Anxiety disorder

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Anxiety disorder
Classification and external resources

The Scream (Norwegian: Skrik) an Expressionist
painting by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch
ICD-10 F40-F42
ICD-9 300
DiseasesDB 787
eMedicine med/152
MeSH D001008
Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several diIIerent Iorms oI abnormal and
pathological Iear and anxiety. Conditions now considered anxiety disorders only came under the
aegis oI psychiatry at the end oI the 19th century.
|1|
Gelder, Mayou & Geddes (2005) explains
that anxiety disorders are classiIied in two groups: continuous symptoms and episodic
symptoms. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety oI anxiety disorders.
Recent surveys have Iound that as many as 18 oI Americans may be aIIected by one or more oI
them.
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The term anxiety covers Iour aspects oI experiences an individual may have: mental
apprehension, physical tension, physical symptoms and dissociative anxiety.
|3|
Anxiety disorder
is divided into generalized anxiety disorder, phobic disorder, and panic disorder; each has its
own characteristics and symptoms and they require diIIerent treatment (Gelder et al. 2005). The
emotions present in anxiety disorders range Irom simple nervousness to bouts oI terror (Barker
2003).
Standardized screening clinical questionnaires such as Zung SelI-Rating Anxiety Scale can be
used to detect anxiety symptoms, and suggest the need Ior a Iormal diagnostic assessment oI
anxiety disorder.
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Contents
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O 1 ClassiIication
4 1.1 Generalized anxiety disorder
4 1.2 Panic disorder
4 1.3 Panic disorder with agoraphobia
4 1.4 Phobias
1.4.1 Agoraphobia
1.4.2 Social anxiety disorder
4 1.5 Obsessivecompulsive disorder
4 1.6 Post-traumatic stress disorder
4 1.7 Separation anxiety
4 1.8 Childhood anxiety disorders
O 2 Causes
4 2.1 Biological
2.1.1 Amygdala
4 2.2 Stress
O 3 Diagnosis
O 4 Treatment
4 4.1 Psychotherapy
4 4.2 Medications
4.2.1 SSRIs
4.2.2 Other drugs
4 4.3 Alternative medicine
O 5 Epidemiology
O 6 Prognosis
O 7 ReIerences
O 8 Further reading
O 9 External links
edit] Classification
edit] Generalized anxiety disorder
Main article: Generalized anxiety disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a common chronic disorder characterized by long-lasting
anxiety that is not Iocused on any one object or situation. Those suIIering Irom generalized
anxiety experience non-speciIic persistent Iear and worry and become overly concerned with
everyday matters. Generalized anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder to aIIect
older adults.
|5|
Anxiety can be a symptom oI a medical or substance abuse problem, and medical
proIessionals must be aware oI this. A diagnosis oI GAD is made when a person has been
excessively worried about an everyday problem Ior six months or more.
|6|
A person may Iind
they have problems making daily decisions and remembering commitments as a result oI lack oI
concentration/preoccupation with worry.
|7|
Appearance looks strained, skin is pale with increased
sweating Irom the hands, Ieet and axillae.
|citation needed|
May be tearIul which can suggest
depression.
|8|
BeIore a diagnosis oI anxiety disorder is made, nurses and physicians must rule out
drug-induced anxiety and medical causes.
|9|

edit] Panic disorder
Main article: Panic disorder
In panic disorder, a person suIIers Irom brieI attacks oI intense terror and apprehension, oIten
marked by trembling, shaking, conIusion, dizziness, nausea, diIIiculty breathing. These panic
attacks, deIined by the APA as Iear or discomIort that abruptly arises and peaks in less than ten
minutes, can last Ior several hours and can be triggered by stress, Iear, or even exercise; the
speciIic cause is not always apparent.
In addition to recurrent unexpected panic attacks, a diagnosis oI panic disorder requires that said
attacks have chronic consequences: either worry over the attacks' potential implications,
persistent Iear oI Iuture attacks, or signiIicant changes in behavior related to the attacks.
Accordingly, those suIIering Irom panic disorder experience symptoms even outside speciIic
panic episodes. OIten, normal changes in heartbeat are noticed by a panic suIIerer, leading them
to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. In
some cases, a heightened awareness (hypervigilance) oI body Iunctioning occurs during panic
attacks, wherein any perceived physiological change is interpreted as a possible liIe-threatening
illness (i.e., extreme hypochondriasis).
edit] Panic disorder with agoraphobia
A person experiences an unexpected panic attack, then has substantial anxiety over the
possibility oI having another attack. The person Iears and avoids whatever situation might induce
a panic attack. The person may never or rarely leave their home to prevent a panic attack they
believe to be inescapable, extreme terror.
edit] Phobias
Main article: Phobia
The single largest category oI anxiety disorders is that oI phobic disorders, which includes all
cases in which Iear and anxiety is triggered by a speciIic stimulus or situation. Between 5 and
12 oI the population worldwide suIIer Irom phobic disorders.
|6|
SuIIerers typically anticipate
terriIying consequences Irom encountering the object oI their Iear, which can be anything Irom
an animal to a location to a bodily Iluid to a particular situation. SuIIerers understand that their
Iear is not proportional to the actual potential danger but still are overwhelmed by the Iear.
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edit] Agoraphobia
Main article: Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia is the speciIic anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is diIIicult
or embarrassing or where help may be unavailable.
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Agoraphobia is strongly linked with panic
disorder and is oIten precipitated by the Iear oI having a panic attack. A common maniIestation
involves needing to be in constant view oI a door or other escape route. In addition to the Iears
themselves, the term agoraphobia is oIten used to reIer to avoidance behaviors that suIIerers
oIten develop. For example, Iollowing a panic attack while driving, someone suIIering Irom
agoraphobia may develop anxiety over driving and will thereIore avoid driving. These avoidance
behaviors can oIten have serious consequences; in severe cases, one can be conIined to one's
home.
edit] Social anxiety disorder
Main article: Social anxiety disorder
Social anxiety disorder (SAD; also known as social phobia) describes an intense Iear and
avoidance oI negative public scrutiny, public embarrassment, humiliation, or social interaction.
This Iear can be speciIic to particular social situations (such as public speaking) or, more
typically, is experienced in most (or all) social interactions. Social anxiety oIten maniIests
speciIic physical symptoms, including blushing, sweating, and diIIiculty speaking. Like with all
phobic disorders, those suIIering Irom social anxiety oIten will attempt to avoid the source oI
their anxiety; in the case oI social anxiety this is particularly problematic, and in severe cases can
lead to complete social isolation.
edit] Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Main article: Obsessivecompulsive disorder
Obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) is a type oI anxiety disorder primarily characterized by
repetitive obsessions (distressing, persistent, and intrusive thoughts or images) and compulsions
(urges to perIorm speciIic acts or rituals). It aIIects roughly around 3 oI the population
worldwide.
|6|
The OCD thought pattern may be likened to superstitions insoIar as it involves a
belieI in a causative relationship where, in reality, one does not exist. OIten the process is
entirely illogical; Ior example, the compulsion oI walking in a certain pattern may be employed
to alleviate the obsession oI impending harm. And in many cases, the compulsion is entirely
inexplicable, simply an urge to complete a ritual triggered by nervousness.
In a slight minority oI cases, suIIerers oI OCD may only experience obsessions, with no overt
compulsions; a much smaller number oI suIIerers experience only compulsions.
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edit] Post-traumatic stress disorder
Main article: Post-traumatic stress disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder which results Irom a traumatic
experience. Post-traumatic stress can result Irom an extreme situation, such as combat, natural
disaster, rape, hostage situations, child abuse, bullying or even a serious accident. It can also
result Irom long term (chronic) exposure to a severe stressor,
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Ior example soldiers who endure
individual battles but cannot cope with continuous combat. Common symptoms include
hypervigilance, Ilashbacks, avoidant behaviors, anxiety, anger and depression.
|12|
There are a
number oI treatments which Iorm the basis oI the care plan Ior those suIIering with PTSD. Such
treatments include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), psychotherapy and support Irom Iamily
and Iriends. These are all examples oI treatments used to help people suIIering Irom PTSD.
|6|

edit] Separation anxiety
Main article: Separation anxiety disorder
Separation anxiety disorder (SepAD) is the Ieeling oI excessive and inappropriate levels oI
anxiety over being separated Irom a person or place. Separation anxiety is a normal part oI
development in babies or children, and it is only when this Ieeling is excessive or inappropriate
that it can be considered a disorder.
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Separation anxiety disorder aIIects roughly 7 oI adults
and 4 oI children, but the childhood cases tend to be more severe, in some instances even a
brieI separation can produce panic.
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edit] Childhood anxiety disorders
Children as well as adults experience Ieelings oI anxiousness, worry and Iear when Iacing
diIIerent situations, especially those involving a new experience. However, iI anxiety is no
longer temporary and begins to interIere with the child's normal Iunctioning or do harm to their
learning, the problem may be more than just an ordinary anxiousness and Iear common to the
age.
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When children suIIer Irom a severe anxiety disorder their thinking, decision-making ability,
perceptions oI the environment, learning and concentration get aIIected. They not only
experience Iear, nervousness, and shyness but also start avoiding places and activities. Anxiety
also raises blood pressure and heart rate and can cause nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, ulcers,
diarrhea, tingling, weakness, and shortness oI breath.
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Some other symptoms are Irequent selI-
doubt and selI-criticism, irritability, sleep problems and, in extreme cases, thoughts oI not
wanting to be alive.
II these children are leIt untreated, they Iace risks such as poor results at school, avoidance oI
important social activities, and substance abuse. Children who suIIer Irom an anxiety disorder
are likely to suIIer other disorders such as depression, eating disorders, and attention deIicit
disorders, both hyperactive and inattentive.
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About 13 oI every 100 children and adolescents between 9 to 17 years experience some kind oI
anxiety disorder, and girls are more aIIected than boys.
|citation needed|
The basic temperament oI
children may be key in some oI their childhood and adolescent disorders.
Research in this area is very diIIicult to perIorm because as children grow their Iears change,
making it diIIicult Ior researchers to obtain enough data and thus more reliable results.
|citation
needed|
For instance, between the ages oI 6 and 8, children's Iear oI the dark and imaginary
creatures decreases, but they become more anxious about school perIormance and social
relationships. II children experience an excessive amount oI anxiety during this stage, this could
lead to development oI anxiety disorders later in liIe.
|20|

According to research, childhood anxiety disorders are caused by biological and psychological
Iactors. Also, it is suggested that when children have a parent with anxiety disorders, they are
more likely to have an anxiety disorder, too. Stress can trigger anxiety disorders, and children
and adolescents with anxiety disorders seem to have an increased physical and psychological
reaction to stress. Their reaction to danger, even iI it is a small one, is quicker and stronger.
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edit] Causes
edit] Biological
Low levels oI GABA, a neurotransmitter that reduces activity in the central nervous system,
contribute to anxiety. A number oI anxiolytics achieve their eIIect by modulating the GABA
receptors.
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Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, the drugs most commonly used to treat depression, are
Irequently considered as a Iirst line treatment Ior anxiety disorders.
|25|
A 2004 study using
Iunctional brain imaging techniques suggests that the eIIects oI SSRIs in alleviating anxiety may
result Irom a direct action on GABA neurons rather than as a secondary consequence oI mood
improvement.
|26|

Severe anxiety and depression can be induced by sustained alcohol abuse which in most cases
abates with prolonged abstinence. Even moderate, sustained alcohol use may increase anxiety
and depression levels in some individuals.
|27|
CaIIeine, alcohol and benzodiazepine dependence
can worsen or cause anxiety and panic attacks.
|28|
In one study in 19881990,
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illness in
approximately halI oI patients attending mental health services at one British hospital psychiatric
clinic, Ior conditions including anxiety disorders such as panic disorder or social phobia, was
determined to be the result oI alcohol or benzodiazepine dependence. In these patients, an initial
increase in anxiety occurred during the withdrawal period Iollowed by a cessation oI their
anxiety symptoms.
Intoxication Irom stimulants is likely to be associated with repetitive panic attacks.
|citation needed|

There is evidence that chronic exposure to organic solvents in the work environment can be
associated with anxiety disorders. Painting, varnishing and carpet-laying are some oI the jobs in
which signiIicant exposure to organic solvents may occur.
|30|

People with obsessive-compulsive disorder (sometimes considered an anxiety disorder), evince
increased grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular nuclei, extending to the caudate nuclei,
while decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial Irontal/anterior cingulate
gyri.
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These Iindings contrast with those in people with other anxiety disorders, who evince
decreased (rather than increased) grey matter volumes in bilateral lenticular/caudate nuclei, while
also decreased grey matter volumes in bilateral dorsal medial Irontal/anterior cingulate gyri.
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edit] Amygdala
The amygdala is central to the processing oI Iear and anxiety, and its Iunction may be disrupted
in anxiety disorders.
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Sensory inIormation enters the amgydala through the nuclei oI the
basolateral complex (consisting oI lateral, basal, and accessory basal nuclei). The basolateral
complex processes sensory-related Iear memories and communicates their threat importance to
memory and sensory processing elsewhere in the brain, such as the medial preIrontal cortex and
sensory cortices.
Another important area is the adjacent central nucleus oI the amygdala, which controls species-
speciIic Iear responses, via connections to the brainstem, hypothalamus, and cerebellum areas. In
those with general anxiety disorder, these connections Iunctionally seem to be less distinct, with
greater gray matter in the central nucleus. Another diIIerence is that the amygdala areas have
decreased connectivity with the insula and cingulate areas that control general stimulus salience,
while having greater connectivity with the parietal cortex and preIrontal cortex circuits that
underlie executive Iunctions.
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The latter suggests a compensation strategy Ior dysIunctional amygdala processing oI anxiety.
Researchers have noted "AmygdaloIrontoparietal coupling in generalized anxiety disorder
patients may ... reIlect the habitual engagement oI a cognitive control system to regulate
excessive anxiety."
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This is consistent with cognitive theories that suggest the use in this
disorder oI attempts to reduce the involvement oI emotions with compensatory cognitive
strategies.
Clinical and animal studies suggest a correlation between anxiety disorders and diIIiculty in
maintaining balance.
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A possible mechanism is malIunction in the parabrachial
nucleus, a brain structure that, among other Iunctions, coordinates signals Irom the amygdala
with input concerning balance.
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Anxiety processing in the basolateral amygdala has been implicated with dendritic arborization
oI the amygdaloid neurons. SK2 potassium channels mediate inhibitory inIluence on action
potentials and reduce arborization. By overexpressing SK2 in the basolateral amygdala, anxiety
in experimental animals can be reduced together with general levels oI stress-induced
corticosterone secretion.
|39|

edit] Stress
Anxiety disorders can arise in response to liIe stresses such as Iinancial worries or chronic
physical illness. Somewhere between 4 and 10 oI older adults are diagnosed with anxiety
disorder, a Iigure that is probably an underestimate due to the tendency oI adults to minimize
psychiatric problems or to Iocus on their physical maniIestations.
|citation needed|
Anxiety is also
common among older people who have dementia. On the other hand, anxiety disorder is
sometimes misdiagnosed among older adults when doctors misinterpret symptoms oI a physical
ailment (Ior instance, racing heartbeat due to cardiac arrhythmia) as signs oI anxiety.
|5|

edit] Diagnosis
Anxiety disorders are oIten debilitating chronic conditions, which can be present Irom an early
age or begin suddenly aIter a triggering event. They are prone to Ilare up at times oI high stress
and are Irequently accompanied by physiological symptoms such as headache, sweating, muscle
spasms, palpitations, and hypertension, which in some cases lead to Iatigue or even exhaustion.
In casual discourse the words "anxiety" and "Iear" are oIten used interchangeably; in clinical
usage, they have distinct meanings: "anxiety" is deIined as an unpleasant emotional state Ior
which the cause is either not readily identiIied or perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable,
whereas "Iear" is an emotional and physiological response to a recognized external threat. The
term "anxiety disorder" includes Iears (phobias) as well as anxieties.
Anxiety disorders are oIten comorbid with other mental disorders, particularly clinical
depression, which may occur in as many as 60 oI people with anxiety disorders. The Iact that
there is considerable overlap between symptoms oI anxiety and depression, and that the same
environmental triggers can provoke symptoms in either condition, may help to explain this high
rate oI comorbidity.
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Studies have also indicated that anxiety disorders are more likely among those with Iamily
history oI anxiety disorders, especially certain types.
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Sexual dysIunction oIten accompanies anxiety disorders, although it is diIIicult to determine
whether anxiety causes the sexual dysIunction or whether they arise Irom a common cause. The
most common maniIestations in individuals with anxiety disorder are avoidance oI intercourse,
premature ejaculation or erectile dysIunction among men and pain during intercourse among
women. Sexual dysIunction is particularly common among people aIIected by panic disorder
(who may Iear that a panic attack will occur during sexual arousal) and posttraumatic stress
disorder.
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edit] Treatment
The most important clinical point to emerge Irom studies oI social anxiety disorder is the beneIit
oI early diagnosis and treatment. Social anxiety disorder remains under-recognized in primary
care practice, with patients oIten presenting Ior treatment only aIter the onset oI complications
such as clinical depression or substance abuse disorders.
Treatment options available include liIestyle changes; psychotherapy, especially cognitive
behavioral therapy; and pharmaceutical therapy. Education, reassurance and some Iorm oI
cognitive-behavioral therapy should almost always be used in treatment.
|citation needed|
Research has
provided evidence Ior the eIIicacy oI two Iorms oI treatment available Ior social phobia: certain
medications and a speciIic Iorm oI short-term psychotherapy called cognitive-behavioral therapy
(CBT), the central component being gradual exposure therapy.
edit] Psychotherapy
Research has shown that cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can be highly eIIective Ior several
anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder and social phobia.
|43|
CBT, as its name suggests,
has two main components: cognitive and behavioral. In cases oI social anxiety, the cognitive
component can help the patient question how they can be so sure that others are continually
watching and harshly judging him or her. The behavioral component seeks to change people's
reactions to anxiety-provoking situations.
As such it serves as a logical extension oI cognitive therapy, whereby people are shown prooI in
the real world that their dysIunctional thought processes are unrealistic. A key element oI this
component is gradual exposure, in which the patient is conIronted by the things they Iear in a
structured, sensitive manner. Gradual exposure is an inherently unpleasant technique; ideally it
involves exposure to a Ieared social situation that is anxiety provoking but bearable, Ior as long
as possible, two to three times a week. OIten, a hierarchy oI Ieared steps is constructed and the
patient is exposed to each step sequentially.
The aim is to learn Irom acting diIIerently and observing reactions. This is intended to be done
with support and guidance, and when the therapist and patient Ieel they are ready. Cognitive-
behavioral therapy Ior social phobia also includes anxiety management training, which may
include techniques such as deep breathing and muscle relaxation exercises, which may be
practiced 'in-situ'. CBT can also be conducted partly in group sessions, Iacilitating the sharing oI
experiences, a sense oI acceptance by others and undertaking behavioral challenges in a trusted
environment (Heimberg).
Some studies have suggested social skills training can help with social anxiety.
|44|
However, it is
not clear whether speciIic social skills techniques and training are required, rather than just
support with general social Iunctioning and exposure to social situations.
|45|

Additionally, a recent study has suggested that interpersonal therapy, a Iorm oI psychotherapy
primarily used to treat depression, may also be eIIective in the treatment oI social phobia.
|46|

Extensive research supports the neural plasticity oI the brain in reaction to stressIul
experiences.
|47|
A treatment and prevention method called Adaptive Behavioral therapy is based
on understanding the adaptations which occur in developmental years due to stressIul
experiences and the brain's ability to create new reactions to the same stressor. In this treatment a
time gap between when inIormation is received by the brain (stress trigger) and the decision Ior
behavior is widened to allow a re-evaluation to occur as a stressIul experience is taking place.
This new time to reprocess inIormation is reIerred to as a Pivotal Moment when new behavior
can be consciously created. The development oI new adaptive behavior is promoted through the
use oI interruption techniques and speciIic tools.
Treatment is structured around a selI report notebook which is used to collect historic and current
stress patterns oI response. Treatment is guided by the therapist in a direct manner in sessions
and experiences between sessions are used to provide new experimental behavior. Adaptive
behavioral therapy is also used as a preventive treatment. Practice with smaller stressors creates
Iamiliarity with healthy adaptive responses Ior Iuture use.
edit] Medications
When medication is indicated, SSRIs are generally recommended as Iirst line agents. SNRIs
such as venlaIaxine (EIIexor) are also eIIective. Benzodiazepines are also sometimes indicated
Ior short-term or PRN use. They are usually considered as a second-line treatment due to
disadvantages such as cognitive impairment and due to their risks oI dependence and withdrawal
problems.
|48|
MAOIs such as phenelzine (Nardil) and tranylcypromine (Parnate) are considered
an eIIective treatment and are especially useIul in treament-resistant cases, however, dietary
restrictions and medical interactions may limit their use.
|49||50|
There is evidence that certain
newer medications including the GABA analogue pregabalin (Lyrica) and the novel
antidepressant mirtazapine (Remeron) are eIIective treatments Ior anxiety disorders.
|51||52|
TCAs
such as imipramine, as well as atypical antipsychotics such as quetiapine, and piperazines such
as hydroxyzine are occasionally prescribed.
|53|

These medications need to be used with extreme care among older adults, who are more likely to
suIIer side eIIects because oI coexisting physical disorders. Adherence problems are more likely
among elderly patients, who may have diIIiculty understanding, seeing, or remembering
instructions.
|5|

edit] SSRIs
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class oI antidepressants, are considered by
many to be the Iirst choice medication Ior generalised social phobia. These drugs elevate the
level oI the neurotransmitter serotonin, among other eIIects. The Iirst drug Iormally approved by
the Food and Drug Administration was paroxetine, sold as Paxil in the U.S. or Seroxat in the
UK. Compared to older Iorms oI medication, there is less risk oI tolerability and drug
dependency.
|54|
However, their eIIicacy and increased suicide risk has been subject to
controversy.
In a 1995 double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, the SSRI paroxetine was shown to result in
clinically meaningIul improvement in 55 oI patients with generalized social anxiety disorder,
compared with 23.9 oI those taking placebo.
|55|
An October 2004 study yielded similar results.
Patients were treated with either Iluoxetine, psychotherapy, Iluoxetine and psychotherapy,
placebo and psychotherapy, or a placebo. The Iirst Iour sets saw improvement in 50.8 to 54.2
oI the patients. OI those assigned to receive only a placebo, 31.7 achieved a rating oI 1 or 2 on
the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale. Those who sought both therapy and
medication did not see a boost in improvement.
|56|

General side-eIIects are common during the Iirst weeks while the body adjusts to the drug.
Symptoms may include headaches, nausea, insomnia and changes in sexual behavior. Treatment
saIety during pregnancy has not been established.
|57|
In late 2004 much media attention was
given to a proposed link between SSRI use and juvenile suicide. For this reason, the use oI
SSRIs in pediatric cases oI depression is now recognized by the Food and Drug Administration
as warranting a cautionary statement to the parents oI children who may be prescribed SSRIs by
a Iamily doctor.
|58|
Recent studies have shown no increase in rates oI suicide.
|59|
These tests,
however, represent those diagnosed with depression, not necessarily with social anxiety disorder.
However, due to the nature oI the conditions, those taking SSRIs Ior social phobias are Iar less
likely to have suicidal ideation than those with depression.
edit] Other drugs
Although SSRIs are oIten the Iirst choice Ior treatment, other prescription drugs are used,
sometimes only iI SSRIs Iail to produce any clinically signiIicant improvement.
In 1985, beIore the introduction oI SSRIs, anti-depressants such as monoamine oxidase
inhibitors (MAOIs) were Irequently used in the treatment oI social anxiety. Their eIIicacy
appears to be comparable or sometimes superior to SSRIs or benzodiazepines. However, because
oI the dietary restrictions required, high toxicity in overdose, and incompatibilities with other
drugs, its useIulness as a treatment Ior social phobics is now limited. Some argue Ior their
continued use, however, or that a special diet does not need to be strictly adhered to.
|60|
A newer
type oI this medication, Reversible inhibitors oI monoamine oxidase subtype A (RIMAs) inhibit
the MAO enzyme only temporarily, improving the adverse-eIIect proIile but possibly reducing
their eIIicacy.
Benzodiazepines such as alprazolam and clonazepam are an alternative to SSRIs. These drugs
are oIten used Ior short-term relieI oI severe, disabling anxiety.
|61|
Although benzodiazepines are
still sometimes prescribed Ior long-term everyday use in some countries, there is much concern
over the development oI drug tolerance, dependency and recreational abuse. It has been
recommended that benzodiazepines are only considered Ior individuals who Iail to respond to
saIer medications.
|62|
Benzodiazepines augment the action oI GABA, the major inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain; eIIects usually begin to appear within minutes or hours.
The novel antidepressant mirtazapine has been proven eIIective in treatment oI social anxiety
disorder.
|63|
This is especially signiIicant due to mirtazapine's Iast onset and lack oI many
unpleasant side-eIIects associated with SSRIs (particularly, sexual dysIunction).
In Japan, the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) Milnacipran is used in the
treatment oI Taijin kyoIusho a Japanese variant oI social anxiety disorder.
Some people with a Iorm oI social phobia called perIormance phobia have been helped by beta-
blockers, which are more commonly used to control high blood pressure. Taken in low doses,
they control the physical maniIestation oI anxiety and can be taken beIore a public perIormance.
A novel treatment approach has recently been developed as a result oI translational research. It
has been shown that a combination oI acute dosing oI d-cycloserine (DCS) with exposure
therapy Iacilitates the eIIects oI exposure therapy oI social phobia (HoImann, Meuret, Smits, et
al., 2006). DCS is an old antibiotic medication used Ior treating tuberculosis and does not have
any anxiolytic properties per se. However, it acts as an agonist at the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-
aspartate (NMDA) receptor site, which is important Ior learning and memory (HoImann,
Pollack, & Otto, 2006). It has been shown that administering a small dose acutely 1 hour beIore
exposure therapy can Iacilitate extinction learning that occurs during therapy.
Treatment controversy arises because while some studies indicate that a combination oI
medication and psychotherapy can be more eIIective than either one alone, others suggest
pharmacological interventions are largely palliative, and can actually interIere with the
mechanisms oI successIul therapy.
|64|
Meta-analysis indicates that psychotherapeutic
interventions have better long-term eIIicacy compared to pharmacotherapy.
|65|
However, the
right treatment may very much depend on the individual patient's genetics and environmental
Iactors.
edit] Alternative medicine
Regular aerobic exercise,
|66|
improving sleep hygiene
|citation needed|
and reducing caIIeine
|67|
are
oIten useIul in treating anxiety.
Herbal drugs are oIten used in patients with somatoIorm disorders. In one clinical trial, butterbur
in a Iixed herbal drug combination (Ze 185 4-combination versus 3-combination without
butterbur and placebo) was used in patients with somatoIorm disorders.
|68|
For a 2-week
treatment in patients with somatization disorder (F45.0) and undiIIerentiated somatoIorm
disorder (F45.1), 182 patients were randomized Ior a 3-arm trial (butterbur root, valerian root,
passionIlower herb, lemon balm leaI versus valerian root, passionIlower herb, lemon balm leaI
versus placebo). Anxiety (visual analogue scale VAS) and depression (Beck's Depression
Inventory BDI) were used as primary parameters, and Clinical Global Impression (CGI) was
used a secondary parameter. The 4-combination was signiIicantly superior to the 3-combination
and placebo in all the primary and secondary parameters (PP-population), without serious
adverse events.
Many other natural remedies have been used Ior anxiety disorder. These include kava, where the
potential Ior beneIit seems greater than that Ior harm with short-term use in patients with mild to
moderate anxiety.
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Based on Cochrane's systematic review oI seven RCTs (n 380), with
Iindings supported by Iive lower-quality trials (n 320), the American Academy oI Family
Physicians (AAFP) recommends use oI kava Ior patients with mild to moderate anxiety disorders
who are not using alcohol or taking other medicines metabolized by the liver, but who wish to
use 'natural remedies.
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Side eIIects oI kava in the clinical trials were rare and mild.
Inositol has been Iound to have modest eIIects in patients with panic disorder or obsessive-
compulsive disorder. St. John's wort
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and Sympathyl
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have also been used to treat
anxiety, but with little scientiIic evidence as to their eIIectiveness.
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edit] Epidemiology
In the United States the liIetime prevalence oI anxiety disorders is about 29.
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edit] Prognosis
It is the most common cause oI disability in the workplace in the United States.
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