The Origin & Composition of Soils: How Soils are

Formed
Why are there so many d|fferent so||s?
So||s vary because of two bas|c factors
O ifferences in the unconsolidated materials that make up the
regolith from which soil is created
O ifferences in the intensities of the natural processes through which
soil is created
What are these natura| processes?
A so|| |s the product of both destruct|ve and creat|ve processes
O There are physical processes that help to create soils.
4 eathering is one such collection of processes. There are
many forms of weathering - rain, cycles of water freezing and
thawing in small cracks in rock; wind erosion, and the
chemical breakdown of particles.
O nd there are -iological processes at play as well.
4 The decaying of organic materials.
4 The role of earthworms and soil micro-organisms.
ow do you def|ne so||s spat|a||y?
Some of these physical and biological processes can be seen as "destructive
- where materials are broken down - but there are also creative or synthetic
processes essential to soil building. Can anyone think of an example of a
synthetic process?
O Formation of new minerals from the elements broken down through
destructive processes such as certain clays; formation of new stable
organic components
O t is through the various synthetic processes that the layers, we call
horizons, we find in soils come to be.

@he So|| rof||e
ig a hole in a tilled field and youll see very little difference near the
surface. Thats because the soil has been worked for crop production or
pasture. This is sometimes called the plow layer - the upper 10 to 25
centimeters of ground that is plowed and cultivated.

But if you dig a hole a few meters in depth in undisturbed soil, in a forest for
example, youll notice that the regolith is actually split into layers. What are
these called? These are known as horizons. Horizons make up what is called
the soil profile.

or|zons are a product of the var|ous b|ophys|ca| processes we ta|ked about |ast
c|ass
O These horizons form from the surface downwards. While they may
vary in thickness, and can be somewhat irregular, they do generally
parallel the land surface.
O This is because the differentiation of the regolith into distinct
horizons is largely the result of influences - such as climate, air,
water, solar radiation, deposited plant material - originating at the
surface.

The progressive stages of soil creation is presented in Figure 2.34 (page 63).

Soils form from the surface down. Since weathering of the regolith occurs
first at the surface and works its way down, the uppermost layers are the
ones that have changed the most, while the deepest layers or horizons are
most similar to the original regolith, or the soils parent material.
O (illustration on page 15)
O Basically, organic matter and other materials collect on the lands
surface. This material decays, or breaks down, and leaches down
into the soil.
O Clays, oxides, and carbonates from the decaying matter leach
further down and finally, if there is sufficient rainfall, salts are
leached even deeper into the soil complex.
O These horizons can be distinguished in two ways: their visual
composition (texture) and by colour.
So|| hor|zons
@here are f|ve master hor|zons ass|gned cap|ta| |etters
O The topmost layers, or surface layers, of a soil are assigned the
letter "O - horizons consist primarily of organic matters in
various stages of decomposition.
O Beneath the O horizons are the " horizons - horizons are the
layers nearest the surface. While still basically mineral materials,
these horizons also contain a significant amount of organic matter.
O The next horizon is the "E horizon - These are zones of maximum
leaching or eluviation of clay, iron, and aluminum oxides, leaving
a concentration of coarser resistant minerals such, as quartz.
O Beneath the or E (if present) horizons are the "B horizons -
horizons have less organic material than found in the horizons.
However, it will have undergone sufficient changes during soil
genesis that the original parent material structure is no longer
discernable.
O Finally, below the B horizons are the "C horizons

f soil profile analysis were limited to only these five horizons, life would be
easy. Unfortunately, it is not. $u-ordinate horizons can occur within
master horizons and these are designated by lowercase letters. For example,
three subordinate O horizons can be distinguished:
O i horizon - this organic horizon consists of fi-ric materials, that
is, recognizable plant and animal parts (leaves, twigs, needles,
fesses) that is only slightly decomposed. This is often referred to as
the litter or L layer by foresters.
O e horizon - this organic horizon consists of hemic materials; or
finely fragmented residues intermediately decomposed, but still
with much fibric materials identifiable in it. Foresters term this layer
as the fermentation or F layer.
O a horizon - contains sapric materials, or highly decomposed,
smooth, amorphous residue with no fibre or recognizable tissue
structure. Foresters call this horizon the humidified or H layer.

Other subordinate distinctions include special physical properties and the
accumulation of particular materials, such as clays and salts.
O These are summarized in Table 2.6 on page 71.
O s an example, if you were reading a soil profile that included a
horizon labeled Bt, what would it tell you about that B horizon?
ccording to the table, this would indicate that there exists an
accumulation of silicate clays in the B horizon of that particular soil.
@rans|t|on hor|zons
To muddy the waters even further, you can also come across transition
horizons.
O These are layers in the soil that may be dominated by the
properties of one horizon but also having prominent characteristics
of another.
O For example, you might come across a layer between the and E
horizons that blur the line between the two. n such instances, that
transition layer is identified by combining the capital letters of the
two horizons, with the dominant horizons letter coming first and
the subordinate ones following.
O For example EB would signify a transition horizon whose
characteristics are dominated by the E horizon but with important
traits of the B horizon.
O transition layer that is divided further into layers where the E
horizon dominates and where the B horizon dominates is identified
as E/B.
Subd|v|s|ons w|th|n master hor|zons
nd you can come across su-divisions within the master horizons.
O This can be due to horizons having a series of distinctive structures
and colours. n such cases, a number is added after the capital
letter of the master horizon (e.g. B1, B2, B3)
O OR this can be the result of different parent materials being present
within a soil profile (e.g., loess over glacial till). n such a case, the
number is placed before the capital letter of the horizon.
@opso|| Subso||
Irom a pragmat|c v|ewpo|nt so|| |s often broken |nto two components the topso||
and the subso||
O The topsoil consists of the organically enriched horizon and the O
horizon (if present), s have already mentioned, the top 10 to 22
centimeters of a field is cultivated, mixing the surface materials so
you dont usually have an O horizon. The topsoil is nutrient-rich. n
cultivated soils the majority of plants roots will be found in the
topsoil.
O The subsoil consists of the soil layers beneath the topsoil. These
horizons, however, can greatly influence how land is used. n the
subsoils you will find:
4 uch of the water needed by plants; and
4 mportant quantities of certain plant nutrients.
O nd one final term for you: the upper and most weathered part of
the soil - the , E, and B horizons - are termed the solum.
Subd|v|s|ons w|th|n master hor|zons
s Brady and Well write, the study of soils in the field is a sensual exercise
as much as it is an intellectual one.
O n addition to seeing the colours of the different horizons in a soil
profile, you may also feel, smell, and listen to the soil in order to
assess it.