Microwave Planning and Design

Microwave Radio Planning and Link Design
CISCOM Training Center

Microwave Planning and Design
Slide No 1

Course Contents PCM and E1 TDM Overview Digital Multiplexing: PDH and SDH Overview Digital Microwave Systems Overview Microwave links Performance and Quality Objectives Topology and Capacity Planning Diversity Microwave Antennas
Slide No 2

Course Contents (cond) Radio Propagation Microwave Link Planning and Design
Path Profile LOS Survey Link Budget Performance Prediction
Frequency Planning Interference Digital map and tools overview
Slide No 3
Planning Objectives
MW Radio Planning Objectives

Selection of suitable radio component Communication quality and availability Link Design Preliminary site location and path profile, LOS survey Channel capacity Topology Radio frequency allocation (planning)
Slide No 4
PCM and E1 Overview
Slide No 5
Voice channel digitizing and TDM
Transmission:
Voice Data
Voice is an analog signal and needs to be digitized before
transmitted digitally PCM, Pulse Code Modulation is the most used technique The European implementation of PCM includes time division multiplexing of 30 64 kb/s voice channels and 2 64kb/s for synchronization and signaling in basic digital channel called E1 E1 rate is 2.048 Mb/s = 32 x 64 kb/s
Slide No 6
PCM Coder Block Diagram 64 kb/s
Analog signal
LPF
S/H
Quantizer
Encoder
64 kb/s PCM signal
Slide No 7
E1 History
First use was for telephony (voice) in 1960s with PCM

and TDM of 30 digital PCM voice channels which called E1 E1 is known as PCM-30 also E1 was developed slightly after T1 (1.55 Mbps) was developed in America (hence T1 is slower) T1 is the North America implementation of PCM and TDM T1 is PCM-24 system
Slide No 8
E1 Frame

30 time division multiplexed (TDM) voice channels, each running at 64Kbps (known as E1) E1 rate is 2.048 Mbps containing thirty two 64 kbps time slots,
30 for voice, One for Signaling (TS16) One for Frame Synchronization (TS0)
E1 (2M) Frame rate is the same PCM sampling rate = 8kHz, Frame duration is 1/8 kHz = 125 s (Every 125 us a new frame is sent) Time slot Duration is 125 s/32 = 3.9 s One time slot contains 8 bits A timeslot can be thought of as a link running at 8000 X 8 = 64 kbps E1 Rate: 64 X 32 = 2048000 bits/second
Slide No 9
E1 frame diagram
Time Slot 0 Time Slot 1 Time Slot 2 Time Slot 16 . Time Slot 29 Time Slot 30 Time Slot 31
125Qs
Bits
1
Frame containing frame alignment signal (FAS) Frame not containing frame alignment signal
2 0
3 0
4 1
5 1
6 0
7 1
8 1
Si Si
Sn
Sn
Sn
Sn
Sn
Frame Alignment Signal (FAS) pattern - 0011011 Si = Reserved for international use (Bit 1) Sn = Reserved for national use A = Remote (FAS Distant) Alarm- set to 1 to indicate alarm condition
Slide No 10
E1 Transmission Media
Symmetrical pair: Balanced, 120 ohm Co-axial: Unbalanced, 75ohm Fiber optic Microwave Satellite Other wireless radio Wireless Optical
Slide No 11
GSM coding and TDM in terrestrial E1
As we know PCM channel is 64Kb/s Bit rate for one voice GSM channel is 16Kb/s between
BTS and BSC (terrestrial) One GSM E1 is 120 GSM voice channels The PCM-to-GSM TRAU (transcoder) reduces no of E1s by 4 Each GSM radio carries 8 TCHs in the air, this equivalent to 8x16Kb/s=2x64Kb/s between BTS and BSC. Each GSM radio has 2 time slots in the GSM E1. Example: 3/3/3 site require 9x2=18 E1 time slots for traffic and time slot(s) for radio signaling links
Slide No 12
Digital Multiplexing: PDH and SDH Overview
Slide No 13
European Digital Multiplexer Hierarchy
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH )
Slide No 14
PDH Multiplexing
Based on a 2.048Mbit/s (E1) bearer Increasing traffic demands that more and more of these
basic E1 bearers be multiplexed together to provide increased capacity Once multiplexed, there is no simple way an individual E1 bearer can be identified in a PDH hierarchy
Slide No 15
European PDH Multiplexing Structure

Higher order multiplexing
4 x 34 16 x E1 4 x E1
139,264 kbps
1 1 E1
34,368 kbps 8448 kbps
30
2048 kbps
Slide No 16
European PDH Multiplexing Structure-used

1st order 2.048 Mbps E1
VF
Primary PCM Multiplexing
MUX DEMUX MUX DEMUX
2nd order 8.228 Mbps E2
3rd order 34.368 Mbps E3
Data Multiplexing
MUX DEMUX
Data
MUX DEMUX
mobile Multiplexing
MUX DEMUX
Slide No 17
BTS
PDH Problems
Inflexible and expensive because of asynchronous

multiplexing Limited network management and maintenance support capabilities High capacity growth Sensitive to network failure Difficulty in verifying network status Increased cost for O&M
Slide No 18
SDH

Synchronous and based on byte interleaving provides the capability to send data at multi-gigabit rates over fiber-optics links. SDH is based on an STM-1 (155.52Mbit/s) rate SDH supports the transmission of all PDH payloads, other than 8Mbit/s
Slide No 19
SDH Bit Rates

STM-64
4
9.995328 Gbit/s
STM-16
4
2.48832 Gbit/s
STM-4
4
622.08 Mbit/s
STM-1
3
155.52 Mbit/s
STM-0
51.84 Mbit/s
Slide No 20
General Transport Module STM-N

N. 270 columns N. 9 1 3 5 N. 261
RSOH
AU pointer
Payload
MSOH
9
Slide No 21
SOH: Section Overhead AU: Administration Unit MSOH: Multiplexer Section Overhead RSOH: Repeater Section Overhead
SDH Multiplexing Structure

VC-4 x 3 TUG-3 x7 AU-4 x1 TU-3 TU-12 VC-3 VC-12 C-4 C-3 C-12
140 Mbps
x1 TUG-2 AUG xN
34 Mbps
2 Mbps
x3 STM-N
Mapping Aligning Multiplexing

Slide No 22
C: Container VC: Virtual Container TU: Tributary Unit TUG: Tributary Container Group AU: Administrative Unit AUG: Administrative Unit Group
From 2 Mbps to STM-1

(Justification)
2 Mbits
VC-12
VC-4
STM-1
+ POH SOH: Section Overhead POH: Path Overhead

Slide No 23
SDH MUX
+ POH
+ SOH
Containers C
Justification bits
=
PDH Stream
Container
Slide No 24
Virtual Containers VC
Path overhead
=
Container
Virtual Container
Slide No 25
SDH Advantages
Cost efficient and flexible networking Built in capacity for advanced network management and
maintenance capabilities Simplified multiplexing and demultiplexing Low rate tributes visible within the high speed signal. Enables direct access to these signals Cost efficient allocation of bandwidth Fault isolation and Management Byte interleaved and multiplexed
Slide No 26
SDH Benefits over PDH
SDH transmission systems have many benefits over PDH:

Software Control
allows extensive use of intelligent network management software for high flexibility, fast and easy re-configurability, and efficient network management.
Survivability
With SDH, ring networks become practicable and their use enables automatic reconfiguration and traffic rerouting when a link is damaged. End-to-end monitoring will allow full management and maintenance of the whole network.
Efficient drop and insert

SDH allows simple and efficient cross-connect without full hierarchical multiplexing or de-multiplexing. A single E1 2.048Mbit/s tail can be dropped or inserted with relative ease even on Gbit/s links.
Slide No 27
SDH Benefits over PDH- cond

Standardization
enables the interconnection of equipment from different suppliers through support of common digital and optical standards and interfaces.
Robustness and resilience of installed networks is increased. Equipment size and operating costs
reduced by removing the need for banks of multiplexers and de-multiplexers. Follow-on maintenance costs are also reduced.
Backwards compatibly
will enable SDH links to support PDH traffic.
Slide No 28
GSM Block Diagram (E1 links)

MSC1 SDH MSC2 MSC3 BTS BTS PDH Abis BTS BTS BSC2 BTS BTS
BSC1
BTS
Slide No 29
BTS
Abis- Interface
BSC
Abis-Interface
BTS

Slide No 30
Connects between the BSC and the BTS Has not been standardized Primary functions carried over this interface are:
Traffic channel transmission, terrestrial channel management, and radio channel management
On Abis-Interface, two types of information

Traffic information Signalling information
Abis- Interface
Traffic Information
The traffic on the physical layer needs TS (Time Slot) on the E1 with bit rate = 16 Kb/s 4 channels exist within one TS
Signalling Information
Different rates on the physical layer: 16 Kb/s, 32 Kb/s, and 64 Kb/s The protocol used over the Abis-Interface is LAPD protocol (Link Access Protocol for the ISDN D-channel) The signalling link between the BSC and the BTS is called RSL (Radio Signalling Link)
Slide No 31
Digital Microwave systems Overview
Slide No 32
Digital Microwave system
Equipment
E1 MUX IF MODEM Transceiver
In door Out door TRU
Feeder
For In door Co-axial transmission line Waveguide transmission line For Outdoor IF between modem ODU Transceiver (TRU)
Slide No 33
MODEM- Digital Modulation
PSK
2 PSK 4 PSK 8 PSK
QAM
8 QAM 16 QAM 32 QAM 64 QAM 128 QAM
Slide No 34
Protecting MW Links
Microwave links are protected against

Hardware failure Multipath Fading Rain Fading
Protection Schemes
1 + 1 configuration Diversity Ring
Slide No 35
Microwave Equipment Specification
Operating Frequency Modulation Capacity Bandwidth Output power Receiver Thresholds @ BERs 10-6 and 10-3 MTBF FKTB
Slide No 36
RADIO EQUIPT Example: DART
Radio Equipment
Antenna dish
Dish diameter: 30 cm
Slide No 37
Slide No 38
Radio Equipment Datasheet
Slide No 39
Microwave Allocation in Radio spectrum

VLF LF MF
3k 30 k 300 k 3M
HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

30 M
VHF
300 M
3G
30 G
300 G
Very low frequency Low frequency Medium frequency High Frequency Very High Frequency Ultra High Frequency Super High Frequency Extremely High Frequency
Microwave primarily is
utilized in SHF band, and some small parts of UHF & EHF bands
LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
Slide No 40
Microwave Bands
Some Frequency bands used in microwave are

2 GHz 7 GHz 13 GHz 18 GHz 23 GHz 26 GHz 38 GHz
The usage of frequency bands will depend mainly on the

budget calculation results and the path length
Slide No 41
Microwave Capacities
Capacities available for microwave links are

1 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 1.75 MHz 2 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 3.5 MHz 4 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 7 MHz 8 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 14 MHz 16 x 2 Mbps with a bandwidth of 28 MHz
Slide No 42
23 GHz Band - example

1232 1120 21224 22456 22456 1120 23576
Low
High
2 x 2 (3.5 MHz) 320
Possible Number of hannels 4 x 2 (7 MHz) 8 x 2 (14 MHz) 160 80
16 x 2 (28 MHz) 40
Slide No 43
Channel Spacing
1.75 MHz 3.5 MHz
2 E1
3.5 MHz 7 MHz
4 E1
7 MHz 14 MHz
8 E1
14 MHz 28 MHz
16 E1
Slide No 44
International Regulatory Bodies
ITU-T
Is to fulfil the purposes of the Union relating to telecommunication standardization by studying technical, operating and tariff questions and adopting Recommendations on them with a view to standardizing telecommunications on a world-wide basis.
ITU-R
plays a vital role in the management of the radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbits, finite natural resources which are increasingly in demand from a large number of services such as fixed, mobile, broadcasting, amateur, space research, meteorology, global positioning systems, environmental monitoring and, last but not least, those communication services that ensure safety of life at sea and in the skies.
Slide No 45
Performance and availability objectives
Slide No 46
Performance Objectives and availability objectives
Dimensioning
of network connection is based on the required availability objective and performance Dimension a network must meet the standard requirements recommendations by ITU The performance objectives are separated from availability objectives Factors to be considered
radio wave propagation hardware failure Resetting time after repair Frequency dependant interference problems
Slide No 47
ITU-T Recs for Transmission in GSM Net
All BTS, BSC and MSC connections in GSM network are

defined as multiples of the primary rate if 2 Mbps,
ITU-T Rec G.821 applies as the overall standard for GSM network.
ITU-T Rec G.826 applies for SDH.
Slide No 48
The ITU-T Recs (Standards)
The ITU-T target standard are based on two

recommendations:
ITU-T Recommendation G.821,intended for digital connection with a bit rate of 64 kBit/s. Even used for digital connection with bit rates higher than 64kBit/s. G.821 will successively be replaced by G.826. ITU- T Recommendation G.826, used for digital connection with bit rates of or higher than 2,048 kBit/s (European standard) or 1,544 kBit/s (USA standard).
The main difference between G.826 and G.821 is that

G.826 uses Blocks instead of bits in G.821
Slide No 49
ITU-T G.821 some definitions
HRX : hypothetical Reference Connection

This a model for long international connection, 27,500 km Includes transmission systems, multiplexing equipment and switching
HRDP: Hypothetical Reference Digital Path

The HRDP for high grade digital relay systems is 2500 km Doesnt include switching
HRDS: Hypothetical Reference Digital Section

It represents section lengths likely to be encountered in real networks Doesn't include digital equipments, such as multiplexers/demultiplexers.
Slide No 50
ITU-T G.821 some definitions (cond)

SES : Severely Errored Seconds
A bit error rate (BER) of 10-3 is measured with an integration time of 1 second.
DM : Degraded Minutes
A bit error rate (BER) of 10-6 is measured with an integration time of 1 minute.
ES : Errored Seconds
Is the second that contains at least one error
RBER: Residual Bit Error Rate

The RBER on a system is found by taking BER measurements for one month using a 15 min integration time, discarding the 50 % of 15 min intervals which contain the worst BER measurements, and taking the worst of the remaining measurements
Slide No 51
ITU-T G.821 HRX Hypothetical Reference Connection

27,500 km 1250 km T-reference point LE INT INT LE 25,000 km 1250 km T-reference point
15 %
Local Grade
15 %
Medium Grade
40 %
High Grade
15 %
Medium Grade
15 %
Local Grade
Slide No 52
ITU-T G.821 some definitions
The system is considered unavailable when one or both of the following conditions occur for more than 10 consecutive seconds
The digital signal is interrupted The BER in each second is worse than 103
Unavailable Time (UAT)

Begins when one or both of the above mentioned conditions occur for 10 consecutive seconds
Available Time (AT)

A period of available time begins with the first second of a period of 10 consecutive seconds of which each second has a bit error ratio (BER) better than 10-3
Slide No 53
ITU-T G.821 performance & Availability Examples

BER 10-6 BER 10-3
<10s >10s
DM SES DM ES ES ES
DM ES
SES
DM ES
Available time (AT)

Slide No 54
Unavailable time (UAT)
ITU-T G.821 Availability
Route availability equals the sum of single link

availabilities forming the route. Unavailability might be due to
Propagation effect Equipment effect Note: Commonly used division is to allocate 2/3 of the allowed total unavailability to equipment failure and 1/3 to propagation related unavailability
Slide No 55
ITU-T G.821 Performance Objectives
SES : Severely Errored Seconds

BER should not exceed 103 for more than 0.2% of one second intervals in any month The total allocation of 0.2% is divided as: 0.1% for the three classifications The remaining 0.1% is a block allowance to the high grade and the medium grade portions
DM : Degraded Minutes
BER should not exceed 106 for more than 10% of one minute intervals in any month The allocations of the 10% to the three classes
ES : Errored Seconds
Less than 8% of one second intervals should have errors The allocations of the 8% to the three classes
Slide No 56
G.821 Performance Objectives over HRX

ITU-T; G.821, F.697, F.696
1250 km Local Medium 0.015 0.015 0.05 1.5 1.5 4 25000 km High 0.04 0.05 1.5 1.5 1250 km Medium 0.015 Local 0.015 SES 0.2% (0.1%+0.1% for High and Medium grade for adverse conditions DM 10 %
1.2
1.2
3.2 INT
1.2 LE
1.2
ES 8 %
Slide No 57
P & A for HRPD High Grade

1/10 of HRX 2500 High Grade 0054 % (0.004+0.05) 0.4 % 0.32 % 0.3 % SES
(Additional 0.05% for adverse propagation conditions)
ITU-T; G.821, Rep 1052
DM ES UAT
Note: between 280 to 2500 all parameters are multiplied by (L/2500)

Slide No 58
P & A for HRDS Medium Grade

IT-T; G.821, F.696, Rep 1052 Used for national networks, between local exchange and international switching center Performance and availability Objectives for HRDS
Performance parameter Percentage of any month Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 280 km 280 km 50 km 0.006 0.0075 0.002 0.045 0.2 0.2 0.036 0.16 0.16 5.6x10-10 Under Under study study 0.033 0.05 0.05 Class 4 50 km 0.005 0.5 0.4 Under study 0.1
SES DM 10 % Errored Seconds ES 8 % RBER UAT

Slide No 59
P & A for HRX Local Grade

The local grade portion of the HRX represents the part between the subscriber and the local exchange Error performance objectives are:
BER shouldnt exceed 103 for more than 0.015% of any month with an integration time of 1 s BER shouldnt exceed 10-6 for more than 1.5% of any month with an integration time of 1 min The total errored seconds shouldnt exceed 1.2% of any month
Unavailability objectives for local grade circuits have not yet been established by ITU-T or ITU-R.
Slide No 60
Performance Predictions
System performance is determined by the probability for

the signal level to drop below the radio threshold level or the received spectrum to be severely distorted
The larger fade margin, the smaller probability for the

signal to drop below the receiver threshold level
Slide No 61
Availability

The total unavailability of a radio path is the sum of the probability of hardware failure and unavailability due to rain The unavailability due to hardware failure is considered for both the go and return direction so the calculated value is doubled The probability that electronic equipment fails in service is not constant with time the high probability of hardware failure occurred during burn-in and wear-out periods During life time the random failures have constant probability
Slide No 62
HW Unavailability
Unavailability of one equipment module HW

MTTR 1! MTBF MTTR
where MTTR is mean time to repair MTBF is mean time between failures.
Slide No 63
Calculation of Unavailability
Unavailability of cascaded modules

N1 N2 N3 Nn
! 1
n n 1 ! 1 4 i } 1 1 7 i ! 7 i !1 i !1 i !1 n
Slide No 64
Calculation of Unavailability
Unavailability of parallel modules

N1
n
N2 N3
N s ! 4 Ni
i !1
Nn
Slide No 65
Improvement in Availability in n+1 protection HW protection Unavailability of a n+1 redundant system
n 1 !
1 n 1 2! n 1 2 ! n
n 1 !
1 n 1 2
Can be approximated
Slide No 66
n 1 2
Improvement in Availability in Loop protection HW and route protection Unavailability in a loop N=(N1+N2)(N3+N4+N5+N6+N7)
! i !1
k
i i ! k 1
J
N3 N4 N6
N2 N1 N7
N5 Where, J: Amount of hops in loop K: Consecutive number of hop from the hub N: Unavailability of the hop
Slide No 67
HRDS - Example
HRDS: Medium grade class 3, 50 km. If the link is 5km

find UAT in % & s/d
N
Solution:
From table of HRDS, Medium grade class 3, 50 km >>UAT = 0.05% For 5 km >> UAT = (0.05%) * 5/50 = 0.005% UAT = (0.005/100) * 365.25*24= 0.438h/y = 26min/y = 4s/d
Slide No 68
Topology Planning
Slide No 69
Capacity and Topology planning

Capacity demand per link results from transceiver capacity at those BTS which are to be connected to the microwave link One transceiver reserves 2.5 time slots for traffic and signalling It is common to design for the higher capacity demand. For rapid traffic increase, the transmission network is dimensioned to reserve the capacity of 6 transceivers The advantage to reserve capacity
Flexibility in topology planning New BTS s can be added to existing transmission links New transceivers can be added without implementing new transmission links No need for changeover to new transmission links in fully operating network
Slide No 70
Transmission Capacity Planning-Traffic Motorola-standards
Bit rate for one voice PCM channel is 64Kb/s Bit rate for one voice GSM channel is 16Kb/s between
BTS and BSC Each GSM radio carries 8 TCHs in the air, this equivalent to 8x16Kb/s=2x64Kb/s between BTS and BSC. Each GSM radio has 2 time slots in the GSM E1. Example: 3/3/3 site require 9x2=18 E1 time slots for traffic and one time slot for RSL, total is 19 time slots
Slide No 71
Transmission Capacity Planning-Example Example: How Many Motorola micro-cells can be daisy
chained using one E1 at maximum? Solution:

Motorola micro cell has 2 radios (omni-2) Each micrcell requires 2x2 time slots for traffic and 1 time slot for rsl So each micro cell requires 5 time slots (64 kb/s time slots) Each E1 contains 31 time slots [31time slots] divided by [5 time slots/microcell] gives us the the maximum no of daisy chained microcells So 6 microcells can be daisy chained at maximum
Slide No 72
Topology Planning
Network topology is based on

Traffic Outage requirements
Most frequently used topologies

Star Daisy Chain Loop
Slide No 73
Star
Each station is connected with a separate link to the MW hub. Commonly used for leased line connections (needs low
availability)
Slide No 74
Star
Advantages
Easy to design Independent paths which mean link failure affects only one node Easy to configure and install Can be expanded easily
Disadvantages
Limited distance from BTS or hub to the BSC Inefficient use of frequency band Inefficient link capacity use as each BTS uses the 2 Mbps High concentration of equipment at nodal point Interference problem
Slide No 75
Daisy Chain
Application: along roads
Advantages
Efficient use of link capacity (if BTSs are chained to the same 2Mbps) Low concentration of equipment at nodal point
Disadvantages
Installation planning is essential as the BTSs close If the first link is lost, the traffic of the whole BTS chain is lost extended bandwidth (grooming)
Slide No 76
Daisy Chain
(grooming)
Slide No 77
Tree
Application: Used for small or medium size network
Advantages
Efficient equipment utilization by grooming Short paths which require smaller antenna Frequency reuse
Disadvantages
Availability , one link failure affect many sites Expansions might require upgrading or rearrangement
Slide No 78
Loop
BTSs are connected onto two way multidrop chain
Advantages
Provide the most reliable means of transmission protection against microwave link fading and equipment failure Flexibility y providing longer hops with the same antenna size, or alternatively, smaller antenna dishes with the same hop length
Disadvantages
Installation planning; since all BTSs of a loop must be in place for loop protection More difficult to design and add capacity Skilled maintenance personnel is required to make cofiguration changes in the loop
Slide No 79
Topology Planning
Define clusters Select reference node Chose Backbone Decide the topology
Slide No 80
Diversity
Slide No 81
Diversity
Diversity is a method used if project path is severely

influenced by fading due to multi path propagation The common protection of diversity techniques are:
Space Diversity Frequency Diversity Combination of frequency and space Diversity Angle Diversity Note: frequency diversity technique takes advantage because of the frequency selectivity nature of the multi path depressive fading.
Slide No 82
Diversity
Diversity Improvement The degree of improvement afforded by all of diversity techniques on the extents to witch the signals in the diversity branches of the system are uncorrelated. The improvement of diversity relative to a single channel given by:
Improvement factor
I!
PSinglechannel PDiversity
where P refers to BER
Slide No 83
Diversity Improvement
10 3 No diversity
10 -4
10 -5
diversity Diversity improvement factor
10 -6
10 -7 20
Slide No 84
30
40
Fade Depth
Single Diversity
Space diversity
Employs transmit antenna and two receiver antenna The two receivers enables the reception of signals via different propagation paths It requires double antenna on each side of the hop, a unit for the selection of the best signal and partially or fully duplicated receivers Note: whenever space diversity is used, angle diversity should also be employed by tilting the antenna at different upwards angles
Slide No 85
Space Diversity
Separate paths
Tx 1
S
Rx 1
Rx 1
Slide No 86
Frequency diversity
The same signal is transmitted simultaneously on two

different frequencies One antenna is required on either side of the hops, a unit selecting the best signal and duplicate transmitters and receivers A cost-effective technique Provides equipment protection , also gives protection from multipath fading
Slide No 87
Frequency diversity
is not recommended for 1+1 systems, because 50% of the spectrum is utilized redundant N+1 systems this technique is efficient, because the spectrum efficiency is better, but the improvement factor will be reduced since there are more channel sharing the same diversity channel
1+1 For It
systems
Slide No 88
Hot standby configuration

Tx and Rx operate at the same frequency, so there is no frequency diversity could be expected This configuration gives no improvement of system performance, but reduces the system outage due to equipment failures Used to give equipment diversity (protection) on paths where propagation conditions are non-critical to system performance
Slide No 89
Hybrid diversity
Is an arrangement where 1+1 system has two antennas at

one of the radio sites This system effect act as space diversity system, and diversity improvement factor can be calculated as for space diversity
Slide No 90
Angle diversity

Angle diversity techniques are based upon differing angles of arrival of radio signal at a receiving antenna, when the signals are a result of Multipath propagation The angle diversity technique involves a receiving antenna with its vertical pattern tilted purposely off the bore sight lines Angle diversity can be used is situations in witch adequate space diversity is not possible or to reduce tower height
Slide No 91
Combined diversity
In practical configuration a combination of space and

frequency diversity is used Different combination algorithms exist The simple method (conservative) to calculate the improvement factor for combined diversity configuration I = Isd + Isd
Slide No 92
Combined diversity
Combined space and frequency diversity
TX
f1
RX
f2
TX
f1
RX
S
RX
f2
RX
Slide No 93
Path Diversity

Outage due to precipitation will not be reduced by use of frequency,angle or space diversity. Rain attenuation is mainly a limiting factor at frequencies above ~10 GHz Systems operating at these high frequencies are used in urban areas where the radio relay network may from a mix of star and mesh configurations The area covered by an intense shower is normally much smaller than the coverage of the entire network Re-Routing the signal via other paths
Slide No 94
Path Diversity
The diversity gain (I.e. the difference between the attenuation (dB) exceeded for a specific percentage of time on single link and that simultaneously on two parallel links
Tends to decrease as the path length increases from 12 km or a given percentage of time, and for a given lateral path separation Is generally greater for a spacing of 8 km than for 4 km, though an increase to 12 km dose not provide further improvement Is not significantly dependent on frequency in the range 20 40 GHz, for a given geometry, and
- Ranges from about 2.8 dB at 0.1% of the time to 0.4 dB at 0.001% of the time, for a spacing of 8 km, and path lengths of about the same value for a 4 km spacing are about 1.8 to 2.0 dB.
Slide No 95
Microwave Antennas
Slide No 96
Microwave Antennas
The most commonly used type is parabolic antenna The performance of microwave system depends on the
antenna parameters Antenna parameters are:
Gain Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) Side and back lobe levels Beam width Discrimination of cross polarization Mechanical stability
Slide No 97
Antenna Gain
The gain of parabolic antenna referred to an isotropic

radiator is given by:
Gain } 10 log(L v A v 4T P
2
where: L= aperture efficiency (typical values : 0.5-0.6) P = wavelength in meters A = aperture area in m2
Note : the previous formula valid only in the far field of the antenna, the
gain will be decreased in the near field, near field antenna gain is obtained from manufacturer
Slide No 98
Antenna Gain-cont.
This figure shows the relation

between the gain of microwave dish and frequency with different dish diameters
Can be approximated
Gain = 17.8 + 20log (d.f) dBi
where, d : Dish diameter (m) f : Frequency in GHz
Slide No 99
VSWR
VSWR resembles Voltage Standing Wave Ratio It is important in the case of high capacity systems with
stringent linearity objectives VSWR should be minimum in order to avoid intermodulation interference Typical values of VSWR are from 1.06 to 1.15 High performance antennas have VSWR from 1.04 to 1.06
Slide No 100
Side and Back lobe Levels
The important parameters in frequency planning and

interference calculations are sidelobe and backlobes Low levels of side and backlobes make the use of frequency spectrum more efficient The levels of side and backlobes are specified in the radiation envelope patterns The front to back ratio gives an indication of backlobe levels The front to back ratio increases with increasing of frequency and antenna diameter
Slide No 101
Beam Width
The half power beam width of antenna is defined as the

angular width of the main beam at 3dB point
An approximate formula used to find the beam width is: E3dB = 35. P/D in degrees The 10dB deflection angle is found approximately by: E10dB = 60. P/D in degrees
Slide No 102
Antenna Characteristics EIRP and ERP
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)

It is equal to the product of the power supplied to a transmitting antenna and the antenna gain in a given direction relative to an isotropic radiator (expressed in watts) EIRP = Power - Feeder Loss + Antenna Gain
Both EIRP and Power expressed in dBW Antenna gain expressed in dBi
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)

The same as EIRP but is relative to a half-wave dipole instead of an isotropic radiator
EIRP = ERP + 2.14 dB Example

Transmitter Output Power = 4 Watts = 36 dBm, Transmission Line Loss = 2 dB, and Antenna Gain = 10 dBd. Calculate the ERP Answer: ERP = 36 - 2 + 10 = 44 dBmd
Slide No 103
Passive Repeater
Two types of passive repeaters :

Plane reflectors Back to Back antennas
The plane reflector reflects MW signals as the mirror

reflects light
The laws of reflection are valid here
The back to back antennas work just like an ordinary

repeater station, but without frequency transportation or amplification of the signal
Slide No 104
Passive Repeater- cont.
By using passive repeaters; the free space loss becomes:

AL= AFSA GR + AFSB
where AFSA is the free space loss for the path site A to passive repeater AFSB is the free space loss for the path site B to passive repeater GR is the gain of the passive repeater
Slide No 105
Plane Reflectors

More popular than back to back antennas due to :
Efficiency is around 100% Can be produced with much larger dimensions than parabolic antennas
The gain of plane reflectors is given by: GR= 20 log( 139.5 . f2 .AR . cos( =/2 )) in dB
where :
AR is the physical reflector area in m2 F is the radio frequency in GHz = is the angle in space at the passive repeater in degrees
Slide No 106
Plane Reflectors
Slide No 107
Back to back Repeater
Use of them is practical when reflection angle is large The Gain of back to back antennas is given by
GR= GA1 AC + GA2 in dB where :
GA1: is the gain of one of the two antennas at the repeater in dB GA2: is the gain of the other antenna at the repeater in dB AC : is the coupling loss between antennas in dB
Slide No 108
Back to back antennas
Slide No 109
Antenna Characteristics - Polarization
Co-Polarization
The transmit and receive antennas have the same polarization Either horizontal or vertical (HH or VV)
Cross-Polarization
The transmit and receive antennas have different polarization Either HV or VH
Slide No 110
Cross Polarization

Transmission of two separate traffic channels is performed on the same radio frequency but on orthogonal polarization The polarization planes are horizontal and vertical The discrimination between the two polarization is called Cross Polar Discrimination (XPD) Cross-Polarization Discrimination (XPD)
the ratio between the power received in the orthogonal (cross polar) port to the power received at the co-polar port when the antenna is excited with a wave polarized as in the co-polar antenna element
Good cross polarization allows full utilization of the frequency band
Slide No 111
Cross Polarization
To ensure interference-free operation, the nominal value

of XPD the value is usually in the rang 30 40 dB Discrimination of cross polar signals is an important parameter in frequency planning
Vertical Horizontal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
28 MHz
Slide No 112
Mechanical Stability
Limitations in sway / twist
for the structure of the structure (tower or mast) correspond to a maximum 10 dB signal attenuation due to antenna misalignment The maximum deflection angle may be estimated for a given antenna diameter and frequency by using E10dB = 60. P/D in degrees
Slide No 113
Antenna Datasheet
Slide No 114
Digital Antenna pattern
Slide No 115
Antenna Pattern
Slide No 116
Radio Propagation
Slide No 117
Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

EM wave is a wave produced by the interaction of time varying electric and magnetic field Electromagnetic fields are typically generated by alternating current (AC) in electrical conductors The EM field composes of two fields (vectors)
Electric vector E Magnetic vector H
Electromagnetic waves can be

Reflected and scattered Refracted Diffracted Absorbed (its energy)
Slide No 118
Electromagnetic Waves Properties
E and H vectors are orthogonal In free space environment, the EM-wave propagates at
the speed of light (c) The distance between the wave crests is called the wavelength ( ) The frequency ( f )is the number of times the wave oscillates The relation that combines the EM-wave frequency and wavelength with the speed of light is: =c/f
Slide No 119
Radio Wave Propagation
The propagation of radio wave is affected by :

Frequency Effect Terrain Effect Atmospheric Effect Multipath Effect
All the above mentioned effects cause a degradation in quality
Slide No 120
Frequency Effect
Attenuation: Loss Propagation of radio depends on frequency band At frequencies above 6 GHz radio wave is more affected
by gas absorption and precipitation
At frequencies close to 10 GHz the effects of precipitation begins to dominate Gas absorption starts influencing at 22 GHz where the water vapour shows characteristic peak
Slide No 121
Terrain effect
Reflection and scattering The radio wave propagating near the surface of earth is
influenced by:
Electrical characteristics of earth Topography of terrain including man-made structures
Slide No 122
Atmospheric effect
Loss and refraction The gaseous constituents and temperature of the

atmosphere influence radio waves by:
Absorbing its energy Variations in refractive index which cause the radio wave reflect, refract and scatter
Slide No 123
Multipath effect
Multipath effect occurs when many signals with different

amplitude and/or phase reach the receiver
Multipath effect is caused by reflection and refraction Multipath propagation cause

fading
Slide No 124
EM wave Reflection and scattering
When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface it might

be reflected or scattered Rayleigh criterion used to determine whether the wave will be scattered or reflected The reflected waves depend on the frequency, incidence angle and electrical property of the surface
Slide No 125
EM wave Reflections
Reflection of the radio beam from lakes and large surfaces

are more critical than reflection from terrain with vegetation Generally, vertical polarization gives reduced reflection especially at lower frequencies If there is a great risk from reflection ,space diversity should be used
Slide No 126
EM wave Reflection coefficient ( )
Reflection can be characterized by its total reflection

coefficient is the quotient between the reflected and incident field When = 0 nothing will be reflected and when =1 we have specular reflection reflection coefficient decreases with frequency
Slide No 127
EM wave Reflection coefficient-cont.
The resulting electromagnetic field at a receiver antenna is

composed of two components,the direct signal and the reflected signal Since the angle between the both components varies between 0 and 180 the signal will pass through maximum and minimum values respectively Reflection
The figure shows different values of total reflection coefficient, and the minimum and maximum values with respect to them
Slide No 128
loss ( ) 5 -5 -15 -15 -25 -35
Amax Amin
0.4 0.6 0.2 0.8 Total reflection coefficient ( )
EM wave Refraction
Refraction occurs because radio waves travel with

different velocities in different medium according to their electrical characteristics.
Index of refraction of a medium is the ratio of the velocity

of radio waves in space to the velocity of radio waves in that medium
Slide No 129
EM wave Refraction
Radio wave is refracted toward the region with higher

index of refraction (denser medium)
Incident wave
n2 > n1
Medium 1 ,n1 Medium 2 ,n2
i r
Reflected wave
Refracted wave
Slide No 130
EM wave Refraction
Refractivity depends on
Pressure Temperature Humidity
Refractive Gradient (dN/dh) represents refractive

variation with respect to height (h), related to the earth radius.
Slide No 131
EM wave Refraction and Ray bending
Refraction cause ray bending in the atmosphere In free space, the radio wave follows straight line
no atmosphere with atmosphere
Slide No 132
EM wave Refraction: K-Factor
K is a value to indicate wave bending

re :is the effective radius of the ray due to refraction a :is the earth radius = 6350 km
For temperate regions :

dN/dh = - 40N units per Km, K=4/3=1.33
Slide No 133
K-Factor and Path Profile Correction
Path profile must be corrected by K-factor Radius of earth must be multiplied by K-factor, less
curvature of earth
Slide No 134
Formation Of Ducts- Refraction and reflection

Ground Based Duct: Refraction and reflection The atmosphere has very dense layer at the ground with a thin layer on top of it. Elevated Duct: Refraction only The atmosphere has a thick layer in some height above ground. If both the transmitter and the receiver are within the duct, multiple rays will reach the receiver If one is inside and the other is outside the duct, nearly no energy will reach the receiver
Slide No 135
Formation Of Ducts- Refraction and reflection

Elevated DUCT Ground Based DUCT
Earth
Earth
Slide No 136
Formation Of Ducts- Explanation

Refraction and reflection
Slide No 137
Ducting Probability-
Refraction and reflection Duct probability percentage of time when dN/dh is less than 100 N units/km per specified month ITU-R issues DUCT Probability CONTOUR MAPS The ducting probability follows seasonal variations This difference in ducting probability can be explained by the difference in temperature and most of all by difference in humidity From the map the equatorial regions are most vulnerable to ducts
Slide No 138
ITU-R DUCT Probability CONTOUR MAPS
Slide No 139
Multipath Propagation - Refraction and reflection Multipath propagation occurs when there are more than
one ray reach the receiver
Disadvantages:
Signal strength changes rapidly over a short time and distance Multipath delays which causes time dispersion Random frequency modulation due to Doppler shifts Delay spread of the received signal
Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading Fading is explained in later slides
Slide No 140
Diffraction
Diffraction occurs and causes increase in transmission loss

when the size of obstacle between transmitter and receiver is large compared to wavelength Diffraction effects are faster and more accentuated with increased obstruction for frequencies above 1 GHz Transmission obstruction loss over irregular terrain is complicated function of frequency, path geometry, vegetation density and other less significant variable Practical methods are used to estimate the obstruction losses.
Slide No 141
Diffraction loss
Practical methods are used to estimate the obstruction losses Terrain Averaging: ITU-R P.530-7
Diffraction loss in this method can be approximated for losses greater than 15 dB Ad = -20h/F1 + 10 (dB) : ITU-R P.530-7 Where, Ad : diffraction loss. h: height difference between most significant blockage and path trajectory. F1: radius of first freznal zone
Slide No 142
Knife edge models
Knife edge approximation is used when the obstruction is

sharp and inside the first freznal zone
Single Knife edge Bullington Epostein-Peterson Japanese Atlas
Slide No 143
Absorption
At frequency above 10 GHz the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere of the earth is strongly effected by resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy by molecular water vapor and oxygen
Slide No 144
Rain Attenuation
When radio waves interact with raindrops the

electromagnetic wave will scatter The attenuation depends on frequency band, specially for frequencies above 10 GHz The rain attenuation calculated by introducing reduction factor and then effective path length The rain attenuation depends on the rain rate, which obtained from long term measurement and very short integration time The Earth is divided into 16 different rain zones
Slide No 145
Rain Attenuation
Rain rate is measured to estimate attenuation because it is

hard to actually count the number of raindrops and measure their individual sizes so Rainfall is measured in millimeters [mm], and rain intensity in millimeters pr. hour [mm/h]. Since the radio waves are a time varying electromagnetic field, the incident field will induce a dipole moment in the raindrop will therefore act as an antenna and re-radiate the energy. A raindrop is an antenna with low directivity and some energy will be re-radiated in arbitrary directions giving a net loss of energy in the direction towards the receiver.
Slide No 146
Raindrop shape
As the raindrops increase in size, they depart from the

spherical shape Raindrops are more extended in the horizontal direction and consequently will attenuate horizontal polarized waves more than the vertical polarized. This means that vertical polarization is favorable at high frequencies where outage due to rain is dominant.
Slide No 147
Fading
The radio waves undergo variations while traveling in the

atmosphere due to atmospheric changes. The received signal fades around nominal value.
Multipath Fading is due to metrological conditions in the

space separating the transmitter and the receiver which cause detrimental effects to the received signal
Slide No 148
Fade Margins
Fade Margin is extra power Fade Margins will be explained in link design for the
following: Multipath Fading
Flat Fading Selective Fading
Rain Fading
Slide No 149
Mutipath Fading
As the fading margin increased the probability of the

signal to drop below the receiver threshold is decreased
Flat fading or non-selective occurs when all components

of the useful signal are affected equally
Frequency selective fading occurs if some of the spectral

components are reduced causing distortion
Total fading
Ptot =Pflat + Psel
Slide No 150
Mutipath Fading
The impacts of multipath fading can be summarized as

follows:
It reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and consequently increases the bit-error-rate (BER) It reduces the carrier-to-interference (C/I) ratio and consequently increases the BER It distorts the digital pulse waveform resulting in increased intersymbol interference and BER It introduces crosstalk between the two orthogonal carriers, the I-rail and the Q-rail, and consequently increases the BER
Slide No 151
Mutipath Fading
P
Flat fading Normal signal Frequency selective fading
Slide No 152
Microwave Link Planning and Design
Slide No 153
Hop Calculations (Design)

Predictable Free Space Loss Gas Absorption Obstacle Loss
Predictable if present Not always present but statistically predictable
Statistically Predictable
Rain fading Multipath fading
Always present and predictable
Link Budget Performance & Availability Objectives

Slide No 154
Fading prediction
Path Profile
Path profile is essentially a plot of the elevation of the The purpose of path profile:
earth as function of the distance along the path between the transmitter and receiver
To check the free line of sight To check the clearance of the path to avoid obstacle attenuation When determining the fading of received signal
Slide No 155
Path Profile Example
Path profiles are necessary to determine site locations and

antenna heights
Slide No 156
Path Profile: Clearance of Path
Design objective: Full clearance of direct line-of-sight and

and an ellipsoid zone surrounding the direct line-of-sight The ellipsoid zone is called the Fresnel Zone
Slide No 157
Path Profile: Fresnel Zone Example
Slide No 158
Fresnel Zone
Fresnal Zone is defined as the zone shaped as ellipsoid

with its focal point at the antennas on both ends of the path If there is no obstacle within first Fresnel zone ,the obstacle attenuation can be ignored and the path is cleared Equation of path of ellipsoid
P d1 d 2 d ! 2
Slide No 159
Fresnel Zone Equation

First Fresnel zone radius
F1 ! 17.3 v d1 v d 2 dv f
[m]
Fresnel zone Exercise: Calculate the fresnel zone radius at mid path for the following cases
1. f= 15GHz, K=4/3, d=10km 2. f = 15GHz, K=4/3, d=20km
Solution:
1. F1 (radius)! 17.3 v 2. F1 (radius)! 17.3 v
5v5 ! 7m 15 v 10 10 v 10 ! 10m 15 v 20
Slide No 160
Fresnel Zone Radii calculations

Table Tool
Frequency GHz 7.0 13.0 15.0 18.0 23.0 26.0 38.0
Slide No 161
4.0 9.2 10.3 10.1 9.2 7.7 6.7 5.1
10.0 12.7 13.6 14.2 15.2 17.1 19.6 23.9
Distance in km 15.0 20.0 13.3 15.0 12.1 13.6 11.3 13.4 10.6 13.8 9.6 14.7 8.6 16.0 7.3 18.1
30.0 17.3 13.8 12.4 11.6 10.9 10.1 9.1
40.0 18.6 14.2 13.1 13.0 13.4 14.1 15.2
Obstacle Loss: Fresnel Zone is not Cleared

Obstacle Loss
Knife Edge obstacle loss Smooth spherical obstacle loss
Slide No 162
Knife Edge Losses
12
20 dB
Slide No 163
Smooth Spherical Earth Losses
30 20 10 dB
Slide No 164
Line-Of-Sight Survey
LOS
LOS Survey
To verify that the proposed network design is feasible considering LOS constraints
Slide No 165
Line-Of-Sight Survey- Flowchart

Network Design
Update the design
LOS Survey
LOS Report
Slide No 166
LOS Survey Equipment

Necessary: Compass Maps : 50 k or better Digital Camera GPS Navigator Binoculars Hand-held communication equipment Signaling mirrors
Slide No 167
Optional: Clinometer Altimeter Laptop Spectrum analyzer Antenna horn Low noise amplifier Theodolite
LOS Survey Procedure - Preparation
Preparation
Maps of 1:50k scale or better to be used and prepared List of hops to be surveyed Critical obstacles should be marked in order to verify LOS in the field Organize transport and accommodation Organize access and authorization to the sites Prepare LOS survey form
Slide No 168
LOS Survey Procedure - Field
Verification of sites positions and altitudes Confirmation of line-of-sight using

GPS Compass Binocular And other methods in the next slide
Take photographs Estimate required tower heights Path and propagation notes
Slide No 169
Other Methods of LOS Survey
Mirrors Flash Balloon Portable MW Equipment Driving along the path and taking GPS and altitude
measurements for different points along it.
Slide No 170
LOS Survey Report
Site Data
Name Coordinates Height Address
Proposed Tower Height LOS Confirmation Azimuth and Elevation Path short description Photographs
Slide No 171
Link Budget

Includes all gains and losses as the signal passes from transmitter to the receiver. It is used to calculate fade margin which is used to estimate the performance of radio link system.
Slide No 172
Link Budget
Link budget is the sum of all losses and gains of the signal
between the transmitter output and the receiver input. Items related to the link budget
Transmitted power Received power Feeder loss Antenna gain Free space loss Attenuations
Used to calculate received signal level

Slide No 173
(fading is ignored)
Link Budget (cond)
Pin ! Pout L G FSL A

Where, Pin = Received power (dBm) Pout = Transmitted power (dBm) L = Antenna feeder loss (dB) G = Antenna gain (dBi) FSL = Free space loss (dB) (between isotropic antennas) A = Attenuations (dB)
Slide No 174
Link Budget
Gt Tx
Output power Antenna gain
Gr Rx
Branching Feeder loss loss
Free space loss + atmospheric atten.
Feeder Received loss power Antenna Branching gain loss Fade Margin Receiver threshold
Slide No 175
Link Budget Parameters-Free Space Loss
It is defined as the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as is propagates in a straight line through the vacuum
4T ! P
2
4T f ! c
where, Lp = free space path loss D = distance f = frequency = wavelength c = velocity of light in free space (3*108 m/s)
Lp(dB) = 92.4 + 20logf(GHz) + 20logD(km)

Slide No 176
Link Budget Parameters

Free Space Loss
Lp Tx Rx
Slide No 177
Total Antenna Gain:

Ga = 20 log (Da) + 20 log (f) + 17.8
Da
Atmospheric attenuation occurs at higher frequencies ,

above 15 GHz due to atmospheric gases, and given by:
Where d is path link in km , Ka is specific attenuation in dB/km
Slide No 178
!Ka vd
Rx Level: Signal strength at the receiving antenna

PRx= PTx-LBRL-+GTx-LFS-Lobs+GRx - LTx feeder LRx feeder
Where, PRx : received power level PTx : transmitted power level LBRL : branching loss LFS : free space loss LTx feeder : Tx feeder loss GTx :Tx gain Lobs :Diffraction loss GRx :Rx gain LRx feeder : Rx feeder loss
Slide No 179
Fading
Fading types
Multipath Fading; Dominant cause of fading for f < 10 GHz
Flat Fading Frequency Selective Fading
Rain Fading; Dominant cause of fading for f > 10 GHz
Slide No 180
Fade Margin and Availability
Is the difference between the nominal input level and receiver threshold level From Link Budget FM = Received Power Receiver threshold Fade margin is designed into the system so as to meet outage objectives during fading conditions Typical value of Fade Margin is around 40 dB Availability is calculated from the Fade Margin value as in F.1093, P.530-6, P.530-7,
Slide No 181
Flat Fading ITU-R P.530-7

Pflat =Po . 10F/10
where: F equals the fade margin Po the fading occurrence factor
Po = k. d3.6 . f0.89 .(1+|Ep|)-1.4

Where: k is geoclimatic factor d is path length in Km f is frequency in GHz Ep: path inclination in mrad =
h1 h 2 d
Slide No 182
Flat Fading- cont. ITU-R P.530-7
The geoclimatic (K) depends on type of the path

Inland links
Plains: low altitude 0 to 400m above mean sea level Hills: low altitude 0 to 400m above mean sea level Plains: Medium altitude 400 to 700m above mean sea level Hills: Medium altitude 400 to 700m above mean sea level Plains: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level Hills: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level Mountains: High altitude more than 700m above mean sea level
Coastal links over/near large bodies of water Coastal links over/near medium-sized bodies of water Indistinct path definition
To calculate K value, refer to formulas and tables in ITU-R P.530-7
Slide No 183
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R F.1093 Result from surface reflections or introduced by
atmospheric anomalies such as strong ducting gradients
Psel ! 4.3 v 10
B 20 2 Xm vL vW v Xr
Where, : Probability of of the occurrence of multipath fading W: Signature width (GHz), equipment dependent B : Signature depth (GHz), equipment dependent m: Mean value of echo delay r : Time delay used during measurements of the signature curves (reference delay) ns. Normally 6.3 ns
Slide No 184
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R F.1093

L ! 1 e
3/ 4 .2v P0 100
Where, Po: The fading occurrence factor
d X m ! 0.7 v 50
w/ 2
1 .5
Where, d : Path length (km)
W!
Bc 10 20
w / 2
Where, Bc: Signature depth
Slide No 185
Frequency Selective Fading ITU-R P.530-7

B B 2 2 M NM XM XM Psel ! 2.15 v L v WM v 10 20 v WNM v 10 20 v X r ,M X r , NM Where,
Wx: Signature width Bx: Signature depth x: The reference delay used to obtain signature in measurements x: Denotes either Minimum phase (M) or Not Minimum phase (NM)
Slide No 186
Space Diversity Improvement ITU-R P.453

P mp
div
P mp I
P flat P sel I
1 .04 o
3 .34 10 4 s 0 . 87 f 0 .12 d 0 .48 1 e I !
100
10
(
10
Where,
s : Vertical separation between antennas in m f : Frequency in GHz d : Path length F : Fade Margin (G : The difference in antenna gain between the two antenna in dB Po : from the formula of flat fading
Slide No 187
Rain Attenuation ITU-R P.530

Rain Intensity in mm/h
The reference level is the rain intensity that is exceeded .01% of all the time (R0.01)
The attenuation due to the rain in .01% of the time for a given path may be found by:
R
! K R .d eff
where R : Specific rain attenuation (dB/km) deff : Effective path length, km
K R ! k v Ra
k and a are given in the table
Slide No 188
Usable path lengths with rain intensity example: 15 GHz
Slide No 189
ITU-R presents the cumulative distribution of rain intensity for 15 different zone as shown below
Rain zone contours (Far East)

Slide No 190
Rain zone contours (Europe and Africa)
Rain zone contours (Americas)
Rain Fading ITU-R P.530
The relation between fading margin and unavailability for the path is given by:
%
Where AR0.01 : Rain attenuation exceeded 0.01% of the time F: Fade margin
Slide No 191
Frequency Planning
Slide No 192
Frequency planning
Objective of frequency planning

Efficient use of available frequency band Keep interference level as low as possible
Frequency plan must consider interference

C/I Objectives
Note: the requirements depends on

Equipment Frequency Bandwidth
For adjacent channel interference
Slide No 193
Frequency Planning
Frequency Allocation From operators point of view, it is best to get a block of frequencies or several adjacent channels from each frequency band
Installation and maintenance of microwave radio is less complicated Interference analysis is only needed between operators own hops
It is recommended to assign the available channels or
frequency block to certain capacities so that 2X2, 4X2, 8X2, 16X2 will not interleave. Normally in 18-38 GHz, four hops using the same channel can arrive at star if they are at 90 degrees angle from each other
Slide No 194
Frequency Planning
Interference Interference needs more concern at star points because several microwave radios transmit and receive are close to each other Dont use higher transmitter output power than required Frequency planning in star points is trivial if multiple channels are used (inefficient use of channels) Re use same channel (efficient use of channels)
All stations at star transmit either high or low, while high-low alteration must be applied in chains. Good angle separation Cross polarization gives extra discrimination Note: Rain has greater attenuation on horizontal polarization thus use horizontal polarization for shorter hops
Slide No 195
Frequency Planning
The radio spectrum is allocated to various services by

ITUs Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) ITU-R is responsible for providing RF channel arrangement
Alternated channel arrangement Co-channel arrangement Interleaved arrangement
Slide No 196
Alternated Channel arrangement
Every channel will have opposite polarization to the

adjacent channels This arrangement is used(neglecting co-polar adjacent interference) if the below rule holds
XPDmin+(NFD 3)>(C/I)min NFD=adj. Ch. Received power / adj. Ch. Power received after BB filter
Advantage:
Easily filfilled by standard antenna to radio equipment
Disadvantage:
Limited spectrum effective
Slide No 197
Co-channel arrangement
In this arrangement every radio channel is utilized twice

for independent traffic on opposite polarization for the same path
The following demand must be fulfilled

[10log(1/(1/10^((XPD + XIF)/10) +1/10^((NFD-3)/10)))] > (C/I)
Where, NFD :Net Filter discriminator XIF :is XPD improvement factor
Slide No 198
Channel Capacity and Separation
Channel separation
Capacity 2 X 2 Mbps 4 X 2 Mbps 8 X 2 Mbps 16 X 2 Mbps

Slide No 199
Channel Separation 3.5 MHz 7 MHz 14 MHz 28 MHz
Co-channel Interference Far
Tx/Rx
Tx = f1 Rx = f2
Tx/Rx
Tx = f2 Rx = f1
Tx/Rx
Tx = f1 Rx = f2
Slide No 200
Tx = f2 Rx = f1
Tx/Rx
Co-channel Interference Near
Tx/Rx Rx = f1 2 Tx/Rx
Tx = f2 Rx = f1
Tx = f
Slide No 201
Adjacent Channel Interference
fRx
fTx
Interference
Slide No 202
Receiver Threshold Degradation

Presence of interfering signals will give a receiver threshold degradation The degraded receiver threshold level LTel is calculated from:
LTel ! LTe 10 log 1 10 LTe CR LI /10
A Rule of Thumb Threshold Degradation < 3 dB
Slide No 203
Threshold Degradation
-70 -72 -74 -76 -78 -80 -82 -84 -86 -88 3dB
Receiver threshold, dBm
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Signal to Interference ratio, dB

Slide No 204
Channel plan
Low sub-band
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
High sub-band
1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B
Duplex distance
Tx=4A Rx=4B
Tx=4B Rx=4A
Slide No 205
High / Low Tx Channel Allocation

H H L H H H L
Near interference
H/L
Slide No 206
High / Low Tx Channel Allocation

Rings with odd number of sites should be avoided H L H/L
Interference
L L
H
New frequency band
Slide No 207
Channel Plan
7 Channels
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
28 MHz (17x2 Mbps)
Slide No 208
Channel Plan
11 Channels
28 MHz (17x2 Mbps)
14 MHz (8x2 Mbps)
Slide No 209
Channel Plan
15 Channels
28 MHz (17x2 Mbps)
14 MHz (8x2 Mbps)
7 MHz (4x2 Mbps)
Slide No 210
Output Power
Only High output power
High output power
High output power
High output power
Interference
Slide No 211
Output Power
High and low output power
Low output power
High output power
Low output power
No Interference
Slide No 212
Interference
Slide No 213
Digital Systems and BER
Performance of digital transmission system can be

evaluated by BER, Bit Error Rate Telephony BER degradation versus audible degradation:
10-6: Noise not audible 10-5: Barely audible 10-4: audible, understandable 10-3: disturbing More than 10-3: sync loss, link loss
Data and in particular multimedia media application require a very low BER
Slide No 214
Noise in Digital Systems

Noise can originate from a variety of sources, and many of these sources are man-made so they can be eliminated Thermal noise Noise Factor and Noise Figure S/N Ratio Receiver Thresholds
Slide No 215
White Noise in Digital Systems
Thermal noise is generated from random motion of

electrons due to thermal energy Pn=KTB (W) where :
k=Boltzmanns constant T=temperature in Kelvin B=bandwidth of noise spectrum
Typical values are : T=300 K , b= 6MHz , -106 dBm
Slide No 216
Noise Factor and Noise Figure
Noise Factor and Noise Figure are figures of merit used to

indicate how much the S/N deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series of circuits. Noise factor: Is defined in terms of signal to noise ratio
available S/N power ratio at input (unitless) F! available S/N power ratio at output Noise Figure NF = 10 log(F) (dB)
Slide No 217
Noise in Digital Systems
Signal to interference ratio defines the minimum

difference between the signal and the interferer levels. It depends on bandwidth, modulation and manufacturer.
Usually for digital system signal to interference ratio 1525 dB
Slide No 218
Receiver Thresholds
Threshold (10-3): Received level at BER 10-3 Threshold (10-6): Received level at BER 10-6
Threshold = White noise + Noise figure + S/N
Threshold S/N
NF White noise
Slide No 219
Threshold Degradation
A Rule of Thumb Threshold Degradation < 3 dB given that the required signal to interferer is not violated
-70 -72 -74 -76 Receiver -78 threshold, -80 -82 dBm -84 -86 -88
3dB
14 15 16 1 18 19 20 21 22 23 Signal to Interference ratio, dB 7
Slide No 220
Cross Polar Interference XPI
Both multi path- and rain fading can result in severe

degradation of XPD level Cross Polar interference Cancellers (XPIC) in the receiver remove the unwanted signal that has leaked from the opposite polarization into the wanted one
E11 XPI ! 20.Log dB E21 E11 XPD ! 20.Log dB E12
Slide No 221
The quantitative Description of crossPolar interference XPI
Where E11and E12 are given in the next figure
Cross Polar Interference
Depolarization Causes
Scattering or reflection from land or water surfaces Reflection from an atmospheric layer Tropospherical turbulence
Slide No 222
Cross Polar Interference

E1 E11 E21
E12 E2 E22
Dual polarized system suffering from XPI

Slide No 223
Ways to include interference in performance calculation
The interference calculation are performed by calculation

the interference level and determining the receiver threshold degradation Start from allowed interference level at the input of the disturbed receiver and then comparing it with level of the interfering signal The degradation receiver threshold level
LTel } LTe 10 log 1 10 LTe C

Slide No 224
L1 / 10
Interfering waves propagation mechanisms Long-term interference mechanisms:

Diffraction Troposcatter Line-of-site
Short-term interference mechanisms:

Ducting: layer refraction/reflection Hydrometeor scatter
Slide No 225
Selecting Interfering Stations

Before performing interference calculation the possible interfering station must be selected in the area of interference Co-ordination area are the area around given station where possible co-channel interference from near site are situated
Key hole region
Co-ordination area for offkey hole region

Slide No 226
Propagation in Interference Calculations

Select interfering site by calculating coordination area Select minimum interference levels Predict interferer signal level
Decide whether an average year or worst month prediction is required Assemble the basic input data Derive the annual or worst-month radio meteorological data from maps Analyze the path profile, and classify the path according to the path geometry Identify which individual propagation models need to be invoked Calculate the individual propagation predictions using each of the models identified in the previous step Combine the individual predictions to give the overall statistics
Slide No 227
Interference Calculation
Undesirable RF coupling between radio channels

Cross polarization: occurred in channels operating on opposite polarization Adjacent channel:the channel filter at the receiver and the width of the transmitted spectrum determined the interference level Front to back:The interference level is mainly a function of the antenna front-to-back ratio Over shoot:If the paths are aligned , interference due to overshoot is critical. Use of opposite polarization or change of radio channels is recommended.
Slide No 228
Examples of Interference RF coupling
Examples
V H f1 f2 f1
Cross Polarization
Adjacent channel
f1
f1
f1
f1
f1
Front-to-Back
Over Shoot
Slide No 229
Interference Calculations- cont.
Preconditions
Network diagram: drawn to scale and angle, includes all radio-relay circuits within the frequency band concerned Network data : antenna types and radiation patterns, transmitter output power RL equipment interference data, normally given as diagrams
Digital to digital interference diagrams Digital to analog interference diagrams Analog to digital interference diagrams Adjacent-channel attenuation as a function of channel spacing
Antenna radiation patterns: for all types of antennas used in the network
Slide No 230
Interference Calculations- cont.
Interference evaluation on digital network

It is necessary to check each antenna discrimination in the nodal stations for all disturbances In the beginning, only the most critical interference path has to be examined As a start, standard performance antennas are used, and no level adjustments are made to reduce interference problems, this case is worst case Co-polar operation Cross-polar operation
Slide No 231
Digital Map and Tools Overview
Slide No 232
Digital Maps
Digitized Geographical data is needed Maps sampling (examples)

Urban: 20 to 50m Suburban: 50-100m Open: 100m
Slide No 233
Digital Maps-Geographical Databases
The choice of the geographical databases depends on the

propagation model used A compromise has to be reached between:
Cost Accuracy Calculation speed The chosen configuration
Geographical databases types are:

Vector data (Linear) Altitude Clutter (land use data)
Slide No 234
Digital Maps - Vector Data (Linear)
Succession of points describing:

Highway Roads Railways Rivers Borders coastlines
Slide No 235
Digital Maps - Altitude
One altitude value per each pixel Each point of the pixel is assumed at the same altitude Two categories of altitude databases
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) Digital Evaluation Model (DEM)
Slide No 236

Microwave Planning and Design

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Microwave Radio Planning and Link Design

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