly m in ca n l 4 xc nh m in tng i ca cc nguyn t khc. Sau y l bng m in ca mt s nguyn t do nh ho hc Paolinh (Pauling) thit lp. Bng m in ca mt s nguyn t ho hc H 2,1 Li 1,0 Na 0,9 K 0,8 Rb 0,8 Cs 0,7 Ba 0,9 Sr 1,0 Ca 1,0 Mg 1,2 Ga 1,6 Be 1,5 Al 1,5 Ge 1,8 B 2,0 Si 1,8 As 2,0 C 2,5 P 2,1 Se 2,4 I 2,5 N 3,0 S 2,5 Br 2,8 O 3,5 Cl 3,0 F 4,0

Nhn xt : - Trong mt chu k, khi i t tri sang phi, m in ca cc nguyn t tng dn.

- Trong mt phn nhm chnh, theo chiu t trn xung di, m in ca cc nguyn t gim dn. Quy lut bin i m in ph hp vi s bin i tnh kim loi, phi kim ca cc nguyn t trong mt chu k v trong mt phn nhm chnh m ta xt trn. Bng m in ca cc nguyn t gip ta bit c trong mt phn t hp cht, cp electron chung lch v pha no. V d trong phn t HCl ( m in ca clo l 3,0 ; ca hiro l 2,1), cp electron chung lch v pha nguyn t clo c m in ln hn : lin kt trong phn t HCl l lin kt cng ho tr c cc. Nu hai nguyn t lin kt vi nhau c hiu m in ln (khong 1,77) th cp electron chung thuc hn v mt nguyn t : ta c lin kt ion. V d trong hp cht NaCl, hiu m in ca clo v natri l 3,0 - 0,9 = 2,1, hp cht natri clorua l hp cht ion.

c) Ho tr ca cc nguyn t
Trong mt chu k, i t tri sang phi, ho tr cao nht vi oxi tng ln lt t 1 n 7 cn ha tr vi hiro ca cc phi kim gim t 4 n 1. Ta ly chu k 3 lm v d. S bin i ho tr ca cc nguyn t S th t ca phn nhm chnh Hp cht vi oxi Ho tr cao nht vi oxi Hp cht vi hiro Ho tr vi hiro I Na2O 1 II MgO 2 III Al2O3 3 IV SiO2 4 SiH4 4 V P2O5 5 PH3 3 VI SO3 6 H2S 2 VII Cl2O7 7 HCl 1

Da vo l thuyt lin kt ho hc, ta c th gii thch s bin i nh sau : Trong chu k 3, t Na n Cl, s electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t cc nguyn t tng ln lt t 1 n 7 (tr kh him c 8 electron ngoi cng). Ba nguyn t u chu k (Na, Mg, Al) to thnh lin kt ion vi oxi nn ln lt c in ho tr l 1+, 2+, 3+. Cc nguyn t tip theo (Si, P, S, Cl) ln lt to thnh 4, 5, 6, 7 lin kt cng ho tr vi oxi, nn c ho tr ln lt l 4, 5, 6, 7. Cc nguyn t phi kim Si, P, S, Cl ln lt to 4, 3, 2, 1 lin kt cng ho tr vi hiro nn chng c ho tr ln lt l 4, 3, 2, 1. i vi cc chu k khc, s bin i ho tr ca cc nguyn t cng din ra tng t.

d) Tnh cht ca cc oxit v hiroxit ca cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm chnh

- Trong mt chu k, i t tri sang phi theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn, tnh baz ca cc oxit v hiroxit tng ng yu dn, ng thi tnh axit ca chng mnh dn. S bin i tnh cht axit - baz ca cc oxit v hiroxit tng ng

Ta ly oxit v hiroxit tng ng ca cc nguyn t thuc chu k 3 lm v d :

Nhm hiroxit Al(OH)3 l mt hiroxit lng tnh : n th hin tnh baz khi tc dng vi axit v th hin tnh axit khi tc dng vi baz. - Trong mt phn nhm chnh, khi i t trn xung di theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn, tnh baz ca cc oxit v hiroxt tng ng mnh dn, ng thi tnh axit ca chng yu dn (tr nhm VIII). V d : Trong phn nhm chnh nhm III, oxit v hiroxit ca nguyn t u nhm (B2O3 v H3BO3) c tnh axit, nhng oxit v hiroxit ca nguyn t cui nhm l tali (Tl2O3 v Tl(OH)3) li c tnh baz. S bin i tnh axit - baz ca cc oxit v hiroxit ca cc nguyn t thuc cc phn nhm chnh c trnh by trong bng 7. Ta nhn thy, nu k mt ng cho qua cc nguyn t B, Si, As, Te, At th oxit v hiroxit ca cc nguyn t pha tri ng cho c tnh cht baz, cn oxit v hiroxit ca cc nguyn t nm trn ng cho v pha bn phi c tnh axit. Ngoi cc tnh cht nu trn, cn nhiu tnh cht khc cng bin i tun hon. 8. V tr ca cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon v tnh cht ho hc ca chng

a) Bit v tr ca mt nguyn t trong h thng tun hon (tc l bit s th t ca nguyn t, s th t ca chu k, s th t ca nhm, phn nhm chnh hay ph) , c th suy ra cu to nguyn t ca nguyn t .
V d : Bit nguyn t c s th t l 20 thuc chu k 4, phn nhm chnh nhm II, c th suy ra : Nguyn t ca nguyn t c 20 proton, 20 electron. Nguyn t c 4 lp electron (v s lp electron bng s th t ca chu k) ; C 2 electron ngoi cng (v s electron ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t ph thuc phn nhm chnh bng s th t ca nhm). l nguyn t canxi. Ngc li, bit cu to nguyn t ca mt nguyn t, c th suy ra v tr ca nguyn t trong h thng tun hon. V d : Bit cu hnh electron ca mt nguyn t l 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 c th suy ra nguyn t chim th 17 trong h thng tun hon (v nguyn t c 17e, 17 proton, in tch ht nhn l 17+ bng s th t ca nguyn t trong h thng tun hon), nguyn t thuc chu k 3 (v c 3 lp electron), thuc phn nhm chnh nhm VII (v 7 electron ngoi cng). l nguyn t clo.

b) Bit v tr ca mt nguyn t trong h thng tun hon, c th suy ra nhng tnh cht ho hc c bn ca n.
l : - Tnh kim loi (cc nguyn t phn nhm chnh nhm I, II, III, tr bo) ; tnh phi kim (cc nguyn t phn nhm chnh nhm VII, VI, V). - Ho tr cao nht vi oxi - Vit c cng thc hp cht vi oxi - Oxit v hiroxit c tnh axit hay baz. V d : - Nguyn t canxi thuc chu k 4, phn nhm chnh nhm II. - Vy n l kim loi - Ho tr cao nht vi oxi bng 2 (bng s th t ca nhm). - Cng thc oxit cao nht l CaO. Khng to hp cht kh vi hiro. - CaO v Ca(OH)2 c tnh baz mnh

c) Da vo h thng tun hon, c th d on c cu to nguyn t v tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t cha c tm ra.

V d : Nguyn t c s th t 87 khng tn ti trong t nhin, nhng trc khi iu ch nhn to c nguyn t ngi ta d on c cu to nguyn t v nhng tnh cht ho hc c bn ca n theo cch suy on sau : - Nguyn t c s th t 87, vy c 87 proton v 87 electron. - N c 7 lp electron (v thuc chu k 7). - Lp ngoi cng c 1 electron (v phn nhm chnh nhm I). - Tnh cht ho hc ca n l tnh cht ca kim loi kim v trong nhm kim loi kim, n c tnh cht kim loi mnh nht (v n nm cui nhm). Cu to nguyn t v tnh cht ho hc ca nguyn t franxi (Z = 87) iu ch nhn to nm 1939 xc nhn cc d on trn l hon ton ng n. 9. nh lut tun hon Menlep Trn c s s hiu nguyn t v cu trc electron ca cc nguyn t ho hc, ngi ta xy dng c h thng tun hon (chng I). Da vo h thng tun hon, ta nghin cu s bin i tnh cht ca cc nguyn t.

Tht ra, ngay t nm 1869, da vo khi lng nguyn t ca cc nguyn t v s bin i tch cht ho hc ca chng, nh bc hc ngi Nga Menlep, ln u tin lp c bng tun ho v tm ra nh lut tun hon. Ngy nay, nh lut tun hon c pht biu nh sau : "Tnh cht ca cc nguyn t cng nh thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc n cht v hp cht to nn t cc nguyn t bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t".

III. Phn ng oxi ho - kh

1. nh ngha phn ng oxi ho - kh

V d : Khi t natri trong kh clo, ta c phng trnh phn ng :

(1) Trong phn ng trn, nguyn t natri nhng electron cho nguyn t clo, bin thnh ion Na+ v ion Cl. Ta c cc qu trnh sau : Na - e = Na+ Cl + e = Cl Ngi ta gi qu trnh natri nhng electron l qu trnh oxi ho natri. Qu trnh clo thu electron l qu trnh kh clo. Nguyn t natri nhng electron : n l cht kh (hay cht b oxi ho). Nguyn t clo thu electron : n l cht oxi ho (hay cht b kh). Phn ng (1) l phn ng oxi ho - kh V d 2 : Cho clo tc dng vi mui st (II) clorua, ta c phng trnh phn ng :

(2) Trong phn ng trn ion Fe (trong mui FeCl2) nhng electron cho nguyn t clo to thnh ion Fe3+ v ion Cl. Ta c cc qu trnh sau : Fe2+ - e = Fe3+ s oxi ho Cl + e = Cl s kh 2+ Ion Fe l cht kh, nguyn t clo l cht oxi ho. Khi nim "cht" y l bao gm nguyn t, phn t hoc ion. Phn ng (2) l phn oxi ho - kh nh ngha : S oxi ho l s mt electron S kh l s thu electron Cht nhng electron l cht kh Cht thu electron l cht oxi ho. Phn ng oxi ho - kh l phn ng trong sso nguyn t hoc ion ny nhng electron cho nguyn t hoc ion khc. Mt cht ch c th nhng electron khi c mt mt cht khc thu electron. V vy trong phn ng oxi ho - kh, qu trnh oxi ho v qu trnh kh bao gi cng din ra ng thi.
2+

2. S oxi ho (hay mc oxi ho)

 thun tin cho vic thnh lp phng trnh phn ng oxi ho - kh, ngi ta dng khi nim s oxi ho. S oxi ho l din tch ca nguyn t trong phn t nu gi nh rng cc cp electron chung chuyn hn v nguyn t c m in ln hn (ngha l nu phn t c lin kt ion). S oxi ho ca cc nguyn t c xc nh theo cc quy tc sau : a. S oxi ho ca nguyn t cc n cht bng khng V d : S oxi ho ca Fe, Cu, Cl, S bng khng b. i vi cc ion n nguyn t, s oxi ho bng in tch ca ion . V d : S oxi ho ca Na+, Mg2+, I, S2-, ln lt bng +1, +2, -1, -2. c. Trong cc hp cht, s oxi ho ca hiro bng +1, ca oxi bng -2. d. Trong mt phn t, tng s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t bng khng. V d : Tnh s oxi ho ca nit trong cc hp cht amoniac NH3, axit nitr HNO2 v axit nitric HNO3. Ta gi x, y, z l cc s oxi ho cn tm. Trong NH3 : x + 3(+1) = 0 x = -3 Trong HNO2 : (+1) + y + 2(-2) = 0 y = +3 Trong HNO3 : (+1) + z + 3(-2) = 0 z = +5

3. Cn bng phng trnh phn ng oxi ho - kh

A. Nhn xt Qua cc v d 1 v 2 (phn I) ta thy - Trong cc phn ng oxi ho - kh, bao gi cng c s thay i s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t. - Khi mt cht nhng electron, s oxi ho ca n tng ln. - Khi mt cht thu electron, s oxi ho ca n gim i. B. Cn bng phng trnh phn ng oxi ho - kh V d 1 : Fe2O3 + H2 Fe + H2O Ta theo cc bc sau : 1. Xc nh s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t trong phn ng tm cht oxi ho v cht kh. S oxi ho ca st gim t +3 n 0 : Fe+3 (trong Fe2O3) l cht oxi ho. S oxi ho ca hiro tng t 0 n +1 : H l cht kh. 2. Vit cc qu trnh oxi ho v qu trnh kh, cn bng mi qu trnh. Fe+3 + 3e = Fe0 H - e = H+ 3. Tm h s ng thi cho cht oxi ho v cht kh theo quy tc s electron do cht kh nhng ra bng s electron cht oxi ho thu vo. H s: Cc h s 1 v 3 c ngha l mt ion Fe+3 thu 3e ca 3 nguyn t H hoc 2 ion Fe+3 thu 63 ca 3 phn t H2. 4. t cc h s ca cht oxi ho v cht kh vo phng trnh phn ng v kim tra li : Fe2O3 + 3H2 = 2Fe + 3H2O

V d 2 : Cn bng phng trnh phn ng t kh hiro sunfua

S oxi ho ca lu hunh tng t -2 n +4. Vy S-2 (trong H2S) l cht kh. S oxi ho ca oxi gim t 0 n -2. Vy O l cht oxi ho. 2. S-2 - 6e = S+4 O2 + 4e = 2O-2

3. Tm h s ng thi ca cht oxi ho v cht kh : - Tm bi s chung nh nht cho 2 h s electron ( y l 12)

4. t cc h s ca cht oxi ho v cht kh vo phng trnh. Da trn c s , cn bng ton phng trnh 2H2S + 3O2 = 2SO2 + 2H2O

4. Phn loi cc phn ng ho hc

Trong ho hc v c, ngi ta thng chia cc phn ng ho hc thnh hai loi : 1) Phn ng khng km theo s thay i s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t : l phn ng trao i, mt s phn ng kt hp, mt s phn ng phn hu. V d : NaCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + NaNO3 SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 CaCO3

CaO + CO

tO

Trong cc phn ng trn, khng c s nhng v s thu electron nn s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t khng thay i. 2) Phn ng km theo s thay i s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t : l phn ng oxi ha kh. T ra c nh ngha sau : Phn ng oxi ho - kh l phn ng c km theo s thay i s oxi ho ca cc nguyn t.

IV. Phn nhm chnh nhm VII - Nhm halogen

1. Cc halogen Nhm halogen gm flo, clo, brom, iot v atatin l nhng nguyn t ng cui cc chu k, trc kh him. Chng to thnh phn nhm chnh nhm VII trong h thng tun cc nguyn t ho hc (Atatin thc t khng gp trong thin nhin. N c iu ch nhn to khi thc hin phn ng ht nhn. Do vy, atatin c xem xt ch yu trong nhm cc nguyn t phng x). Mt s tnh cht ca halogen

- Trng thi vt l iu kin thng - Nhit nng chy, oC - Nhit si oC - Cu hnh electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t - m in

Flo Kh mu lc nht - 219,6 - 188,1 2s2 2p5 4,0

Clo Brom Iot Kh mu vng Lng, mu , Tinh th mu lc nu tm - 101,0 - 7,3 113,6 - 34,1 59,2 185,5 3s2 3p5 3,0 4s2 4p5 2,8 5s2 5p5 2,6

Do lp electron ngoi cng c cu to tng t nn cc halogen rt ging nhau v tnh cht ho hc cng nh thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht do chng to thnh. Nhn thm 1 electron to ra lp ngoi cng bn vng l khuynh hng c trng ca cc halogen. Trong hp cht vi hiro v kim loi, cc halogen lun th hin s oxi ho -1. Dung dch trong nc ca cc hp cht halogen vi hiro l cc axit : HF - axit flohiric, HCl axit clohiric, HBr - axit bromhiric, HI - axit iothiric. Gia cc halogen cng c s khc nhau, iu c bit r flo v cc hp cht ca n. V d : flo lun c s oxi ho -1 trong cc hp cht, nhng halogen khc th hin s oxi ho t -1 n +7. Trong khi HF l axit yu th cc axit HCl, HBr, HI li l nhng axit mnh, AgF tan nhiu trong nc, nhng hp cht AgCl, AgBr v AgI l nhng cht rt t tan. Cn c vo m in ca cc nguyn t ta c th suy ra rng, tnh oxi ho ca cc halogen gim t flo n iot. 2. Clo

a) Clo trong t nhin - Tnh cht vt l ca clo

Do hot ng ho hc mnh nn clo hu nh ch tn ti trong t nhin dng hp cht, ch yu l mui clorua. Natri clorua (mui n) c nhiu trong nc bin, i dng, h. Cng thy natri clorua dng rn, to thnh nhng va ln ri rc trong v Tri t gi l mui m. Mt vi hp cht khc ca clo cng ph bin trong t nhin, v d kali clorua l thnh phn ca cht khong cacnalit KCl.MgCl2.6H2O. Clo chim 0,05% khi lng v Tri t. Clo l cht kh mu vng lc, xc, nng gp hai ln ri khng kh. 20oC, mt th tch nc ho tan 2,3 th tch clo. Clo tan nhiu trong cc dung mi hu c. Clo c. Mt lng nh cng gy ra s kch thch mnh ng h hp v vim cc nim mc. Ht phi nhiu clo th b ngt v c th cht. Trong t nhin, tn ti hai ng v ca clo :

b) Tnh cht ho hc ca clo

to ra lp ngoi cng bn vng, hai nguyn t clo lin kt vi nhau bng mt i electron gp chung, to thnh phn t Cl2 c lin kt cng ho tr khng phn cc : Lp ngoi cng ca mi nguyn t clo c 7 electron (s2 p5) trong 6 electron cp i, 1 electron c thn. Khi hai nguyn t clo li gn nhau, 2 electron c thn tr nn cp i. Nh vy trong phn t clo, mi nguyn t clo c lp ngoi cng bn vng vi 8 electron, trong c mt cp electron thuc u c hai nguyn t, khng b lch v nguyn t no.

Nhn thm mt electron l tnh cht c trng nht - tnh oxi ho ca clo. Tnh cht ny th hin c bit r trong phn ng vi kim loi v vi hiro. 1. Tc dng vi kim loi Clo tc dng trc tip vi hu ht cc kim loi, phn ng xy ra nhanh, to nhiu nhit. Natri nng chy, chy trong clo vi ngn la sng chi ; to thnh natri clorua :

Bt st nng chy trong clo to thnh khi mu nu gm nhng ht rt nh st (III) clorua :

Nung si dy ng mnh ri a vo bnh ng kh clo, dy ng chy sng, sn phm phn ng l ng (II) clorua.

2. Tc dng vi hiro Trn clo vi hiro trong mt ng ong ln thnh dy theo t l 1 : 1 v th tch. y bnh bng mt ming ba cng v t si dy magie cnh ng (hoc a ng ra ngoi nh sng mt tri) th xy ra ngay ting n mnh do phn ng gia hiro v clo :

Lin kt gia hiro vi clo l lin kt cng ho tr c cc, trong electron s ca nguyn t hiro cp i vi electron p ca nguyn t clo. 3. Tc dng vi nc Khi tan trong nc, mt phn clo tc dng vi nc :

Axit clohiric l axit mnh. Axit hipoclor l axit rt yu, yu hn axit cacbonic H2CO3. Axit hipoclor c tnh oxi ho rt mnh. Do vy clo hon ton kh khng c tnh ty trng, nhng clo m li phn hu cht mu rt nhanh do c s to thnh axit hipoclor. Trong phn ng vi nc, phn t clo Cl2 va l cht kh, va l cht oxi ho, v mt nguyn t clo nhng electron, mt nguyn t clo nhn electron.

c) ng dng v iu ch clo

3. Hiro clorua Hiro clorua l cht kh khng mu, nng hn khng kh gp 1,3 ln. Nu th phi nhiu hiro clorua th ng h hp s b tn thng v c th b ngt. Hiro clorua tan nhiu trong nc. 0oC, mt th tch nc ho tan c 500 th tch hiro clorua. Dung dch hiro clorua trong nc gi l axit clohiric. C th thy r tan ln ca hiro clorua trong th nghim sau y : Np hiro clorua vo y mt bnh thy tinh thnh dy v y bnh bng nt cao su. Xuyn qua nt c mt ng thy tinh thng vut nhn u v mt ng nh git cha y nc. Nhng ng thy tinh vo mt cc ln cha y nc nhum mu bng qu. Bm vi git nc t ng nh git vo bnh. Nc trong cc theo ng phun ln thnh vi, dung dch trong bnh ng sang mu . l do hiro clorua tan trong nc, to ra s gim p sut trong bnh nn p sut ca kh quyn y nc vo th ch kh HCl tan. Dung dch thu c l axit nn qu ng sang mu . Phng php iu ch hiro clorua bng cch cho natri clorua tinh th tc dng vi axit sunfuric m c, un nng, gi l phng php sunfat :

Tu theo nhit un m to thnh hoc NaHSO4 hoc Na2SO4. Mt phng php khc iu ch hiro clorua trong cng nghip l t hiro trong clo, goi l phng php tng hp :

H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl Dng nc ho tan kh hiro clorua, to thnh axit clohiric. Cng vic ny c thc hin trong cc thp hp th : nc phun t trn xung, kh i t di ln. Trong thp c nhng ng s khng b axit n mn lm tng din tch tip xc gia kh vi nc (tng t thp hp th SO3 to thnh H2SO4 trong sn xut axit sunfuric. Phng php tng hp l phng php ch yu trong cng nghip hin i iu ch axit clohiric. 4. Axit clohiric v mui clorua

a) Axit clohiric
Axit clohiric l cht lng khng mu. Axit c cha ti 37% hiro clorua v "bc khi" trong khng kh m. Trong dung dch, axit clohiric l axit mnh, c y tnh cht ho hc bit ca axit. Cc oxit baz, nhiu kim loi v mt s mui tc dng vi axit clohiric. V d : Zn + 2 HCl = ZnCl2 + H2 CuO + 2HCl = CuCl2 + H2O Al(OH)3 + 3HCl = AlCl3 + 3H2) AgNO3 + HCl = HNO3 + AgCl Axit clohiric c nhiu ng dng. N c dng iu ch cc mui clorua (bari clorua, km clorua....). Mt lng ln axit clohiric c dng ty g, lm sch b mt nhng vt liu bng gang, thp trc khi qut sn hoc ph ln chng mt lp kim loi c tc dng bo v. Axit clohiric cn c dng trong cng nghip ch bin thc phm v trong y t. Axit clohiric c gi v vn chuyn trong cc xitec c lt cao su khng b axit n mn, trong cc l thu tinh, l polietilen.

b) Mui clorua
Nhng mui clorua quan trng nht l : NaCl khng nhng quan trng i vi cuc sng hng ngy ca con ngi m cn l nguyn liu sn xut clo, natri hiroxit, axit clohiric. KCl l phn bn cha kali. ZnCl2 dng qut ln g chng mc, bi ln mt kim loi trc khi hn v n va c tc dng ty g, va lm cho hp kim hn bm chc vo kim loi. BaCl2 l cht c, dng tr su bnh trong nng nghip. CaCl2 dng khan dng lm kh cc kh (sau khi ht nc, n bin thnh CaCl2.6H2O). AlCl3 thng c dng lm cht xc tc trong tng hp hu c.

c) Nhn bit gc clorua

Hu ht cc mui ca axit clohiric u d tan trong nc. Bc clorua AgCl l mui t tan nht. Nu nh dung dch bc nitrat vo axit clohiric hoc dung dch mui clorua no th tc khc xut hin kt ta trng bc clorua : HCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + HNO3 NaCl + AgNO3 = AgCl + NaNO3 AgCl khng tan trong axit nitric. Nu ra ngoi nh sng n xm dn li do phn hu thnh clo v bc kim loi dng bt mu en.

Nh vy, mun nhn ra gc clorua (axit clohiric hoc mui clorua) trong dung dch, ta nh dung dch bc nitrat vo dung dch . Nu thy xut hin kt ta mu trng khng tan trong axit nitric th kt lun rng trong dung dch cn nhn bit c gc clorua. 5. Mt s hp cht cha oxi ca clo Ngoi s oxi ho -1, trong hp cht ca clo vi hiro v kim loi, clo cn th hin cc s oxi ho +1, +3, +5, +7 trong cc hp cht vi oxi. Tuy khng tc dng trc tip vi oxi nhng clo cng c nhng hp cht cha oxi c to ra bng con ng gin tip. l cc oxit, cc axit v mui ca chng nh :

Cc oxit v cc axit cha oxi ca clo km bn, d dng b phn hu di tc dng ca nh sng hoc khi va chm mnh. Mui ca axit cha oxi ca clo c nhiu ng dng, quan trng nht l nhng cht di y : 1. Nc Javen Khi dn clo vo dung dch NaOH th clo phn ng vi NaOH theo phng trnh : Cl2 + 2NaOH = NaCl + NaClO + H2O
Natri hipoclorit

C th quan nim rng, khi clo tip xc vi dung dch NaOH th xy ra nhng phn ng sau : Clo phn ng vi nc : Cl2 + H2O = HCl + HClO Kim phn ng vi cc axit va sinh ra : HCl + HClO + 2NaOH = NaCl + NaClO + 2H2O Dung dch cha nti clorua v natri hipoclorit trong nc (hoc KCl v KClO) gi l nc Javen. Nc Javen c tnh oxi ho mnh, n c dng ty tng si bng v giy. Nc Javen dng trong cng nghip c iu ch bng cch in phn dung dch long mui n (15 - 20%) trong bnh in phn khng c mng ngn vi cc m bng st v cc dng bng than ch. 2. Kali clorat KClO3 Nu cho clo i vo dung dch kim c un nng ti 100oC th sn phm ca phn ng l mui clorat (mui ca axit cloric HClO3) : 3Cl2 + 6KOH = 5KCl + KClO3 + 3H2O Kali clorat d dng b phn hu khi un nng. Khi c mt MnO2 lm cht xc tc, s phn hu xy ra theo phng trnh :

KClO3 c dng iu ch oxi trong phng th nghim. Vi nhng cht chy khc nhau (lu hunh, cacbon, photpho), KClO3 to thnh hn hp n khi va chm. KClO3 cng c dng nhiu trong cng nghip dim. u que dim thng cha gn 50% KClO3. 3. Clorua vi Clorua vi l cht bt mu trng, xp, lun bc mi clo. Khi clo tc dng vi vi th thu c clorua vi : Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 = CaOCl2 + H2O CaOCl2 c coi l mui canxi hn tp ca axit hipoclor v axit clohiric :

Clorua vi cng l cht oxi ho mnh. N c dng ty trng si thc vt (vi, giy) v ty u. 6. Brom v iot K hiu ho hc ca brom S th t Cng thc phn t : Br K hiu ho hc ca :I brom Khi lng nguyn t: 127 S th t Cng thc phn t : 53 : I2

Khi lng nguyn t : 80 : 35 : Br2

a). Tnh cht vt l v trng thi t nhin ca brom v iot

Brom l cht lng mu nu, d bay hi. Hi brom c. Brom ri vo da s gy nhng vt bng nng. Iot l cht rn mu xm, c v sng kim loi. Khi un nng, iot bin thnh hi mu tm, khi lm lnh, hi iot li chuyn thnh tinh th, khng qua trng thi lng. Hin tng gi l s thng hoa ca iot. Brom v iot u tan trong nc nhng tan nhiu trong cc dung mi hu c nh ru, xng, benzen, clorofooc. Dung dch ca brom v iot trong nc gi l nc brom v nc iot. Trong t nhiu ch gp brom v iot dng hp cht, ch yu l cc mui natri v kali ca chng c nhiu trong nc bin. Hp cht ca iot cn gp trong mt s loi rong bin

b). Tnh cht ho hc ca brom v iot

Brom v iot cng l nhng cht oxi ho mnh, nhng km clo.

Brom v iot phn ng trc tip vi nhiu kim loi, c trng hp cn un nng, c trng hp xy ra ngay nhit thng, cc phn ng u to ra nhiu nhit.

V d :

Brom ch phn ng vi hiro khi un nng : H2 + Br2 = 2HBr nhit cao iot mi phn ng vi hiro : H2 + I2 = 2HI Hiro iotua khng bn, ngay nhng iu kin to thnh mt phn b phn hu thnh hiro v iot : 2HI = H2 + I2 Do vy, phn ng gia hiro v iot khng thc hin n cng. Hiro bromua v hiro iotua tan trong nc to thnh cc axit tng ng c cng cng thc : axit bromhiric HBr v axit iothiric HI. HBr v HI u l cc axit mnh, tng t axit HCl, trong axit HI mnh hn axit HBr v HBr mnh hn HCl. Iot to thnh hp cht c mu xanh vi tinh bt. Do vy, iot I2 l thuc th tinh bt v ngc li. Brom y c iot ra khi dung dch NaI, nhng clo li y ch brom ra khi dung dch NaBr : Br2 + 2NaI = 2NaBr + I2 Cl2 + 2NaBr = 2NaCl + Br2 iu chng t rng clo hot ng ho hc hn brom, brom hot ng ho hc hn iot.

c). ng dng ca brom v iot

Phn ln brom v iot c dng sn xut ra cc dc phm khc nhau. Trong c th ngi, iot c tuyn gip trng, di dng nhng hp cht hu c phc tp. Nu thiu iot, ngi thng b bnh bu c. 7. Flo K hiu ho hc :F Khi lng nguyn t : 19 S th t :9 Cu hnh electron : 1s2 2s2 2p5 Cng thc phn t : F2

a). Tnh cht vt l, Flo trong t nhin

Flo l cht kh mu lc nht, rt c. Flo c trong hp cht to nn men rng ca ngi v cc ng vt, trong l ca mt s cy v trong cc cht khong di dng mui florua : CaF2 v

AlF3 . 3NaF (criolit). Flo chim 0,08% khi lng v Tri t, ngha l nhiu hn ng, km, kn v mt s nguyn t tng i ph bin khc.

b).Tnh cht ho hc ca Flo

Flo l cht oxi ho mnh nht. N phn ng trc tip vi hu ht cc kim loi v phi kim, bao gm c vng, bch kim. Flo phn ng vi hiro ngay c trong bng ti v nhit rt thp : H2 + F2 = 2HF Hiro florua HF l kh tan trong nc khng c gii hn, to thnh axit flohiric. HF l axit yu nhng c tnh cht ring l tc dng vi silic ioxit (c trong thnh phn ca thu tinh) : SiO2 + 4HF = SiF4 + 2H2O Silic tetraflorua Do vy, axit flohiric c dng khc ch, khc hnh ln thu tinh, ty nhng vt ct trn mt kim loi. Axxit flohiric c ng trong cc bnh bng ch, polietilen, cao su. Nu cho mt lung kh flo i qua nc nng th nc bc chy v gii phng oxi : 2F2 + 2H2O = 4HF + O2 Ngy nay flo c ng dng rng ri trong vic ch to cc cht do, bn v c hc cng nh v ho hc, chng hn teflon l mt polime cha flo, khng b axit v kim ph hu.

V. Oxi - Lu hunh l thuyt v phn ng ho hc

1. Phn nhm chnh nhm VI Phn nhm chnh nhm VI h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc gm cc nguyn t : oxi, lu hunh, selen, telu v poloni (poloni l nguyn t phng x). Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t trong phn nhm chnh u c 6 electron lp ngoi cng ns2 np4. Trong 4 electron phn lp p c 2 electron cp i v 2 electron c thn. Do c 6 electron lp ngoi cng nn khi nhn thm 2 electron, nguyn t tr thnh ion mang hai n v in tch m. Khi c kch thch, chng hn, vi lu hunh cp electron trong phn lp 3p v cp electron trong phn lp 3s c th tham gia lin kt ho hc. Do vy cc nguyn t ca phn nhm chnh nhm VI c cc s oxi ho -2 (trong hp cht vi hiro v kim loi), +4 v +6 (trong hp cht vi oxi v nhng phi kim c m in ln hn). Oxi thng c s oxi ho -2 ring trong hp cht OF2, oxi c s oxi ho +2. Hp cht vi hiro ca cc nguyn t trong phn nhm c dng H2R : H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te. Khi tan trong nc, chng to thnh cc axit (c cng cng thc) v mnh ca axit tng theo chiu tng ca s th t cc nguyn t. Lu hunh, selen v telu to ra cc oxit RO2 v RO3, axit tng ng vi cc oxit c dng H2RO3 v H2RO4. mnh ca nhng axit ny gim theo chiu tng ca s th t cc nguyn t. Tnh cht ho hc ca cc nguyn t trong phn nhm bin i theo quy lut : tnh phi kim gim dn, tnh kim loi tng dn theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t cc nguyn t. Oxi l phi kim in hnh, cn telu cng l phi kim nhng c v sng kim loi v dn in. Oxi v lu hunh l hai nguyn t ph bin v c nhiu ng dng nht.

2. Oxi K hiu ho hc :O Khi lng nguyn t : 16 S th t :8 Cu hnh electron : 1s2 2s2 2p2 Cng thc phn t : O2

a). Tnh cht vt l ca oxi

Oxi l cht kh khng mu, khng mi, khng v, nng hn khng kh mt t. Oxi ta t trong nc ( 20oC, mt lt nc ch ho tan 31 ml oxi). Di p sut ca kh quyn, oxi ho lng 183oC. Oxi lng c mu xanh da tri, b nam chm ht. Trong t nhin, oxi c 3 ng v :

b). Tnh cht ho hc ca oxi

Oxi l mt phi kim hot ng. m in ca n ln (3,50, ch km flo) nn trong tt ca cc dng hp cht, tr hp cht vi flo, oxi u th hin s oxi ho -2. Oxi to ra oxit vi hu ht cc nguyn t. N phn ng trc tip vi tt c cc kim loi, tr vng v bch kim. V d : 2Ca + O2 = 2CaO 4Al + 3O2 = 2Al2O3 Oxi cng phn ng trc tip vi cc phi kim, tr halogen to thnh oxit axit. V d : S + O2 = SO2 Hoc to thnh oxit khng to mui. V d :

Nhng phn ng m oxi tham gia u l oxi ho - kh, trong oxi l cht oxi ho : S chy, s g, s h hp v thi ra l nhng qu trnh xy ra vi s tham gia ca oxi. Oxi c vai tr quan trng trong cng nghim luyn kim.

c). Dng th hnh ca oxi : ozon

Phn t ozon gm 3 nguyn t oxi O3. Tuy do c cng mt nguyn t to nn nhng ozon c tnh cht khc oxi. Ozon l cht kh c mi xc. N ph hu cc cht hu c, oxi ho nhiu kim loi, trong c bc. Ozon l cht oxi ho mnh hn oxi. Chng hn, n y c iot ra khi dung dch kali iotua (O2 khng c phn ng ny) :

Dung dch KI c s dng nhn ra ozon.

Ozon c tnh oxi ho mnh l do phn t ca n km bn vng, d b phn hu thnh oxi nguyn t : O3 = O2 + O L chy oxi ho mnh nn ozon dit c cc v khun v do c dng dit trng trong nc v kh trng khng kh. 3. Lu hunh K hiu ho hc :S Khi lng nguyn t : 32 S th t : 16 Cu hnh electron : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

a). Tnh cht vt l v cu to phn t ca lu hunh

Lu hunh l cht rn mu vng, gin, thc t khng tan trong nc, khng thm nc nhng tan nhiu trong cc dung mi hu c nh : ru, benzen..., dn in v dn nhit km. Lu hunh si 444,6oC to thnh hi mu nu. Nu lm ngui nhanh th hi lu hunh chuyn thnh bt mn, gm nhng tinh th nh, gi l lu hunh hoa. trng thi rn, mi phn t lu hunh gm 8 nguyn t (S8) khp kn thnh vng.

Do mng tinh th lu hunh l mng phn t nn lu hunh nng chy nhit tng i thp 112,8oC, ch cao hp nhit si ca nc mt t. Nu tip tc un nng n 187oC lu hunh lng tr nn sm, c mu vng nu v c li, gi l lu hunh do. l mt dng th hnh ca lu hunh. Trong lu hunh do phn t lu hunh c cu to mch rt di ging nh phn t cao su nn lu hunh c tnh n hi. Nh vy, tn ti nhng phn t lu hunh c thnh phn khc nhau. n gin, ta ch vit phn t lu hunh gm 1 nguyn t : S.

b). Tnh cht ho hc ca lu hunh

L mt phi kim kh hot ng, lu hunh d to ra hp cht vi nhiu kim loi, thng l khi u nng. Chng hn, hn hp gm bt st v bt lu hunh nu c un nh lc u th phn ng xy ra rt mnh, to nhiu nhit : Fe + S = FeS Phn ng gia lu hunh vi nhm hoc vi km cng xy ra mnh lit km theo s lo sng. Nhng si dy ng mnh c th chy trong hi lu hunh to ra CuS mu en. Thu ngn phn ng vi lu hunh ngay nhit thng : Hg + S = HgS Hp cht ca lu hunh vi kim loi thuc loi mui, gi l sunfua (FeS - st sunfua, Al2S3 nhm sunfua, .....)

Lu hunh cng phn ng trc tip vi hiro. Khi dn hiro vo ng nghim ng lu hunh ang si th u ng dn kh xut hin kh mi trng thi, l hiro sunfua : H2 + S = H2S Phn ng ny khng thc hin n cng. T nhng sn phm ca cc phn ng nu, ta thy oxi v lu hunh to ra nhng hp cht c thnh phn ging nhau v oxi v lu hunh u c s oxi ho -2 :

Lu hunh tc dng hu nh vi tt c cc phi kim, tr nit v iot. Khi b t, lu hunh chy trong khng kh vi ngn la mu xanh, to ra lu hunh (IV) oxit : S + O2 = SO2 Trong cc oxit SO2 v SO3, do m in ca lu hunh (2,5) nh hn ca oxi nn lin kt cng ho tr gia oxi v lu hunh l c cc, s oxi ho ca lu hunh trong cc oxit l +4 v +6. Tm li, trong nhng phn ng vi kim loi v hiro th lu hunh l cht oxi ho, cn trong phn ng vi phi kim hot ng hn, chng hn oxi, th lu hunh l cht kh.

c). Lu hunh trong t nhin - ng dng ca lu hunh

1. Lu hunh thuc loi nguyn t ph bin, n chim 0,05% khi lng v Tri t. Trong t nhin, lu hunh trng thi t do (Italia, M, Nht Bn, Lin X c l nhng nc c m lu hunh ln) v trong thnh phn hp cht. Nhng qung cha lu hunh l : pirit FeS2, xfalerit SnS, galen PbS, mui Na2SO4.10H2O, thch cao CaSO4.2H2O, mui cht MgSO4.7H2O. Lu hunh cng c trong c th ng vt v thc vt (trong thnh phn ca protein). 2. Lu hunh c nhiu ng dng. Trong cng nghip, lu hunh c dng ch yu sn xut axit sunfuric. Mt lng ln lu hunh dng luyn cao su : n lm tng bn chc v tnh n hi ca cao su. Nu cho nhiu lu hunh vo cao su th c cht do ebonit dng lm cht cch in. Lu hunh cn c dng tr su cho mt s loi cy, ch thuc sng en, thuc u que dim, ch m cha bnh ngoi da v.v... 4. Hiro sunfua

a).Tnh cht vt l ca hiro sunfua H2S

Hiro suafua l cht kh khng mu, nng hn khng kh mt t, mi trng thi. 20oC, 1 lt nc ho tan khong 2,5 lt hiro sunfua. Dung dch hiro sunfua trong nc gi l nc hiro sunfua hay axit sunfuhiric. Hiro sunfua rt c. Nu ngi nhiu hiro sunfua th au u, bun nn, khng phn bit c cc mi khc nhau. Do vy, nhng th nghim vi hiro sunfua u c thc hin trong nhng dng c c kn m bo.

b). Tnh cht ho hc ca hiro sunfua H2S

Hiro sunfua l cht kh mnh. Hiro sunfua chaytrong khng kh vi ngn la xanh, to thnh lu hunh (IV) oxit:

Khi b oxi ho chn th to thnh lu hunh t do Phn ng ny xy ra khi h l ng nc hiro sunfua trong khng kh, hoc khi lm lnh ngn la ca hiro sunfua ang chy, lm cho hiro sunfua chy khng hon ton (hnh v). Khi gp cht oxi ho mnh nh Cl2, H2S b oxi ho n H2SO4.

Nc hiro sunfua c tnh axit yu. Khi tc dng vi axit baz, axit sunfuhiric to ra mui axit nh NaHS natri hiro sunfua, hoc to ra mui trung ho, nh Na2S natri sunfua. Mui sunfua ca cc kim loi phn nhm chnh nhm I nh Na2S, K2S, kim loi phn nhm chnh nhm II nh CaS, BaS tan trong nc. Mui sunfua ca nhng kim loi khc khng tan, mt s li c mu c trng: CuS, PbS c mu en, CdS (caimi sunfua) - vng, MnS (mangan sunfua) - hng, SnS (thic sunfua) - gch, v.v... Do vy, nhn bit H2S hoc mui sunfua trong dung dch, ngi ta dng dung dch mui ch, chng hn Pb(NO3)2, kt tuaPbS mu en s xut hin : H2S + Pb(NO3)2 = PbS + 2HNO3 Na2S + Pb(NO3)2 = PbS + 2NaNO3 Mui ch l thuc th kh hiro sunfua, axit sunfuhiric v nhng mui tan ca n. C th dng giy c thm dung dch mui ch thay cho dung dch mui ch.

c). iu ch hiro sunfua H2S

Trong phng th nghim hiro sunfua c iu ch bng phn ng gia axit clohiric vi mui st sunfua : FeS + 2HCl = FeCl2 + H2S Trong t nhin, hiro sunfua c to thnh khi cc cht protein b thi ra. Hiro sunfua cn c trong nc ca mt s sui, do vy loi nc sui ny c dng vo mc ch cha bnh. 5. Cc oxit ca lu hunh

a). Lu hunh (IV) oxit SO2

Lu hunh (IV) oxit cn c gi l lu hunh ioxit, kh sunfur. SO2 l cht kh khng mu, c mi xc c trng, tan nhiu trong nc ( 20oC, 1 lit nc ho tan 40 lt SO2). Lu hunh (IV) oxit l osit axit : SO2 + CaO = CaSO3 SO2 + 2NaOH = Na2SO3 + H2O Khi tan trong nc, mt phn SO2 tc dng vi H2O to ra axit sunfur : H2O + SO2 = H2SO3 Nu axit sunfur mt nc s to ra SO2. V th SO2 cn c gi l anhirit sunfur.

Axit sunfur l axit yu, khng bn, ch tn ti trong dung dch. Mui ca axit sunfur gi l sunfit : NaHSO3 - natri hiro sunfit, Na2SO3 - natri sunfit. Kh sunfur l cht oxi ho khi gp cht kh mnh v l cht kh khi gp cht oxi ho mnh. V d, khi un nng v c mt cht xc tc, SO2 b oxi ho :

Nu trn kh sunfur vi kh hiro sunfua, s to ra lu hunh :

SO2 kt hp vi nhiu cht mu hu c, to thnh nhng hp cht khng mu. Do vy, SO2 c dng ty trng nhiu phm vt khc nhau nh t, len. Cnh hoa hng cng b ty mu bi SO2. Trong phng th nghim, SO2 c iu ch bng phn ng gia axit sunfuric c nng vi natri sunfit tinh th, hoc vi ng : Na2SO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2 Cu + 2H2SO4 = CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2

b). Lu hunh (VI) oxit SO3

SO3 cn c gi l lu hunh trioxit, anhiric sunfuric. SO3 l cht lng khng mu, n chuyn thnh tinh th 16,8oC. Lu hunh trioxit l oxit axit. N ht nc rt mnh, to ra axit sunfuric, phn tng to nhiu nhit : SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 SO3 khng c ng dng thc tin. N l sn phm trung gian trong qu trnh sn xut axit sunfuric. 6. Axit sunfuric

a). Tnh cht vt l ca axit sunfuric H2SO4

Axit sunfuric l cht lng khng mu, snh nh du thc vt, khng bay hi, khng mi, khi lng ring 1,86g/ml, si 337oC. Axit sunfuric c ht nc rt mnh, lm to ra mt lng nhit ln. Do vy, pha long axit sunfuric, ngi ta ch c php cho chy t t mt dng nh axit c vo nc m khng c lm ngc li.

b). Tnh cht ho hc ca axit sunfuric H2SO4

Axit sunfuric long c tt c nhng tnh cht ca mt axit mnh : lm qu tm, tc dng vi baz, vi occit baz, vi nhiu mui. 2NaOH + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O CuO + H2SO4 = CuSO4 + 2H2O BaCl2 + H2SO4 = BaSO4 + 2HCl Na2SO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2 Axit sunfuric long oxi ho nhng kim loi ng trc hiro trong dy hot ng ho hc ca kim loi :

Nu kim loi c nhiu s oxi ho th khi tc dng vi axit sunfuric long, kim loi ch t n s oxi ho thp v d :

Khc vi dung dch long, axit sunfuric c, nng oxi ho c mt s kim loi ng sau hiro trong dy hot ng ho hc ca kim loi (nh Cu, Ag, Hg) v nhiu phi kim (nh C, S, P). V d :

nhit thng, axit H2SO4 c khng tc dng vi st, nn ngi ta c th vn chuyn axit sunfuric c trong nhng xitec bng thp. Axit sunfuric c chim nc ca nhiu cht hu c cha hiro v oxi nh ng, g, si bng, ng thi gii phng cacbon dng mui than. Qu trnh gi l s than ho bng axit sunfuric c. S than ho ng c th biu din bng s sau :

Nh vy, tnh cht ca axit sunfuric long th hin bng tnh cht ca ion H+, cn axit sunfuric c th hin bng tnh cht ton phn t H2SO4.

c). Mui ca axit sunfuric

Axit sunfuric to ra hai loi mui : mui trung ho v mui axit. Mui trung ho gi l sunfat, mui axit l hiro sunfat : Na2SO4 natri sunfat NaHSO4 natri hirosunfat Di y l cc mui suafat c nhiu ng dng. Na2SO4 kt tinh dng Na2SO4.10H2O. Mui natri sunfat khan c dng trong cng nghip nu thu tinh. MgSO4 kt tinh dng MgSO4.7H2O ; MgSO4 c trong bin, c dng lm thuc x trong y t. (NH4)2SO4 (amoni sunfat) l phn bn cha nit (phn m). K2SO4 l phn bn cha kali (phn kali). CaSO4 gp trong t nhin dng CaSO4.2H2O gi l thch cao. Khi un nng n 150oC th thch cao mt bt nc bin thnh 2CaSO4.H2O gi l thch cao nung nh la hay alebat. Khi c nho vi nc, alebat bin thnh khi nho ri ho rn, tr li dng CaSO4.2H2O. Thch cao c ng dng rng ri trong xy dng (trt tng), trong iu khc (nn tng) v trong y t (b bt cha xng b gy). CuSO4.5H2O c mu xanh, c, CuSO4 c dng trong vic m ng cc kim loi, ch to mt s cht mu v c. Trong nng nghip, dung dch long CuSO4 c dng phun tr su cho cy v kh trng ht trc khi gieo. ZnSO4.7H2O dng lm phn vi lng, sn xut cht mu v c.

d). Nhn bit axit sunfuric v mui sunfat

i a s cc mui sunfat tan trong nc, canxi sunfat CaSO4 v ch sunfat PbSO4 t tan, bari sunfat BaSO4 thc t khng tan trong nc cng nh trong axit. Khi cho mt dung dch mui no

 ca bari, th d BaCl2, vo dung dch axit sunfuric hoc dung dch mui sunfat th to thnh kt ta trng BaSO4 : H2SO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 + 2HCl Na2SO4 + BaCl2 = BaSO4 + 2NaCl V vy dung dch mui bari l thuc th axit sunfuric hoc dung dch mui sunfat. Khi cho dung dch mui bari vo dung dch no m c cht kt ta trng xut hin v cht kt ta ny khng b tan trong axit nitric hoc axir clohiric th c th khng nh rng, trong dung dch cho c gc sunfat SO42 7. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng Cc qu trnh ho hc lun lun km theo s thay i nng lng. Nng lng c th to ra, c th c hp th di cc dng khc nhau : nhit nng, in nng hoc quang nng. Nu dn clo vo mt lung hiro ang chy, clo s chy trong hiro, to thnh hiro clorua. Phn ng ny to ra nng lng di dng nhit v nh sng. Thu ngn v oxi c to thnh. Nu t ng thot kh vo cc nc theo di qu trnh phn ng th rng oxi s ngng thot ra khi ngng un (bt kh khng xut hin). Hin tng cho thy, phn ng xy ra khi hp th nhit.

Nng lng to ra hay thu vo trong phn ng ho hc gi l hiu ng nhit ca phn ng. Gii thch nh th no, phn ng ny to ra nng lng, phn ng khc li hp th nng lng ? Ta nh li rng, phn ng ho hc l s to thnh cht mi t nhng cht ban u vi s ph v lin kt ho hc trong cht tham gia phn ng v s to thnh nhng lin kt mi trong sn phm ca phn ng. S ph v lin kt phi tiu hao nng lng, s to thnh lin kt mi to ra

nng lng. Nng lng cn thit ph v mt lin kt ho hc gi l nng lng lin kt. Nng lng lin kt c tnh ra kJ vi mi mol cht (kJ/mol). Nu nhng lin kt trong cht tham gia phn ng km bn vng hn nhng lin kt mi to thnh trong sn phm th phn ng to ra nng lng. Ngc li, nu lin kt trong cht tham gia phn ng bn vng hn trong cht to thnh th phn ng hp th nng lng. Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng nh th no ? Ly v d phn ng to thnh HCl : H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl Nng lng lin kt ca cc cht tham gia v to thnh sau phn ng : H2 Cl2 HCl E, kJ/ mol : 435,9 242,4 432 Nng lng ph v cc cht tham gia phn ng : 435,9 + 242,4 = 678,3 (kJ) Nng lng to ra khi to thnh 2 mol HCl : 2 . 432 = 864 (kJ) Nng lng to ra hn nng lng tiu hao : 864 - 678,3 = 185,7 (kJ) Phn ng ny ta ra nng lng Tnh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng phn hy thy ngn oxit 2HgO = 2Hg + O2 Nng lng lin kt trong cc cht : HgO Hg O2 E, kJ/ mol : 355,7 61,2 498,7 Trong phn ng ny, nng lng tiu hao ln hn nng lng ta ra : 2 . 355,7 - (2 . 61,2 + 498,7) = 90,3 (kJ) Phn ng ny hp th nng lng. Nhng phn ng to ra nng lng gi l phn ng to nhit. Nhng phn ng hp th nng lng gi l phn ng thu nhit. Phng trnh phn ng c ghi hiu ng nhit ca phn ng gi l phng trnh nhit ho hc. Vi nhng phn ng ni n, phng trnh nhit ho hc c ghi nh sau : H2 + Cl2 = 2HCl + 185,7 kJ 2HgO = 2Hg + O2 - 90,3 kJ Tn dng nhit ca phn ng, s cung cp nng lng cn thit phn ng ho hc xy ra u phi da trn s xc nh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng. Do vy, xc nh hiu ng nhit ca phn ng l nhim v quan trng ca ho hc. 8. Tc phn ng ho hc Cc phn ng ho hc xy ra nhanh chm khc nhau, ta ni phn ng xy ra vi tc khc nhau. C phn ng xy ra trong hng nghn nm, nh s chuyn ho granit thnh t st. Tc d phn ng ha hc c o bng s thay i nng ca mt cht tham gia phn ng trong mt n v thi gian, thng biu th bng smol/l trong mt giy (mol/l.s). V d phn ng oxi ho SO2 thnh SO3 : 2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3

Nu nng ban u ca SO2 l 0,03 mol/l, sau 30 giy nng ca n l 0,01 mol/l th tc ca phn ng ny trong khong thi gian bng :

Mt cch tng qut, tc ca phn ng ho hc c tnh theo cng thc :

trong , v : tc phn ng C1 : nng ban u ca mt cht tham gia phn ng (mol/l). C2 : nng ca cht (mol/l) sau t giy (s) xy ra phn ng C = C1 - C2 Tc d ca phn ng ho hc ph thuc vo bn cht ca nhng cht tham gia phn ng v nhng iu kin tin hnh phn ng, quan trng nht l : nng cc cht tham gia phn ng, nhit , s c mt ca cht xc tc. Khi tng nng cc cht tham gia phn ng, cc phn t va chm vi nhau nhiu hn trong mt n v thi gian nn tc ca phn ng tng ln. Tc ca phn ng t l thun vi nng cc cht tham gia phn ng. V d tc ca phn ng to thnh hiro iotua t hiro v hi iot c tnh nh sau : v = k [H2] [I2] Trong v : tc phn ng [H2] : nng ca hiro, mol/l [I2] : nng ca iot, mol/l k : h s t l c trng cho mi phn ng, cn gi l hng s tc . dng tng qut, vi phn ng : A + B = AB v = k [A] [B] xy ra phn ng, cc phn t phi va chm nhau, tuy khng phi va chm no cng gy ra phn ng. Khi tng nhit , s va chm c hiu qu (gy ra phn ng tng ln, s ln va chm gia cc phn t trong mt n vik thi gian tng ln, dn n s tng tc phn ng. Thng thng, khi tng nhit 10oC th tc phn ng tng 2 - 3 ln. phn ng c cht rn tham gia, nh phn ng gia st vi lu hunh, cacbon vi oxi, km vi dung dch axit sunfuric thid tc phn ng t l thun vi ln ca b mt cc cht tham gia phn ng. Do vy, thc hin phn ng, cc cht rn thng c nghin nh tng din tch tip xc gia cc cht phn ng. Tc ca phn ng cng tng ln khi c mt cht xc tc. C th thy r iu ny qua phn ng oxi ho SO2 thnh SO3. Nu ch un nng hn hp gm SO2 v O2 th phn ng xy ra rt chm. Nu c mt cht xc tc (crom oxit Cr2O3 hoc mangan ioxit MnO2) th phn ng xy ra nhanh. Nu lm th nghim nh m ta trong hnh v, ta s trng r anhirit sunfuric i vo bnh cu dng m ( l do SO3 gp hi nc trong bnh cu, to thnh nhng git nh axit sunfuric). Dng c c lp nh hnh v. Khi bt u th nghim, ta t nng mnh

crom oxit, sau dng qu bp cao su y khng kh vo, khng kh s mang theo kh sunfur. Khi hn hp kh i qua cht xc tc un nng th kh sunfur b oxi ca khng kh oxi ho v anhirit sunfuric c to thnh. 9. Cn bng ho hc C nhng phn ng xy ra theo hai chiu ngc nhau, v d phn ng phn hu v to thnh nc, phn ng phn hu v to thnh thu ngn oxit, phn ng phn hu v to thnh anhirit sunfuric v.v... Ta xt phn ng oxi ho anhiric sunfur to thnh anhirit sunfuric : 2SO2 + O2 = 2SO3 Nu ta cho anhirit sunfuric i qua cht xc tc c s dng oxi ho anhiric sunfur, v cng ng nhit oxi ho anhiric sunfur th thy rng, mt phn anhirit sunfuric b phn hue thnh anhiric sunfur v oxi, ngha l xy ra phn ng : 2SO3 = 2SO2 + O2 Nh vy, phn ng to thnh SO3 v phn ng phn hu SO3 xy ra cng iu kin. Hai phn ng l thun nghch ca nhau. Nhng phn ng ho hc xy ra theo hai chiu ngc nhau cng iu kin gi l phn ng thun nghch. Phn ng thun nghch biu th bng phng trnh vi nhng mi tn hai chiu ngc nhau : 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 Lc u, khi mi trn SO2 vi O2 th tc phn ng thun ln (phn ng to thnh SO3), cn tc ca phn ng nghch bng khng. Theo mc xy ra phn ng, cc cht u b tiu th, nng ca chng gim xung nn tc ca phn ng thun gim. ng thi vi s gim nng ca cc cht tham gia phn ng l s xut hin v tng nng ca sn phm phn ng. Do vy, phn ng nghch (phn ng phn hu SO3) bt u xy ra v tc ca n tng dn. n mt lc cc cht tham gia v to thnh sau phn ng t n mt t l xc nh, c bao nhiu phn t SO3 c to ra th c by nhiu phn t SO3 b phn hu thnh SO2 v O2 trong cng mt n v thi gian. Lc tc ca phn ng thun bng tc ca phn ng nghch. Ta ni, phn ng t n trng thi cn bng. Cn bng ho hc l trng thi ca hn hp cc cht phn ng khi tc ca phn ng thun bng tc ca phn ng nghch : vt = vn (vt : tc phn ng thun, vn : tc ca phn ng nghch) Cn bng ho hc l cn bng ng, ngha l khi h t ti trng thi cn bng, cc phn ng thun nghch vn tip tc xy ra, nhng v tc ca chng bng nhau, do khng nhn thy s bin i trong h. Cn bng ho hc ca mt phn ng s b thay i nu ta thay i cc iu kin tin hnh phn ng nh nhit , p sut v nng cc cht tham gia phn ng. Phn ng oxi ho SO2 thnh SO3 t n trng thi cn bng nhit xc nh, nu cho thm oxi th tc ca phn ng thun s tng, lm tng nng ca SO3 lm gim nng ca SO2 v O2. Nhng s tng nng SO3 cng ko theo s tng nng ca phn ng thun v nghch. Sau mt thi gian no , tc ca cc phn ng thun v nghch li bng nhau, cn bng mi c cc lp, nhng nng ca SO3 by gi ln hn so vi trc khi thm oxi, cn nng ca SO2 th nh hn. Qu trnh bin i nng cc cht trong hn hp phn ng t trng thi cn bng ny n trng thi cn bng khc do s thay i iu kin ca mi trng gi l s chuyn dch cn bng ho hc.

Thc nghim cho thy rng, nu phn ng xy ra lm gim th tch ca hn hp cc cht phn ng (lm gim s phn t kh) th s tng p sut s lm cho cn bng chuyn dch v pha gim s phn t kh, ngha l sang pha gim p sut; khi gim p sut th cn bng s chuyn dch sang pha tng s phn t kh, ngha l sang pha tng p sut. Trong trng hp phn ng xy ra khng c s bin i s phn t kh th p sut khng nh hng n s chuyn dch cn bng. Nhit nh hng n s chun dch cn bng ho hc theo quy lut : khi un nng, cn bng ca phn ng to nhit s chuyn dch v pha to thnh nhng cht ban u, cn cn bng ca phn ng thu nhit s chuyn dch v pha to thnh sn phm phn ng. Cc cht xc tc nh hng nh nhau n tc ca phn ng thun v tc ca phn ng nghch, do vy cht xc tc khng lm chuyn dch cn bng ho hc. 10. Sn xut axit sunfuric

a). iu ch lu hunh (IV) oxit

Trong cng nghip, lu hunh (IV) oxit cn cho sn xut axit sunfuric c iu ch bng cc phng php khc nhau. Phng php thng gp l t pirit trong khng kh :

4FeS2 + 11O2 = 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2

Qung nghin nh c cho vo pha hng ca l (hnh v). Khng kh nn c bm qua dy l y l t chy qung. Do qung c nghin nh, khng kh thi t pha di, lm cho qung b phun ln ging trng thi si ca cht lng, v th m phng php ny c gi l phng php "tng si". nhit thng phn ng ny khng xy ra. Ch nhn r tc ca phn ng 400oC v tc phn ng tng ln khi tng nhit . Phn ng ny to nhit. Do vy, ch cn t nng ban u gy ra phn ng, nhit duy tr phn ng ly t nhit ca phn ng.

b). Oxi ho lu hunh (IV) oxit thnh lu hunh (VI) oxit

2SO2 + O2 2SO3 + Q Phn ng ny thun nghch, to nhit. nhit thp phn ng xy ra chm, nhit cao th

cn bng chuyn dch v pha phn hu SO3. lm tng tc phn ng oxi ho SO2, cn bng chuyn dch v pha to thnh SO3, phn ng ny c thc hin trn cc lp xc tc V2O5 (vanadi oxit), nhit thch hp vi lng d oxi. 450oC trong iu kin d oxi th mc chuyn ho SO2 thnh SO3 t n 95 - 97%. Hn hp kh (SO2 + O2 + N2) i vo thp tip xc phi tht sch, kh, nu khng cht xc tc s b "u c" v phi sy nng. Dng H2SO4 c lm kh kh, vic kh bi c thc hin trong thp lc in. Kh t thp tip xc i ra nhng nhit cho kh i vo thp trao i nhit.

Trao i nhit, tn dng nhit ca phn ng ho hc, tit kim cht t l mt nguyn tc ca t chc sn xut

c).To ra axit sunfuric t lu hunh (VI) oxit

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 Kh t thp tip xc i ra, sau khi qua thp trao i nhit c dn vo thp hp th to thnh axit sunfuric. Trong thc t, khng dng nc m dng axit sunfuric 98% hp th SO3. Nu dng nc, nhit to ra lm nc bay hi c ho tan SO3 thnh nhng git nh H2SO4 dng m. Nc khng hp th H2SO4 dng m. Axit H2SO4 ho tan SO3 to thnh dung dch SO3 trong H2SO4, gi l oleum, thnh phn c biu din bng cng thc H2SO4.nSO3.

I. Cu to nguyn t...............................................................................................1
1. Thnh phn cu to ca nguyn t. Kch thc, khi lng nguyn t..............................1 2. Ht nhn nguyn t - Nguyn t ho hc - ng v........................................................... 2 3. V nguyn t........................................................................................................................4 4. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ho hc..........................................................................8

II. Lin kt hoa hoc.................................................................................................11

1. Lin kt cng ho tr............................................................................................................11 2. Lin kt ion..........................................................................................................................13 3. Ho tr ca cc nguyn t.....................................................................................................15 4. Cc tinh th..........................................................................................................................16 5. Mol.......................................................................................................................................17 6. T khi ca cht kh..............................................................................................................19 7. S bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t ho hc.................................................20 8. V tr ca cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon v tnh cht ho hc ca chng............23 9. nh lut tun hon Menlep...........................................................................................24

III. Phn ng oxi ho - kh.....................................................................................25 IV. Phn nhm chnh nhm VII - Nhm halogen...................................................27
1. Cc halogen..........................................................................................................................27 2. Clo........................................................................................................................................28 3. Hiro clorua.........................................................................................................................30 4. Axit clohiric v mui clorua..............................................................................................31 5. Mt s hp cht cha oxi ca clo.........................................................................................32 6. Brom v iot...........................................................................................................................33 7. Flo........................................................................................................................................34

V. Oxi - Lu hunh l thuyt v phn ng ho hc.................................................35

1. Phn nhm chnh nhm VI..................................................................................................35 2. Oxi........................................................................................................................................35 3. Lu hunh............................................................................................................................36 4. Hiro sunfua.........................................................................................................................38 5. Cc oxit ca lu hunh.........................................................................................................39 6. Axit sunfuric.........................................................................................................................40 7. Hiu ng nhit ca phn ng ..............................................................................................42 8. Tc phn ng ho hc.....................................................................................................43 9. Cn bng ho hc.................................................................................................................44 10. Sn xut axit sunfuric.........................................................................................................46