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Graphical projection

Graphical projection is a protocol by which an image of an three-dimensional object is projected onto a planar surface without the aid of mathematical calculation, used in technical drawing. The projection is achieved by the use of imaginary "projectors". The projected, mental image becomes the technicians vision of the desired, finished picture. By following the protocol the technician may produce the envisioned picture on a planar surface such as drawing paper. The protocols provide a uniform imaging procedure among people trained in technical graphics (mechanical drawing, computer aided design, etc.). There are two types of graphical projection, categories each with its own protocol: 1. Parallel projection A. Orthographic projection B. Pictorials a. Axonometric projection i. Isometric projection ii. Dimetric projection iii. Trimetric projection b. Oblique projection 2. Perspective projection Types of projection 1. Parallel projection In parallel projection, the lines of sight from the object to the projection plane are parallel to each other. Within parallel projection there is an ancillary category known as "pictorials". Pictorials show an image of an object as viewed from a skew direction in order to reveal all three directions (axes) of space in one picture. Because pictorial projections innately contain this distortion, in the rote, drawing instrument for pictorials, some liberties may be taken for economy of effort and best effect. A. Orthographic projection The Orthographic projection is derived from the principles of descriptive geometry and is a twodimensional representation of a three-dimensional object. It is a parallel projection (the lines of projection are parallel both in reality and in the projection plane). It is the projection type of choice for working drawings. B. Pictorials a) Axonometric projection Within parallel projection there is an subcategory known as Pictorials. Pictorials show an image of an object as viewed from a skew direction in order to reveal all three directions (axes) of space in one picture. Parallel projection pictorial instrument drawings are often used to approximate graphical perspective projections, but there is attendant distortion in the approximation. Because pictorial projections inherently have this distortion, in the instrument drawing of pictorials, great liberties may then be taken for economy of effort and best effect. Parallel projection pictorials rely on the technique of axonometric projection ("to measure along axes"). i. Isometric projection In isometric pictorials, the direction of viewing is such that the three axes of space appear equally foreshortened, of which the displayed angles among them and also the scale of foreshortening are universally known. However in creating a

final, isometric instrument drawing, in most cases a full-size scale, i.e., without using a foreshortening factor, is employed to good effect because the resultant distortion is difficult to perceive. ii. Dimetric projection In dimetric pictorials, the direction of viewing is such that two of the three axes of space appear equally foreshortened, of which the attendant scale and angles of presentation are determined according to the angle of viewing; the scale of the third direction (vertical) is determined separately. Approximations are common in dimetric drawings. iii. Trimetric projection In trimetric pictorials, the direction of viewing is such that all of the three axes of space appear unequally foreshortened. The scale along each of the three axes and the angles among them are determined separately as dictated by the angle of viewing. Approximations in Trimetric drawings are common b) Oblique projection In oblique projections the parallel projection rays are not perpendicular to the viewing plane as with orthographic projection, but strike the projection plane at an angle other than ninety degrees. In both orthographic and oblique projection, parallel lines in space appear parallel on the projected image. Because of its simplicity, oblique projection is used exclusively for pictorial purposes rather than for formal, working drawings. In an oblique pictorial drawing, the displayed angles among the axes as well as the foreshortening factors (scale) are arbitrary. The distortion created thereby is usually attenuated by aligning one plane of the imaged object to be parallel with the plane of projection thereby creating a true shape, full-size image of the chosen plane. Special types of oblique projections are cavalier projection and cabinet projection 2. Perspective projection Perspective projection is a type of projection where three dimensional objects are not projected along parallel lines, but along lines emerging from a single point. This has the effect that distant objects appear smaller than nearer objects. It also means that lines which are parallel in nature appear to intersect in the projected image, for example if railways are pictured with perspective projection, they appear to converge towards a single point, called vanishing point. Photographic lenses and the human eye work in the same way, therefore perspective projection looks most realistic. Perspective projection is usually categorized into one-point, two-point and three-point perspective, depending on the orientation of the projection plane towards the axes of the depicted object

Mathematics of projection;
In linear algebra and functional analysis, a projection is a linear transformation P from a vector space to itself such that P2 = P. It leaves its image unchanged. Though abstract, this definition of "projection" formalizes and generalizes the idea of graphical projection. One can also consider the effect of a projection on a geometrical object by examining the effect of the projection on points in the object Orthogonal projection For example, the function which maps the point (x, y, z) in three-dimensional space R3 to the point (x, y, 0) is a projection onto the x-y plane. This function is represented by the matrix

The action of this matrix on an arbitrary vector is

and

Therefore P = P2, proving that P is indeed a projection Oblique projection An example of a simple non-orthogonal (oblique) projection (for definition see below) is

Via matrix multiplication, one sees that

proving that P is indeed a projection. The projection P is orthogonal if and only if = 0

Clipping
Any procedure which identifies that portion of a picture which is either inside or outside a picture is referred to as a clipping algorithm or clipping. The region against which an object is to be clipped is called clipping window. In 2D graphics for example, if the user of an image editing program is modifying an image and has "zoomed in" the view to display only the top half of the image, there is no need for the program to spend any CPU time doing any of the calculations or memory moves needed to display the bottom half. By clipping the bottom half of the image and avoiding these calculations, the program runs faster. In 3D graphics, in a city street scene the computer may have model, texture, and shader data in memory for every building in the city; but since the camera viewing the scene only sees things within, say, a 90 angle, or field of view, the computer does not need to transform, texture, and shade the buildings that are behind the camera, nor those which are far enough to the side that they are off the screen. The clipping algorithm lets the rendering code skip all consideration of those buildings, and the program runs faster. What is Clipping? Clipping is the process of determining the portions of a primitive lying within a region called the clipping region. Types of clipping are Point clipping, Line clipping, Polygon clipping. What is the purpose of Clipping? It is for preventing: Activity in one window from affecting pixels in other windows Mathematical overflow and underflow from primitives passing behind the eye point or at great distances (in 3D) Area Clipping Clipping a line segment yields at most one line segment Clipping a polygon can yield multiple polygons (However, clipping a convex polygon can yield at most one other polygon)

Hidden surface removal


In 3D computer graphics, hidden surface determination (also known as hidden surface removal (HSR), occlusion culling (OC) or visible surface determination (VSD)) is the process used to determine which surfaces and parts of surfaces are not visible from a certain viewpoint. A hidden surface determination algorithm is a solution to the visibility problem, which was one of the first major problems in the field of 3D computer graphics. The process of hidden surface determination is sometimes called hiding, and such an algorithm is sometimes called a hider. The analogue for line rendering is hidden line removal. Hidden surface determination is necessary to render an image correctly, so that one cannot look through walls in virtual reality. There are many techniques for hidden surface determination. They are fundamentally an exercise in sorting, and usually vary in the order in which the sort is performed and how the problem is subdivided. Sorting large quantities of graphics primitives is usually done by divide and conquer Culling and VSD A related area to VSD is culling, which usually happens before VSD in a rendering pipeline. Primitives or batches of primitives can be rejected in their entirety, which usually reduces the load on a well-designed system. The advantage of culling early on the pipeline is that entire objects that are invisible do not have to be fetched, transformed, rasterized or shaded. Here are some types of culling algorithms: Viewing frustum culling The viewing frustum is a geometric representation of the volume visible to the virtual camera. Naturally, objects outside this volume will not be visible in the final image, so they are discarded. Often, objects lie on the boundary of the viewing frustum. These objects are cut into pieces along this boundary in a process called clipping, and the pieces that lie outside the frustum are discarded as there is no place to draw them. Backface culling Since meshes are hollow shells, not solid objects, the back side of some faces, or polygons, in the mesh will never face the camera. Typically, there is no reason to draw such faces. This is responsible for the effect often seen in computer and video games in which, if the camera happens to be inside a mesh, rather than seeing the "inside" surfaces of the mesh, it mostly disappears. (Some game engines continue to render any forward-facing or double-sided polygons, resulting in stray shapes appearing without the rest of the penetrated mesh.) Contribution culling Often, objects are so far away that they do not contribute significantly to the final image. These objects are thrown away if their screen projection is too small. Occlusion culling Objects that are entirely behind other opaque objects may be culled. This is a very popular mechanism to speed up the rendering of large scenes that have a moderate to high depth complexity. There are several types of occlusion culling approaches: Potentially visible set or PVS rendering, divides a scene into regions and pre-computes visibility for them. These visibility sets are then indexed at run-time to obtain high quality visibility sets (accounting for complex occluder interactions) quickly. Portal rendering divides a scene into cells/sectors (rooms) and portals (doors), and computes which sectors are visible by clipping them against portals. Hansong Zhang's dissertation "Effective Occlusion Culling for the Interactive Display of Arbitrary Models" describes an occlusion culling approach. Divide and conquer A popular theme in the VSD literature is divide and conquer. The Warnock algorithm pioneered dividing the screen. Beam tracing is a ray-tracing approach which divides the visible volumes into beams. Various screen-space subdivision approaches reducing the number of primitives considered per region, e.g. tiling, or screen-space BSP clipping. Tiling may be used as a

preprocess to other techniques. ZBuffer hardware may typically include a coarse 'hi-Z' against which primitives can be early-rejected without rasterization, this is a form of occlusion culling. Bounding volume hierarchies (BVHs) are often used to subdivide the scene's space (examples are the BSP tree, the octree and the kd-tree). This allows visibility determination to be performed hierarchically: effectively, if a node in the tree is considered to be invisible then all of its child nodes are also invisible, and no further processing is necessary (they can all be rejected by the renderer). If a node is considered visible, then each of its children need to be evaluated. This traversal is effectively a tree walk where invisibility/occlusion or reaching a leaf node determines whether to stop or whether to recurse respectively

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