Alluvial river

An alluvial river is a lowland river in which the bed and banks are made up oI mobile sediment and/or soil.
Alluvial rivers are selI-Iormed, meaning that their channels are shaped by the magnitude and Irequency oI the
Iloods that they experience, and the ability oI these Iloods to erode, deposit, and transport sediment. As such,
alluvial rivers can assume a number oI Iorms based on the properties oI their banks; the Ilows they experience;
the local riparian ecology, and the amount, size, and type oI sediment that they carry. These Iorms can be
meandering, braiding, wandering and (occasionally) straight.
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Meander

A hypoLheLlcal sLream bed followlng a LllLed valley 1he maxlmum
gradlenL ls along Lhe downvalley axls represenLed by a hypoLheLlcal
sLralghL channel Meanders develop whlch lengLhen Lhe course of
Lhe sLream decreaslng Lhe gradlenL
A 2eander in general is a bend in a sinuous watercourse. A
meander is Iormed when the moving water in a stream erodes
the outer banks and widens its valley. A stream oI any volume may assume a meandering course, alternatively
eroding sediments Irom the outside oI a bend and depositing them on the inside. The result is a snaking pattern
as the stream meanders back and Iorth across its down-valley axis. When a meander gets cut oII Irom the main
stream, an oxbow lake is Iormed. Over time meanders migrate downstream, sometimes in such a short time as to
create civil engineering problems Ior local municipalities attempting to maintain stable roads and bridges.
There is not yet Iull consistency or standardization oI scientiIic terminology used to describe watercourses. A
variety oI symbols and schemes exist. Parameters based on mathematical Iormulae or numerical data vary as
well, depending on the database used by the theorist. Unless otherwise deIined in a speciIic scheme
"meandering" and "sinuosity" here are synonymous and mean any repetitious pattern oI bends, or waveIorms. In
some schemes, "meandering" applies only to rivers with exaggerated circular loops or secondary meanders; that
is, meanders on meanders.
Sinuosity is one oI the channel types that a stream may assume over all or part oI its course. All streams are
sinuous at some time in their geologic history over some part oI their length.
Meander geometry
The technical description oI a meandering watercourse is termed meander geometry or meander planIorm
geometry.
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It is characterized as an irregular waveIorm. Ideal waveIorms, such as a sine wave, are one line
thick, but in the case oI a stream the width must be taken into consideration. The bankIull width is the distance
across the bed at an average cross-section at the Iull-stream level, typically estimated by the line oI lowest
vegetation.
As a waveIorm the meandering stream Iollows the down-valley axis, a straight line Iitted to the curve such that
the sum oI all the amplitudes measured Irom it is zero. This axis represents the overall direction oI the stream.
At any cross-section the River/stream is Iollowing the sinuous axis, the centerline oI the bed. Two consecutive
crossing points oI sinuous and down-valley axes deIine a meander loop. The meander is two consecutive loops
pointing in opposite transverse directions. The distance oI one meander along the down-valley axis is the
meander length or wavelength. The maximum distance Irom the down-valley axis to the sinuous axis oI a loop is
the meander width or amplitude. The course at that point is the apex.
In contrast to sine waves, the loops oI a meandering stream are more nearly circular. The curvature varies Irom a
minimum at the apex to inIinity at a crossing point (straight line), also called an inIlection, because the curvature
changes direction in that vicinity. The radius oI the loop is considered to be the straight line perpendicular to the
down-valley axis intersecting the sinuous axis at the apex. As the loop is not ideal, additional inIormation is
needed to characterize it. The orientation angle is the angle between sinuous axis and down-valley axis at any
point on the sinuous axis.
A loop at the apex has an outer or convex bank and an inner or concave bank. The meander belt is deIined by an
average meander width measured Irom outer bank to outer bank instead oI Irom centerline to centerline. II there
is a Ilood plain it extends beyond the meander belt. The meander is then said to be Iree - it can be Iound
anywhere in the Ilood plain. II there is no Ilood plain the meanders are Iixed.
Various mathematical Iormulae relate the variables oI the meander geometry. As it turns out some numerical
parameters can be established, which appear in the Iormulae. The waveIorm depends ultimately on the
characteristics oI the Ilow but the parameters are independent oI it and apparently are caused by geologic Iactors.
In general the meander length is 10-14 times, with an average 11 times, the Iullbank channel width and 3 to 5
times, with an average oI 4.7 times, the radius oI curvature at the apex. This radius is 2-3 times the channel
width.
A meander has a depth pattern as well. The cross-overs are marked by riIIles, or shallow beds, while at the
apices are pools. In a pool direction oI Ilow is downward, scouring the bed material. The major volume,
however, Ilows more slowly on the inside oI the bend where, due to decreased velocity, it deposits sediment.
The line oI maximum depth, or channel, is the thalweg or thalweg line. It is typically designated the borderline
when rivers are used as political borders. The thalweg hugs the outer banks and returns to center over the riIIles.
The meander arc length is the distance along the thalweg over one meander. The river length is the length along
the centerline.
ormation
Meander Iormation is a result oI natural Iactors and processes. The waveIorm conIiguration oI a stream is
constantly changing. Once a channel begins to Iollow a sinusoidal path the amplitude and concavity oI the loops
increase dramatically due to the eIIect oI helical Ilow sweeping dense eroded material towards the inside oI the
bend, and leaving the outside oI the bend unprotected and thereIore vulnerable to accelerated erosion, Iorming a
positive Ieedback loop.
Flow oI a Iluid around a bend is vortex Ilow in order to conserve angular momentum. The speed oI Ilow on the
outside oI the bend is Iastest, and on the inside oI the bend is slowest. The water surIace is also super-elevated
towards the outside oI the bend, so on the Iloor oI the channel the water pressure is greater on the outside oI the
bend than on the inside oI the bend. This pressure gradient drives a cross-current towards the inside oI the
bend.
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The cross-current along the Iloor oI the channel is part oI the secondary Ilow and sweeps dense eroded
material towards the inside oI the bend. The cross-current then rises to the surIace near the inside oI the bend
and, moving near the surIace, Ilows towards the outside oI the bend, Iorming a helical Ilow. The greater the
curvature oI the bend, and the Iaster the Ilow, the stronger is the cross-current and the stronger the sweeping oI
dense eroded material along the Iloor oI the channel towards the inside bank.
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The question oI Iormation is why streams oI any size become sinuous in the Iirst place. There are a number
theories, not necessarily mutually exclusive.
tocbastic tbeory
The stochastic theory can take many Iorms but one oI the most general statements is that oI Scheidegger:
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The meander train is assumed to be the result oI the stochastic Iluctuations oI the direction oI Ilow due to the
random presence oI direction-changing obstacles in the river path.
Given a Ilat smooth, tilted artiIicial surIace, rainIall runs oII it in sheets, but even in that case adhesion oI water
to the surIace and cohesion oI drops produce rivulets at random. Natural surIaces are rough and erodible to
diIIerent degrees. The result oI all the physical Iactors acting at random is channels that are not straight, which
then progressively become sinuous. Even channels that appear to be straight have a sinuous thalweg that leads
eventually to a sinuous channel.
Equilibrium tbeory
In the equilibrium theory, meanders decrease the stream gradient until an equilibrium between the erodibility oI
the terrain and the transport capacity oI the stream is reached.
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A mass oI water descending must give up
potential energy, which, given the same velocity at the end oI the drop as at the beginning, is removed by
interaction with the material oI the stream bed. The shortest distance; that is, a straight channel, results in the
highest energy per unit oI length, disrupting the banks more, creating more sediment and aggrading the stream.
The presence oI meanders allows the stream to adjust the length to an equilibrium energy per unit length in
which the stream carries away all the sediment that it produces.
CeomorpbicJMorpbotectonic tbeory
Geomorphic reIers to the surIace structure oI the terrain. Morphotectonic means having to do with the deeper, or
tectonic (plate) structure oI the rock. The Ieatures included under these categories are not random and guide
streams into non-random paths. They are predictable obstacles that instigate meander Iormation by deIlecting the
stream. For example, the stream might be guided into a Iault line (morphotectonic).
ssociated landforms
Erosion Mecbanics

1he deposlLlonal sllp off slope ls on Lhe lefL whllsL Lhere ls a small rlver cllff Lo Lhe rlghL
MosL meanders occur ln Lhe reglon of a rlver channel wlLh shallow gradlenLs a well
developed floodplaln and coheslve floodplaln maLerlal ueposlLlon of sedlmenL occurs on
Lhe lnner edge because Lhe secondary flow of Lhe rlver
9
sweeps and rolls sand rocks
and oLher submerged ob[ecLs across Lhe bed of Lhe rlver Lowards Lhe lnslde radlus of Lhe
rlver bend creaLlng a sllpoff slope called a polnL bar Lroslon ls greaLer on Lhe ouLslde of Lhe bend where Lhe soll ls noL
proLecLed by deposlLs of sand and rocks 1he currenL on Lhe ouLslde bend ls more effecLlve ln erodlng Lhe unproLecLed
soll and Lhe lnslde bend recelves sLeadlly lncreaslng deposlLs of sand and rocks and Lhe meander Lends Lo grow ln Lhe
dlrecLlon of Lhe ouLslde bend formlng a small cllff called a cuL bank 1hls can be seen ln areas where wlllows grow on Lhe
banks of rlvers on Lhe lnslde of meanders wlllows are ofLen far from Lhe bank whllsL on Lhe ouLslde of Lhe bend Lhe
rooLs of Lhe wlllows are ofLen exposed and undercuL evenLually leadlng Lhe Lrees Lo fall lnLo Lhe rlver 1hls demonsLraLes
Lhe rlvers movemenL Slumplng usually occurs on Lhe concave sldes of Lhe banks resulLlng ln mass movemenLs such as
slldes
eposits
InclxeJ meunJerx

II the slope oI an established meandering stream is suddenly increased it will
resume downward erosion this happens when the base level oI the stream
is reduced, Ior example due to tectonic upliIt oI the region, a global Iall in
sea-level, collapse oI a moraine-dammed lake downstream, or by capture oI the stream by a steeper one. As the
stream erodes downwards, its established meandering pattern will remain as a deep valley known as an incised
meander or entrenched meander. Rivers in the Colorado Plateau and streams in the Ozark Plateau are noted Ior
these incised meanders.
T[c lukex
Oxbow lakes are created when growing meanders intersect each other and cut oII a meander loop, leaving it
without an active cutting stream. Over a period oI time, these oxbow lakes tend to dry out or Iill in with
sediments.
ATunJ[neJ meunJer
Sometimes an incised meander is cut oII, similar to an oxbow lake. The resulting landIorm is known as an
abandoned 2eander. In the southwest United States it is also known as a rincon. One dramatic example, on
Lake Powell, is called "The Rincon."
cr[ll-Turx
Scroll-bars are a result oI continuous lateral migration oI a meander loop that creates an asymmetrical ridge and
swale topography
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on the inside oI the bends. The topography is generally parallel to the meander and is
related to migrating bar Iorms and back bar chutes
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which carve sediment out Irom the outside oI the curve and
deposit sediment in the slower Ilowing water on the inside oI the loop, in a process called lateral accretion.
Scroll-bar sediments are characterized by cross-bedding and a pattern oI Iining upward.
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These characteristics
are a result oI the dynamic river system, where larger grains are transported during high energy Ilood events and
then gradually die down, depositing smaller material with time (Batty 2006). Deposits Ior meandering rivers are
generally homogeneous and laterally extensive unlike the more heterogeneous braided river deposits.
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There
are two distinct patterns oI scroll-bar depositions; the eddy accretion scroll bar pattern and the point-bar scroll
pattern. When looking down the river valley they can be distinguished because the point-bar scroll patterns are
convex and the eddy accretion scroll bar patterns are concave.
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Scroll bars oIten look lighter at the tops oI the
ridges and darker in the swales. This is because the tops can be shaped by wind, either adding Iine grains or by
keeping the area unvegetated, while the darkness in the swales can be attributed to silts and clays washing in
during high water periods. This added sediment in addition to water that catches in the swales is in turn is a
Iavorable environment Ior vegetation that will also accumulate in the swales.
erived quantities
The meander ratio
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or sinuosity index
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is a means oI quantiIying how much a river or stream meanders (how
much its course deviates Irom the shortest possible path). It is calculated as the length oI the stream divided by
the length oI the valley. A perIectly straight river would have a meander ratio oI 1 (it would be the same length
as its valley), while the higher this ratio is above 1, the more the river meanders.
Sinuosity indices are calculated Irom the map or Irom an aerial photograph measured over a distance called the
reach, which should be at least 20 times the average Iullbank channel width. The length oI the stream is
measured by channel, or thalweg, length over the reach, while the bottom value oI the ratio is the downvalley
length or air distance oI the stream between two points on it deIining the reach.
The sinuosity index plays a part in mathematical descriptions oI streams. The index may need to be elaborated
because the valley may meander as well; i.e., the downvalley length is not identical to the reach. In that case the
valley index is the meander ratio oI the valley while the channel index is the meander ratio oI the channel. The
channel sinuosity index is the channel length divided by the valley length and the standard sinuosity index is the
channel index divided by the valley index. Distinctions may become even more subtle.
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Sinuosity Index has a non-mathematical utility as well. Streams can be placed in categories arranged by it; Ior
example, when the index is between 1 to 1.5 the river is sinuous, but iI between 1.5 and 4, then meandering. The
index is a measure also oI stream velocity and sediment load, those quantities being maximized at an index oI 1
(straight).
raided river

A braided river is one oI a number oI channel types and has a channel that consists oI a
network oI small channels separated by small and oIten temporary islands called braid bars or,
in British usage, aits or eyots. Braided streams occur in rivers with high slope and/or large
sediment load (Schumm and Kahn 1972). Braided channels are also typical oI environments that dramatically
decrease channel depth, and consequently channel velocity, such as river deltas, alluvial Ians and peneplains.
Braided rivers, as distinct Irom meandering rivers, occur when a threshold level oI sediment load or slope is
reached. Geologically speaking an increase in sediment load will over time increase the slope oI the river, so
these two conditions can be considered synonymous and consequently a variation oI slope can model a variation
in sediment load. A threshold slope was experimentally determined to be 0.016 (It/It) Ior a 0.15 cu It/s
(0.0042 m
3
/s) stream with poorly sorted coarse sand (Schumm and Kahn 1972). Any slope over this threshold
created a braided stream, and under the threshold created a meandering stream or Ior very low slopes a straight
channel. So the main controlling Iactor on river development is the amount oI sediment that the river carries,
once a given system crosses a threshold value Ior sediment load it will convert Irom a meandering system to a
braided system. Also important to channel development is the proportion oI suspended load sediment to bed
load. An increase in suspended sediment allowed Ior the deposition oI Iine erosion resistant material on the
inside oI a curve which accentuated the curve and in some instances caused a river to shiIt Irom a braided to a
meandering proIile (Schumm and Kahn 1972).
The channels and braid bars are usually highly mobile, with the river layout oIten changing signiIicantly during
Ilood events (Hickin and Sichingabula 1988). Channels move sideways via diIIerential velocity: On the outside
oI a curve, deeper, swiIt water picks up sediment (usually gravel or larger stones), which is re-deposited in slow-
moving water on the inside oI a bend.
The braided channels may Ilow within an area deIined by relatively stable banks or may occupy an entire valley
Iloor. The Rakaia River in Canterbury, New Zealand has cut a channel 100 metres deep into the surrounding
plains.
Conditions which promote braided channel Iormation are:
O an abundant supply oI sediment
O high stream gradient
O rapid and Irequent variations in water discharge
O erodible banks
O a steep channel gradient
STRAIGHT RIVERS HYPOTHETICAL AND FORM AT ALLUVIAL FANS
rainage syste2 (geo2orphology)
In geomorphology, a drainage syste2 is the pattern Iormed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular
drainage basin. They are governed by the topography oI the land, whether a particular region is dominated by
hard or soIt rocks, and the gradient oI the land. Geomorphologists and hydrologists oIten view streams as being
part oI drainage basins. A drainage basin is the topographic region Irom which a stream receives runoII,
throughIlow, and groundwater Ilow. Drainage basins are divided Irom each other by topographic barriers called
a watershed. A watershed represents all oI the stream tributaries that Ilow to some location along the stream
channel. The number, size, and shape oI the drainage basins Iound in an area varies and the larger the
topographic map, the more inIormation on the drainage basin is available.
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ypes of drainage system
Drainage systems can Iall into one oI several categories, depending on the topography and geology oI the land:

uendrlLlc dralnage paLLern arallel dralnage paLLern 1rellls dralnage paLLern
endritic drainage system
Dendritic drainage systems (Irom Greek ocvopitq, dendrites, "oI or pertaining to a tree") are the most common
Iorm oI drainage system. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams (analogous to the twigs oI a
tree), which are then joined together into the tributaries oI the main river (the branches and the trunk oI the tree,
respectively). They develop where the river channel Iollows the slope oI the terrain. Dendritic systems Iorm in
V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be impervious and non-porous.
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arallel drainage system
A parallel drainage system is a pattern oI rivers caused by steep slopes with some relieI. Because oI the steep
slopes, the streams are swiIt and straight, with very Iew tributaries, and all Ilow in the same direction. This
system Iorms on uniIormly sloping surIaces, Ior example, rivers Ilowing southeast Irom the Aberdare Mountains
in Kenya.
rellis drainage system
The geometry oI a trellis drainage system is similar to that oI a common garden trellis used to grow vines. As the
river Ilows along a strike valley, smaller tributaries Ieed into it Irom the steep slopes on the sides oI mountains.
These tributaries enter the main river at approximately 90 degree angles, causing a trellis-like appearance oI the
drainage system. Trellis drainage is characteristic oI Iolded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in
North America.
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Rectangular drainage system
Rectangular drainage develops on rocks that are oI approximately uniIorm resistance to erosion, but which have
two directions oI jointing at approximately right angles. The joints are usually less resistant to erosion than the
bulk rock so erosion tends to preIerentially open the joints and streams eventually develop along the joints. The
result is a stream system in which streams consist mainly oI straight line segments with right angle bends, and
tributaries join larger streams at right angles.
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Radial drainage system
In a radial drainage system the streams radiate outwards Irom a central high point. Volcanos usually display
excellent radial drainage. Other geological Ieatures on which radial drainage commonly develops are domes and
laccoliths. On these Ieatures the drainage may exhibit a combination oI radial and annular patterns.
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eranged drainage system
A deranged drainage system is a drainage system in drainage basins where there is no coherent pattern to the
rivers and lakes. It happens in areas where there has been much geological disruption. The classic example is the
Canadian Shield. During the last ice age, the topsoil was scraped oII, leaving mostly bare rock. The melting oI
the glaciers leIt land with many irregularities oI elevation, and a great deal oI water to collect in the low points,
explaining the large number oI lakes which are Iound in Canada. The watersheds are young and are still sorting
themselves out. Eventually the system will stabilize.
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River valleys
A valley Iormed by Ilowing water, or river valley, is usually V-shaped. The exact shape will depend on the
characteristics oI the stream Ilowing through it. Rivers with steep gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep
walls and a narrow bottom. Shallower slopes may produce broader and gentler valleys, but in the lowest stretch
oI a river, where it approaches its base level, it begins to deposit sediment and the valley bottom becomes a
Iloodplain.
The original natural habitat oI the human species was the large river valleys oI the world, such as the Nile,
Tigris-Euphrates, Yellow, Ganges, Amazon, Mississippi, etc. In pre-history, the rivers were used as a source oI
Iresh water & Iood (Iish and game animals), as well as a place to wash, and a sewer. The rivers carved the
valleys. The valleys blocked the winds and shaded the inhabitants, creating cooler temperatures in the daytime,
and warmer temperatures at night. The Iirst civilizations grew Irom these river valley communities.
loodplain
A floodplain, or flood plain, is a Ilat or nearly Ilat land adjacent to a stream or river that stretches Irom the
banks oI its channel to the base oI the enclosing valley walls and experiences Ilooding during periods oI high
discharge.
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It includes the Iloodway, which consists oI the stream channel and adjacent areas that carry Ilood
Ilows, and the flood fringe, which are areas covered by the Ilood, but which do not experience a strong current.
bysical geograpby
Flood plains are made by a meander eroding sideways as it travels downstream. When a river breaks its banks
and Iloods, it leaves behind layers oI rock and mud. These gradually build up to create the Iloor oI the Ilood
plain. Floodplains generally contain unconsolidated sediments, oIten extending below the bed oI the stream.
These are accumulations oI sand, gravel, loam, silt, and/or clay, and are oIten important aquiIers, the water
drawn Irom them being pre-Iiltered compared to the water in the stream.
Geologically ancient Iloodplains are oIten represented in the landscape by Iluvial terraces. These are old
Iloodplains that remain relatively high above the present Iloodplain and indicate Iormer courses oI a stream.
Sections oI the Missouri River Iloodplain taken by the United States Geological Survey show a great variety oI
material oI varying coarseness, the stream bed having been scoured at one place and Iilled at another by currents
and Iloods oI varying swiItness, so that sometimes the deposits are oI coarse gravel, sometimes oI Iine sand or oI
Iine silt. It is probable that any section oI such an alluvial plain would show deposits oI a similar character.
The Iloodplain during its Iormation is marked by meandering or anastomotic streams, ox-bow lakes and bayous,
marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the drainage system has
ceased to act or is entirely diverted Ior any reason, the Iloodplain may become a level area oI great Iertility,
similar in appearance to the Iloor oI an old lake. The Iloodplain diIIers, however, because it is not altogether Ilat.
It has a gentle slope down-stream, and oIten, Ior a distance, Irom the side towards the center.
Ecology
Floodplains can support particularly rich ecosystems, both in quantity and diversity. They are a category oI
riparian zones or systems. A Iloodplain can contain 100 or even 1000 times as many species as a river. Wetting
oI the Iloodplain soil releases an immediate surge oI nutrients: those leIt over Irom the last Ilood, and those that
result Irom the rapid decomposition oI organic matter that has accumulated since then. Microscopic organisms
thrive and larger species enter a rapid breeding cycle. Opportunistic Ieeders (particularly birds) move in to take
advantage. The production oI nutrients peaks and Ialls away quickly; however the surge oI new growth endures
Ior some time. This makes Iloodplains particularly valuable Ior agriculture.
Markedly diIIerent species grow in Iloodplains than grow outside oI Iloodplains. For instance, riparian trees (that
grow in Iloodplains) tend to be very tolerant oI root disturbance and tend to be very quick-growing, compared to
non-riparian trees.
Interaction witb society
Historically, many towns have been built on Iloodplain, where they are highly susceptible to Ilooding, Ior a
number oI reasons:
O access Lo fresh waLer
O Lhe ferLlllLy of floodplaln land for farmlng
O cheap LransporLaLlon vla rlvers and rallroads whlch ofLen followed rlvers
O ease of developmenL of flaL land
ater
$plash erosion is the detachment and airborne movement oI small soil particles caused by the impact oI
raindrops on soil.
$heet erosion is the detachment oI soil particles by raindrop impact and their removal downslope by water
Ilowing overland as a sheet instead oI in deIinite channels or rills. The impact oI the raindrop breaks apart the
soil aggregate. Particles oI clay, silt and sand Iill the soil pores and reduce inIiltration. AIter the surIace pores are
Iilled with sand, silt or clay, overland surIace Ilow oI water begins due to the lowering oI inIiltration rates. Once
the rate oI Ialling rain is Iaster than inIiltration, runoII takes place. There are two stages oI sheet erosion. The
Iirst is rain splash, in which soil particles are knocked into the air by raindrop impact. In the second stage, the
loose particles are moved downslope by broad sheets oI rapidly Ilowing water Iilled with sediment known as
sheetIloods. This stage oI sheet erosion is generally produced by cloudbursts, sheetIloods commonly travel short
distances and last only Ior a short time.
Rill erosion reIers to the development oI small, ephemeral concentrated Ilow paths, which Iunction as both
sediment source and sediment delivery systems Ior erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where water erosion rates on
disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically on the order oI a Iew
centimeters or less and slopes may be quite steep. These conditions constitute a very diIIerent hydraulic
environment than typically Iound in channels oI streams and rivers. Eroding rills evolve morphologically in time
and space. The rill bed surIace changes as soil erodes, which in turn alters the hydraulics oI the Ilow. The
hydraulics is the driving mechanism Ior the erosion process, and thereIore dynamically changing hydraulic
patterns cause continually changing erosional patterns in the rill. Thus, the process oI rill evolution involves a
Ieedback loop between Ilow detachment, hydraulics, and bed Iorm. Flow velocity, depth, width, hydraulic
roughness, local bed slope, Iriction slope, and detachment rate are time and space variable Iunctions oI the rill
evolutionary process. Superimposed on these interactive processes, the sediment load, or amount oI sediment in
the Ilow, has a large inIluence on soil detachment rates in rills. As sediment load increases, the ability oI the
Ilowing water to detach more sediment decreases.
Where precipitation rates exceed soil inIiltration rates, runoff occurs. SurIace runoII turbulence can oIten cause
more erosion than the initial raindrop impact.
ully erosion, also called ephemeral gully erosion, occurs when water Ilows in narrow channels during or
immediately aIter heavy rains or melting snow. This is particularly noticeable in the Iormation oI hollow ways,
where, prior to being tarmacked, an old rural road has over many years become signiIicantly lower than the
surrounding Iields.
A gully is suIIiciently deep that it would not be routinely destroyed by tillage operations, whereas rill erosion is
smoothed by ordinary Iarm tillage. The narrow channels, or gullies, may be oI considerable depth, ranging Irom
1 to 2 Ieet (0.61 m) to as much as 75 to 100 Ieet (30 m). Gully erosion is not accounted Ior in the revised
universal soil loss equation.
Jalley or stream erosion occurs with continued water Ilow along a linear Ieature. The erosion is both downward,
deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside. In the earliest stage oI stream erosion,
the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical ' cross-section and the stream gradient is
relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens
the valley Iloor and creates a narrow Iloodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly Ilat, and lateral deposition
oI sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley Iloor. In all stages oI stream erosion,
by Iar the most erosion occurs during times oI Ilood, when more and Iaster-moving water is available to carry a
larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles,
pebbles and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surIace.
At extremely high Ilows, kolks, or vortices are Iormed by large volumes oI rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause
extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical Ieatures called Rock-cut basins.
Examples can be seen in the Ilood regions result Irom glacial Lake Missoula, which created the channeled
scablands in the Columbia Basin region oI eastern Washington.
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ank erosion is the wearing away oI the banks oI a stream or river. This is distinguished Irom changes on the
bed oI the watercourse, which is reIerred to as scour. Erosion and changes in the Iorm oI river banks may be
measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position oI the bank surIace along the rods at
diIIerent times.
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$trea2 capture


SLream capLure by headward eroslon leavlng a wlnd gap
$trea2 capture, river capture, or strea2 piracy is a geomorphological
phenomenon occurring when a stream or river drainage system or watershed is
diverted Irom its own bed, and Ilows instead down the bed oI a neighbouring
stream. This can happen Ior several reasons, including:



O 1ecLonlc earLh movemenLs where Lhe slope of Lhe land changes and Lhe sLream ls Llpped ouL of lLs former
course
O -aLural dammlng such as by a landsllde or lce sheeL
O Lroslon elLher
4 eadward eroslon of one sLream valley upwards lnLo anoLher or
4 aLeral eroslon of a meander Lhrough Lhe hlgher ground dlvldlng Lhe ad[acenL sLreams
4 JlLhln an area of karsL Lopography where sLreams may or flow underground (a slnklng or loslng
sLream) and Lhen reappear ln a nearby sLream valley
The additional water Ilowing down the capturing stream may accelerate erosion and encourage the development
oI a canyon (gorge).
The now-dry valley oI the original stream is known as a wind gap.
ase level
The base level oI a river or stream is the lowest point to which it can Ilow, oIten reIerred to as the 'mouth' oI the
river. For large rivers, sea level is usually the base level, but a large river or lake is likewise the base level Ior
tributary streams. All rivers and streams erode toward sea level, which is also known as the "ultimate base level."
II a river is dammed, a new base level (the level oI the reservoir) replaces the ultimate base level. As a result, the
stream`s base level is raised. Consequently, this reduces the stream`s velocity, leads to deposition, and a
reduction oI the gradient upstream Irom the reservoir. A rather rare exception can be seen in the Jordan River,
Ior which the base level is the Dead Sea, 417 m below modern sea level.
Base level is also signiIicant Ior subsurIace drainage. A low base level is a prerequisite Ior the Iormation oI karst
topography, a network oI sinkholes and caverns that can develop as slightly acidic groundwater enlarges joints
(by solution) in limestone rock. OIten this network oI underground drainage Ieeds back to surIace drainage along
the edges oI larger rivers, which are the eIIective base level.
When the source oI a stream is very high relative to its base level (high stream gradient), erosion proceeds
rapidly due to the energy oI the rapidly moving water and the topography becomes rugged, and it is considered a
young stream (geologically speaking). When erosion has acted Ior a long geologic time, wearing down the high
points and making a small diIIerence between the source and the base level oI a stream (low stream gradient),
then the stream is called mature. Mature stream valleys have gentle slopes, rounded higher points and
meandering courses.
A very hard layer oI rock can Iorm a temporary base level, until it is cut through. For example, Lockport
dolomite has created a temporary base level Ior the Niagara River. Eventually this will be cut through as Niagara
Falls recedes, and Lake Erie will be drained to near the lower base level oI Lake Ontario.
Movements oI land can greatly aIIect base levels. As an illustration, the upliIt oI the Colorado Plateau, combined
with the opening oI the GulI oI CaliIornia to the sea, established sea level as the base level Ior the Colorado
River and led to the (geologically) rapid erosion that resulted in the Grand Canyon.
The many meanders oI the Kentucky River show that it was a mature stream with little relieI. UpliIt oI the
central Kentucky area refuvenated the stream, causing it to cut a deep canyon, but preserving the meanders that
indicate the stream existed prior to the upliIt.
Other geologic processes can aIIect base levels. In the Finger Lakes oI New York, Ice age glaciation greatly
deepened the lake valleys and rejuvenated tributary streams. These streams have deep ravines and oIten
waterIalls where hard rock layers slow erosion; they are said to be hanging valleys.
Sea level can also change (primarily due to the Iormation or melting oI continental ice sheets), and raise or lower
the Iinal base level Ior coastal rivers. Along the east coast oI North America, river valleys extend out onto the
continental shelI, indicating a time when erosion was possible due to the lower base level oI a lower sea level in
the past. Today many oI these same rivers end in bays, indicating that sea level has risen in recent geologic time.
This is reIerred to as a drowned coastline.
River delta
A delta is a landIorm that is Iormed at the mouth oI a river where that river Ilows into an ocean, sea, estuary,
lake, reservoir, Ilat arid area, or another river. Deltas are Iormed Irom the deposition oI the sediment carried by
the river as the Ilow leaves the mouth oI the river. Over long periods oI time, this deposition builds the
characteristic geographic pattern oI a river delta.
River deltas Iorm when a river carrying sediment reaches a body oI standing water, such as a lake, ocean, or
reservoir. When the Ilow enters the standing water, it is no longer conIined to its channel and expands in width.
This Ilow expansion results in a decrease in the Ilow velocity, which diminishes the ability oI the Ilow to
transport sediment. As a result, sediment drops out oI the Ilow and deposits. Over time, this single channel will
build a deltaic lobe (such as the bird's-Ioot oI the Mississippi or Ural River deltas), pushing its mouth Iurther into
the standing water. As the deltaic lobe advances, the gradient oI the river channel becomes lower because the
river channel is longer but has the same change in elevation (see slope). As the slope oI the river channel
decreases, it becomes unstable Ior two reasons. First, water under the Iorce oI gravity will tend to Ilow in the
most direct course down slope. II the river could breach its natural levees (i.e., during a Ilood), it would spill out
onto a new course with a shorter route to the ocean, thereby obtaining a more stable steeper slope.
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Second, as
its slope gets lower, the amount oI shear stress on the bed will decrease, which will result in deposition oI
sediment within the channel and Ior the channel bed to rise relative to the Iloodplain. This will make it easier Ior
the river to breach its levees and cut a new channel that enters the body oI standing water at a steeper slope.
OIten when the channel does this, some oI its Ilow can remain in the abandoned channel. When these channel
switching events a mature delta will gain a distributary network.
Another way in which these distributary networks may Iorm is Irom the deposition oI mouth bars (mid-channel
sand and/or gravel bars at the mouth oI a river). When this mid-channel bar is deposited at the mouth oI a river,
the Ilow is routed around it. This results in additional deposition on the upstream end oI the mouth-bar, which
splits the river into two distributary channels.
In both oI these cases, depositional processes Iorce redistribution oI deposition Irom areas oI high deposition to
areas oI low deposition. This results in the smoothing oI the planIorm (or map-view) shape oI the delta as the
channels move across its surIace and deposit sediment. Because the sediment is laid down in this Iashion, the
shape oI these deltas approximates a Ian. It is closer to an ideal Ian the more oIten the Ilow changes course
because more rapid changes in channel position results in more uniIorm deposition oI sediment on the delta
Iront. The Mississippi and Ural River deltas, with their bird's-Ieet, are examples oI rivers that do not avulse oIten
enough to Iorm a symmetrical Ian shape. Alluvial Ian deltas, as seen in their name, avulse Irequently and more
closely approximate an ideal Ian shape.
Deltas are typically classiIied according to the main control on deposition, which is usually either a river, waves,
or tides.
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These controls have a large eIIect on the shape oI the resulting delta.
ave-dominated deltas
In wave dominated deltas, wave erosion controls the shape oI the delta, although deposition still outweighs the
amount oI erosion and the delta is able to advance into the sea. Deltas oI this Iorm, such as the Nile Delta, tend
to have a characteristic Greek-capital-delta shape .
ide-dominated deltas
Erosion is also an important control in tide dominated deltas, such as the Ganges Delta, which may be mainly
submarine, with prominent sand bars and ridges. This tends to produce a "dendritic" structure.
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Tidal deltas
behave diIIerently Irom river- and wave-dominated deltas, which tend to have a Iew main distributaries. Once a
wave- or river- distributary silts up, it is abandoned, and a new channel Iorms elsewhere. In a tidal delta, new
distributaries are Iormed during times when there's a lot oI water around - such as Iloods or storm surges. These
distributaries slowly silt up at a pretty constant rate until they Iizzle out.
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Cilbert deltas
A ilbert delta (named aIter Grove Karl Gilbert) is a speciIic type oI delta that is Iormed by coarse sediments, as
opposed to gently-sloping muddy deltas such as that oI the Mississippi. For example, a mountain river depositing
sediment into a Ireshwater lake would Iorm this kind oI delta.
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While some authors describe both lacustrine
and marine locations oI Gilbert deltas,
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others note that their Iormation is more characteristic oI the Ireshwater
lakes, where it is easier Ior the river water to mix with the lakewater Iaster (as opposed to the case oI a river
Ialling into the sea or a salt lake, where less dense Iresh water brought by the river stays on top longer).
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Estuaries
Other rivers, particularly those located on coasts with signiIicant tidal range, do not Iorm a delta but enter into
the sea in the Iorm oI an estuary. Notable examples include the Saint Lawrence River and the Tagus estuary.
Inland deltas
In rare cases the river delta is located inside a large valley and is called an inverted river delta. Sometimes a river
will divide into multiple branches in an inland area, only to rejoin and continue to the sea; such an area is known
as an inland delta, and oIten occur on Iormer lake beds. In some cases a river Ilowing into a Ilat arid area splits
into channels which then evaporates as it progresses into the desert.
edimentary structure
The Iormation oI a delta consists oI three main Iorms: the topset, Ioreset/Irontset, and bottomset.
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O 1he boLLomseL beds are creaLed from Lhe suspended sedlmenL LhaL seLLles ouL of Lhe waLer as Lhe rlver flows lnLo
Lhe body of waLer and loses energy 1he suspended load ls carrled ouL Lhe furLhesL lnLo Lhe body of waLer Lhan all
oLher Lypes of sedlmenL creaLlng a LurbldlLe 1hese beds are lald down ln horlzonLal layers and conslsL of smaller
gralns
O 1he foreseL beds ln Lurn bulld over Lhe boLLomseL beds as Lhe maln delLa form advances 1he foreseL beds conslsL
of Lhe bed load LhaL Lhe rlver ls movlng along whlch conslsLs of larger sedlmenLs LhaL roll along Lhe maln channel
Jhen lL reaches Lhe edge of Lhe form Lhe bed load rolls over Lhe edge and bullds up ln sLeeply angled layers
over Lhe Lop of Lhe boLLomseL beds 1he angle of Lhe ouLermosL edge of Lhe delLa ls creaLed by Lhe sedlmenLs
angle of repose As Lhe forseLs bulld ouLward (whlch make up Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhe delLa) Lhey plle up and
mlnlaLure landslldes occur 1hls slope ls creaLed ln Lhls fashlon as Lhe bedload conLlnues Lo be deposlLed and Lhe
delLa moves ouLward ln cross secLlon one would see Lhe foreseLs lylng ln angled parallel bands showlng each
sLage of Lhe creaLlon of Lhe delLa
O 1he LopseL beds ln Lurn overlay Lhe foreseLs and are horlzonLal layers of smaller sedlmenL slze LhaL form as Lhe
maln channel of Lhe rlver shlfLs elsewhere and Lhe larger parLlcles of Lhe bed load no longer are deposlLed As Lhe
channels move across Lhe Lop of Lhe delLa Lhe suspended load seLLles ouL ln horlzonLal beds over Lhe Lop
eltas and alluvial fans
Deltas are diIIerentiated Irom alluvial Ians in that deltas have a shallow slope, contain Iine-grained sediment
(sand and mud), and always Ilow into a body oI water. Alluvial Ians, on the other hand, are steep, have coarse-
grained sediments (including boulders), and are dominated by debris Ilows and large Iloods; these Iloods are
oIten Ilash Iloods. They can either Ilow onto a land surIace, or into a body oI water; in the latter case, they are
called alluvial Ian deltas.