About J.B.S ENTERPRISE J.B.S.

ENTERPRISE has installed a 220kV Substation receiving 2 incomer lines from Ambheti delivering total power of 230MW to different areas. The data collected from this substation are sent to WRLDC (WESTERN REGIONAL LOAD DISPATCH CENTRE). The main purpose of J.B.S. ENTERPRISE are Engineering, Procurement, Construction, Testing, Commissioning, Operation and Maintenance services for the Extra High Voltage Substations, Switch Yards and Power Transformers.

Following subjects were studied during the period of training. 220/66KV & 66/11KV Power Transformers & various outdoor protections. Various tests on Transformers. Tan Delta values. Lightening Arrestors. Surge Monitors Current Transformers & Potential Transformers & their testing. Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVT) Off load Isolators 220KV & 66KV SF6 Circuit Breakers, 11KV Vaccum Circuit Breakers. Control Room, Control, Relay & RTCC Panels. Relays, types of relays & their testing. AC & DC Distribution, Battery Chargers DC/CT/PT/Control/Protection/Indication/Alarm DC Supply

B.H.E.L. 220/66 kV 50MVA POWER TRANSFORMER RATING

Type of Cooling
Rating HV (MVA) Rating LV (MVA) No-Load Voltage HV (kV) No-Load Voltage LV (kV) Frequency (Hz) Line Current HV (A) Line Current LV (A) Temperature(oC) Temerature Rise(oC) ON AN 37.5 37.5 220 66 50 131.22 437.39 50 55 ON AF 50 50

B.H.E.L. 220/66 kV 100MVA POWER TRANSFORMER RATING

Type of Cooling Rating HV (MVA) Rating LV (MVA) No-Load Voltage HV (kV) No-Load Voltage LV (kV) Frequency (Hz)

ON AN 60 60

ON AF 80 80 220 66 50

OFAF 100 100

Line Current HV (A) Line Current LV (A) Temperature(oC) Temerature Rise(oC)

262.43 874.77 50 55

B.H.E.L. 66/11 Kv 16MVA POWER TRANSFORMER RATING

Type of Cooling Rating HV (MVA) Rating LV (MVA) No-Load Voltage HV (kV) No-Load Voltage LV (kV) Frequency (Hz) Line Current HV (A) Line Current LV (A) Temperature(oC) Temerature Rise(oC) Phase Connection Symbol Core & Winding (Kg) Weight of Oil (Kg) Total Weight (Kg) Oil Quantity (L) Untanking Weight (Kg) ON AN 12.5 12.5 66 11 50 139.96 839.78 50 55 3 YNyn0 12500 9900 39100 11120 14700 ON AF 16 16

Outdoor Protections of Power Transformers Pressure Relief Valve (PRV) Buchholz Relay Oil Surge Relay(OSR) Magnetic Oil Gauge(MOG) OLTC Motor drive for tap changing

OSR OSR is an oil surge relay, similar to the buchholz surge flap usually placed on the oil pipe between the OLTC and its oil tank to respond to rushes of oil from the former indicative of an internal fault. It is used to protect against faults in the cable termination box that would result in a rush of oil to the small conservator. PRV Pressure Relief Valve. The pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the pressure in transformers which can build up by a oil heating, instrument or equipment failure, or fire.

Buchholz Relay Buchholz relay is a gas- actuated relay installed in oil-immersed transformers for protection against all kind of faults. It is used to gives an alarm in case of slow developing faults or incipient faults in the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is installed in the pipe between the conservator and main tank. This relay is used in oil-immersed transformers of rating above 750 kVA.

Construction
Fig shows the constructional details of buchholz relay. It consists of a domed vessel placed in the pipe between the conservator and main tank of the transformer. The device has two elements. The upper element consists of a mercury type switch attached to a float. The lower element contains a mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap located on the direct path of flow of oil from the transformer to the conservator. The upper element closes an alarm circuit during slow developing faults whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the circuit breaker in case of severe internal faults.

Operation: The operation of buchholz relay is as follows: 1. In case of slow developing faults within the transformer, the heat due to the faultcauses decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank. The products of decomposition mainly contain 70 % of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into the conservator and in the process gets trapped in the upper part of the relay chamber. When a predetermined

amount of gas gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the float to cause it to tilt and close the contacts of mercury switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to sound an alarm. 2. If serious fault occur in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the main tank. The oil in the main tank rushes towards the conservator via the buchholz relay and in doing so it tilts the flap to close the contacts of mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

MOG

Magnetic Oil Gauge is used to show the level of Oil inside the conservator tank of the transformer. Additionaly it can also give an alarm when the oil level reduces below minimum and/or maximum admitted level.
OLTC

On load Tap Changer (OLTC) is used with higher capacity transformers where HT side voltage variation is frequent and a nearly constant LT is required. It is placed on the HV side of the transformer to minimize the physical size (resulting in smaller motor to operate or smaller forces to turn the crank handle manually) and cost of manufacturing since the current is lower on that side and copper contacts will be smaller. OLTC is fitted with the transformer itself. Multiple tappings from HV windings are brought to the OLTC chamber and connected to fixed contacts. Moving contacts rotates with the help of rotating mechanism having a spindle. This spindle can be rotated manually as well as electrically with a motor. Motor is connected in such a way that it can rotate in both the directions so as to rotate the OLTC contacts in clockwise and anticlock-wise direction. Two push buttons are fitted on the LCP (local control panel) to rotate the motor and hence the OLTC contacts in clockwise and anti-clockwise direction. This movement of contacts thus controls the output LV voltage of the transformer. So rotating of OLTC contacts with spindle or push buttons in this way is a manual process. In case this process of rotating the OLTC contacts and hence controlling the LV side voltage is to be done automatically then a RTCC (Remote Tap Changer Controller) is installed with the transformer HT Panel. The RTCC sends signals to LCP and LCP in turn rotates the motor as per the signals received from the RTCC. TESTING OF TRANSFORMER The objective of testing is to:

Ensure Quality Ensure that the products manufactured have met the requirement of Customer Specification Prevent accidents which may occur if a failed product is put into service Ensure that the product is fit for its intended use

Safety Precautions Cordoning off the test are. Display of Danger boards. Indication Lamps. Use of Hand gloves & safety shoes. Entry of unauthorized personnel to be restricted. Discharge the transformer after high voltage test. Earth resistance.

Preparation for the Test Earthing connection should be rigid to the transformer. Check for oil level. Release air from Buchholz Relay & the bushings. Clean the bushings with non-fibrous dry cloth. Ensure that all connections are tight. Cables and shorting links should be of sufficient. Ensure that the connections are made as per the circuit diagram. Ensure that all instruments are properly earthed.

Tests on Transformers Routine tests: Turns/Voltage Ratio Test Insulation Resistance Test. Winding Resistance Test. Oil Test. Vector Group/ Polarity Check. No-Load Loss/Core loss Test. Load Loss Test. Impedance Test Capacitance/ Tan Delta Test of Bushings.

Voltage/ Turns Ratio Test:The Transformer Turns Ratio test (TTR) is used to make sure that the Turns Ratio between the windings of the transformer is correct. This ratio decides what the output voltage of the transformer will be with respect to the input voltage. The ratio is calculated under no-load conditions, with ratios calculated at the tap positions for each winding and for the winding as a whole. A voltage is applied to one winding and the voltmeters connected to both low voltage and high voltage windings are read simultaneously. The transformer ratio is the ratio of the HV voltmeter and the LV voltmeter readings. When ratio tests are being made on three-phase transformers, the ratio is taken on one phase at a time, and the measured ratio should be compared with the ratio calculated using nameplate voltages. Any variation should be within .5%. OC Testing of a Distribution Transformer: 1. Apply 440V 3Phase AC Supply on HV Side. 2. Keep LV Side open & measure the following voltages: RY YB BR 384 384 382 ry yb br 14 14 14 rn yn bn 7 7 7

Insulation Resistance Test: The winding insulation resistance test (also known as the Meggar test) is a measure of quality of insulation within the transformer. It can vary due to moisture content, cleanliness and the temperature of the insulation parts. All measurements are corrected to 20'C for comparison purposes. It is recommended that tank and core are always grounded when this test is performed. Each winding should be short-circuited at the bushing terminals. Resistances are then measured between each winding and all other windings and ground (for 2 winding transformer - H-LG, L-HG and HL-G and three winding transformer H-LTG, L-HTG, T-HLG, HL-TG, HT-LG, LT- HG and HLT-G ). Meggering of a Distribution Transformer: 1. Make sure transformer is disconnected & discharged from supply. 2. Connect the terminals of Meggar between following terminals & note the resistance (in Mega Ohms): HV side to earth. LV side to earth. HV side to LV side.

Winding Resistance : The resistance of a transformer winding can be measured after current has not passed through the transformer for several hours, allowing it to reach the same temperature as its surroundings. Winding resistance is calculated by measuring the voltage and current simultaneously, with the current as close to the rated current as possible. Calculating the winding resistance can be helpful as it lets you calculate and compensate for I2R losses, a major component of load losses as a whole. Winding resistance measurements can be made to determine if any changes have occurred in the current carrying path. The winding resistance measurements should be made with a Wheatstone bridge, Kelvin bridge or similar bridge capable of measuring fractional ohms accurately. For Wye connected values, measurements should be made between each pair of bushings, then summed and multiplied by three-halves to get the comparison value. Testing of Winding Resistance using Micro-ohm Meter: Connect the terminals of micro-ohm meter to HV side & LV side and measure the resistance. Resistance above few micro-ohms indicate that the winding may be damaged & should be inspected by the Manufacturer.

Oil Test: A sample of insulating oil from a transformer in service can reveal much information about what is taking place inside the transformer. There are three basic enemies to insulating oil oxidation, contamination and excessive temperature. The following tests can be done: o Dielectric breakdown o Power factor o Moisture content o Interfacial tension o Acid Number Polarity/Vector Group Test: The polarity of a transformer is either additive or subtractive. In order to find out the polarity of a transformer, a voltage is applied between the primary bushings. If the resultant voltage between the secondary bushings is greater than the applied voltage that means that the transformer has additive polarity. If it is lower, the transformer has subtractive polarity. Polarity is not important for a single connected distribution transformer, but it is a vital

concern if transformers are to be paralleled or bank connected. Three phase transformers are also checked for polarity by the same means. Polarity Check of a transformer: 1. Short R-r taken from HV & LV side. 2. Apply 440V 3Phase AC Supply on HV Side. 3. Measure the following Voltages & verify against the vector group addition:

Rn + Yn = RY
RY YB BR 384 384 382 ry yb br 14 14 14 Rn/rn Yn/yn Bn/bn 7 7 7

No-Load/Core Loss Test: Under no-load conditions, a transformer will continue to drain sources of electrical energy. The chief source of this drain is core loss, which occurs in the magnetic core through a combination of hysteresis and eddy current loss, among others. Core-loss is calculated by applying the rated voltage and frequency to a transformer under no-load conditions. The resultant current is then measured, from which the loss of energy can be extrapolated. No-Load loss/Inrush Current/Magnetizing current test: 1. Apply 440V 3Phase AC Supply on HV Side. 2. Keep LV side open & measure the following current: Ir = 2.1 mA Iy = 2.0 mA Ib = 3.6 mA

 Load Loss Test: Load loss is a combination of I2R losses, stray losses and eddy losses, all of which contribute to the loss of electrical energy that is seen as current transferred from one winding to another. Load loss changes with the magnitude of the load: that is to say, higher loads see higher rates of loss. The load loss is therefore generally calculated for the rated load, while the transformer is under full-load conditions. It can be measured by applying a voltage to one winding while the other winding is short-circuited. The voltage is adjusted until the current flowing through the circuit is the same as the rated current. The power loss measured at this time is the load loss. Load Loss/SC Testing of a Transformer: 1. Apply 440V 3Phase AC Supply on HV Side. 2. Short LV side & measure the following current: R r n 3.34 A 98 A Y y 3.48 A 95 A 5.1 A B b 3.95 A 90 A

Impedance Test: Impedance is a measure of the resistance that leads to the loss of electrical energy in a transformer at full load, causing the ratio of the input and output voltages to differ from the Turns Ratio. It can be measured at the same time as load loss. Impedance is found by measuring the voltage required to pass the rated current through one winding of the transformer, while the other winding is short-circuited. This voltage is called the impedance voltage.

Tan Delta Test: Tan Delta, also called Loss Angle or Dissipation Factor testing, is a diagnostic method of testing cables to determine the quality of the cable insulation. This is done to try to predict the remaining life expectancy and in order to prioritize cable replacement and/or injection. It is also useful for determining what other tests may be worthwhile. Working

In a perfect capacitor, the voltage and current are phase shifted 90 degrees and the current through the insulation is capacitive. If there are impurities in the insulation, like those mentioned above, the resistance of the insulation decreases, resulting in an increase in resistive current through the insulation. It is no longer a perfect capacitor. The current and voltage will no longer be shifted 90 degrees. It will be something less than 90 degrees. The extent to which the phase shift is less than 90 degrees is indicative of the level of insulation contamination, hence quality/reliability. This Loss Angle is measured and analyzed. Below is a representation of a cable. The tangent of the angle is measured. This will indicate the level of resistance in the insulation. By measuring IR/IC (opposite over adjacent the tangent), we can determine the quality of the cable insulation. In a perfect cable, the angle would be nearly zero. An increasing angle indicates an increase in the resistive current through the insulation, meaning contamination. The greater the angle, the worse the cable.

Whether using partial discharge or tan delta techniques, the point of the test is to grade all cables tested on a scale from high quality to low. The point in the testing is to help a utility prioritize cable replacement or injection. Again, comparative testing will show which cables are worse than others and will, over time, permit the user to develop their own in-house guidelines, unique to their situation. Tan Delta () = IR/ IC Also for applied voltage(V) Tan Delta () =Watt-loss (Active) Power Reactive Power

Lightening Arrestor: A Lightening arrestor is defined as the device that limits the surge voltage on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge current; it prevents the continuous flow of 60Hz follow current to ground & is capable of repeating this function as specified. A Surge arrestor is a voltage sensitive device that operates as a principle of a nonlinear resistor. To normal system voltage, it has very high impedance, and to voltage & current produced by lightening it has very low impedance. Surge Monitor: For system voltages above approx. 100kV, surge Monitors/Counters are often installed in series with the lightening arrestor. The main reason for the use of surge counter on modern gapless ZnO arrestors is to check if a particular transmission line or phase suffers from exceptional high number of overvoltages leading to arrestor operation lightening faults on a line. A sudden increase in the counting rate may also indicate an internal arrestor fault.

Current Transformer: A Current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in sub-station. Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The CURRENT ratio of a standard magnetic-core transformer, ignoring losses, is defined by the equation: I2 = (N1/N2) x I1

Where I1 = Input current, I2 = Output current N1 = Number of turns of primary coil N2 = Number of turns of secondary coil Knee-point voltage The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary voltage after which the output current ceases to follow the input current. This means that the one-to-one or proportional relationship between the input and output is no longer within rated accuracy. The output current increases abruptly even with small increment in the input, if the voltage across the secondary terminals exceeds the knee-point voltage. The knee-point voltage is not applicable for metering current transformers, the concept of knee point voltage is pertinent to protect current transformers only since they are necessarily exposed to high currents during faults.

Burden The burden, in a CT metering circuit is the (largely resistive) impedance presented to its secondary winding. Typical burden ratings for IEC CTs are 1.5 VA, 3 VA, 5 VA, 10 VA, 15 VA, 20 VA, 30 VA, 45 VA & 60 VA. Items that contribute to the burden of a current measurement circuit are switch-blocks, meters and intermediate conductors. The most common source of excess burden in a current measurement circuit is the conductor between the meter and the CT. Often, substation meters are located significant distances from the meter cabinets and the excessive length of small gauge conductor creates a large resistance.

220kV C.T. Ratio (1200-800-400/1-1-1-1-1)

Cores Terminals Ratio VA CORE 1 1S1-1S2 1S1-1S3 1S1-1S4 400/1 800/1 1200/1 Rating Class PS Kpv/Ex Amp./Sec. Ohms at 75oC 600v/30mA/345v/2.0 ohms 1380v/30mA/690v/4.0 ohms 2070v/30mA/1035v/6.0 ohms Purpose Distance/Di ffe rential Protection

CORE 2 CORE 3 CORE 4 CORE 5

2S1-2S2 2S1-2S3 2S1-2S4 3S1-3S2 (Join A) 3S1-3S3 (Join A) 3S1-3S4 (Join A) 4S1-4S2 5S1-5S2

400/1 800/1 1200/1 400/1 800/1 1200/1 1200/1 1200/1

30 20 -

5P20

OC & EF Protection

0.5 Metering

PS PS

720v/30mA/360v/6.0 ohms 720v/30mA/360v/6.0 ohms

Bus Bar Protection Backup Protection

Potential Transformer: Potential Transformer works on the same principle as that of an ideal transformer.i.e. The secondary voltage is substantially proportional to the primary voltage and differs in phase from it by an angle which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections. When an alternating (AC) voltage is applied to the primary winding of a potential transformer, an alternating magnetic field is generated that is sensed by the secondary coil. The secondary coil then generates an AC voltage whose waveform is the same as the waveform of the primary voltage. The amplitude of the AC voltage generated by the secondary coil depends on the ratio of primary to secondary turns, often known as the turns ratio. It also depends on the core material, the driving frequency and coupling. The VOLTAGE ratio of a standard magnetic-core transformer, ignoring losses, is defined by the equation: E2 = (N2/N1) x E1 Where E1 = Input Voltage, E2 = Output Voltage N1 = Number of turns of primary coil N2 = Number of turns of secondary coil

220kV P.T. RATING

Insulation Level (Kv) Neutral Primary Voltage (V) Secondary Winding-1 (1a-1n) Secondary Winding-2 (2a-2n) Secondary Winding-2 (2a-2n) 460/1050 EARTHED 220,000/1.732 VOLT 110/1.732 VA 200 CLASS 3P VOLT 110/1.732 VA 200 CLASS 3P VOLT 110/1.732 VA 100 CLASS 0.5

Capacitive Voltage Transformer: Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are common in high-voltage transmission line applications. These same applications require fast, yet secure protection. However, as the requirement for faster protective relays grows, so does the concern over the poor transient response of some CVTs for certain system conditions. Solid-state and microprocessor relays can respond to a CVT transient due to their high operating speed and increased sensitivity . Poor CVT transient response and the distance element overreach it causes are a serious concern for high-speed line protection. For faults that cause very depressed phase voltages, the CVT output voltage may not closely follow its input voltage due to the internal CVT energy storage elements. Because these elements take time to change their stored energy, they introduce a transient to the CVT output following a significant input voltage change. General CVT Structure

When a fault suddenly reduces the line voltage, the CVT secondary output does not instantaneously represent the primary voltage. This is because the energy storage elements, such as coupling capacitors and the compensating reactor, cannot instantaneously change their charge or flux. These energy storage elements cause the CVT transient. CVT transients differ depending on the fault point-on-wave (POW) initiation. The CVT transients for faults occurring at voltage peaks and voltage zeros are quite distinctive and different. Also, notice that the CVT output does not follow the ideal output until 1.75 cycles after fault inception.

Power line carrier communication (PLCC) : Power line carrier communication (PLCC) is mainly used for telecommunication, tele-protection and tele-monitoring between electrical substations through power lines at high voltages, such as 110 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV. PLCC integrates the transmission of communication signal and 50/60 Hz power signal through the same electric power cable. The major benefit is the union of two important applications in a single system. In a PLCC system the communication is established through the power line. The audio frequency is carried by a carrier frequency and the range of carrier frequency is from 50 kHz to 500 kHz. The modulation generally used in these system is amplitude modulation. The carrier frequency range is allocated to include the audio signal, protection and the pilot frequency. The pilot frequency is a signal in the audio range that is transmitted continuously for failure detection. The voice signal is converted/compressed into the 300 Hz to 4000 Hz range, and this audio frequency is mixed with the carrier frequency. The carrier frequency is again filtered, amplified and transmitted. The transmission of these HF carrier frequencies will be in the range of 0 to +32db. This range is set according to the distance between substations. Line Traps: When the carrier signal is coupled to the power line it can propagate in two directions, either to the remote line terminal or into the station bus and onto other lines. If the signal goes into the station bus much of its energy will be shunted to ground by the bus capacitance. Also some of this energy would propagate out on other lines thus transmitting the signal to a large portion of the system. This is undesirable since the same frequency may be used on another line. Because of these problems, a device is needed to block the energy from going back into the bus and direct it toward the remote line terminal. This device is called a line trap. The general design of a line trap is that of a parallel LC circuit. This type of a circuit presents a high impedance to the carrier signal at its resonant frequency. Thus if the parallel LC circuit were placed in series with the transmission line, between the bus and the coupling capacitor, then the carrier signal would propagate toward the remote terminal. The line trap must be capable of providing a very low impedance path to the power frequency current. The inductor in the trap provides this path, and it is designed to carry the large currents required. Another important function of the line trap is to isolate the carrier signal from changes in the bus impedance, thus making the carrier circuit more independent of switching conditions.

Line Traps are connected in series with HV transmission lines. The high impedance limits attenuation of the carrier signal within the power system by preventing the carrier signal from being: dissipated in the substation grounded in the event of a fault outside the carrier transmission path dissipated in a tap line or a branch of the main transmission path. Interposing CT's (ICT's) : Interposing CT's are used when the ratio of transformation is very high. It is also used to correct for phase displacement for differential protection of transformers. To enable a comparison to be made, the differential scheme should be arranged so that the relay will see rated current when the full load current flows in the protected circuit. In order to achieve this, the line current transformers must be matched to the normal full load current of the transformer. Where this is not the case it is necessary to use an auxiliary interposing current transformer to provide amplitude correction. The connection of the line CTs should compensate for any phase shift arising across the transformer. Alternatively the necessary phase correction may also be provided by the use of an interposing CT. In all above applications it must be borne in mind that an I.C. T. imposes burden on the main C.t. if this burden is required to be restricted to a certain value, the value must be specified to enable the manufacturer to design the I.C.T. suitably. If this value of burden (expressed in VA) is too low, it may result into an uneconomical design of the I.C.T. Equipment Earthing: The function of an earthing and bonding system is to provide an earthing system connection to which transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the maximum fault current. The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical damage occurs on the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and maintenance personnel. The earthing system also guarantees eqipotential bonding such that there are no dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation. In designing the substation, three voltage have to be considered. 1. Touch Voltage: This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the potential at an earthed equipment whilst a man is standing and touching the earthed structure.

2. Step Voltage: This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance of 1m with his feet while not touching any other earthed equipment. 3. Mesh Voltage: This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the earthing grid. Earthing Requirement: 1. Conductors: Bare copper conductor is usually used for the substation earthing grid. The copper bars themselves usually have a cross-sectional area of 95 square millimeters, and they are laid at a shallow depth of 0.25-0.5m, in 3-7m squares. In addition to the buried potential earth grid, a separate above ground earthing ring is usually provided, to which all metallic substation plant is bonded. 2. Connections: Connections to the grid and other earthing joints should not be soldered because the heat generated during fault conditions could cause a soldered joint to fail. Joints are usually bolted, and in this case, the face of the joints should be tinned. 3. Earthing Rods: The earthing grid must be supplemented by earthing rods to assist in the dissipation of earth fault currents and further reduce the overall substation earthing resistance. These rods are usually made of solid copper, or copper clad steel. 4. Switchyard Fence Earthing: The switchyard fence earthing practices are possible and are used by different utilities. These are: Extend the substation earth grid 0.5m-1.5m beyond the fence perimeter. The fence is then bonded to the grid at regular intervals. Place the fence beyond the perimeter of the switchyard earthing grid and bond the fence to its own earthing rod system. This earthing rod system is not coupled to the main substation Earthing grid.

Circuit Breakers: A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made

in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. Operation: The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source. Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. When a current is being interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Arc Interpretation: Miniature low-voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will have metal plates or non-metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout coils or permanent magnets deflect the arc into the arc chute. In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (usually SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the stretched arc. Circuit Breakers are classified according to operating mechanism & arc quenching Media. Classification : 1. By mechanism Manual Closing Trip Switches

Spring Charge Helical Spring Charged or Leaf Spring Charged. Hydraulic Pressure Pneumatic Operated.

2. Arc Quench Media: Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (B.O.C.B.) Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (M.O.C.B.) Air Circuit Breaker (A.C.B.) Air Blast Circuit Breaker (A.B.C.B.) SF6 Circuit Breaker Vacuum Circuit Breaker (V.C.B.) Relays: Continuous & Short Time ratings All relays carry current- and/or voltage-coil ratings as a guide to their proper application. For relays complying with present standards, the continuous rating specifies what a relay will withstand under continuous operation in an ambient temperature of 40oC. Relays having current coils also carry a 1-second current rating, since such relays are usually subjected to momentary Overcurrents. Such relays should not be subjected to currents in excess of the 1-second rating without the manufacturers approval because either thermal or mechanical damage may result. Overcurrents lower than the 1 second-rating value are permissible for longer than 1 second, so long as the I2t value of the 1-second rating is not exceeded. It is not always safe to assume that a relay will withstand any current that it can get from current transformers for as long as it takes a circuit breaker to interrupt a short circuit after the relay has operated to trip the circuit breaker. Also, should a relay fail to succeed in tripping a circuit breaker, thermal damage should be expected unless back-up relays can stop the flow of short-circuit current soon enough to prevent such damage. Contact Ratings Protective-relay contacts are rated on their ability to close and to open inductive or noninductive circuits at specified magnitudes of circuit current and ac or dc circuit voltage. protective relays that trip circuit breakers are not permitted to interrupt the flow of trip-coil current, and hence they require only a circuit-closing and momentary current carrying rating. If a breaker fails to trip, the contacts of the relay will almost certainly be damaged. The

circuit-opening rating is applicable only when a protective relay controls the operation of another relay, such as a timing relay or an auxiliary relay; in such a case, the protective relay should not have a holding coil or else it may not be able to open its contacts once they have closed. BURDENS: The impedance of relay-actuating coils must be known to permit one to determine if the relays voltage- or current-transformer sources will have sufficient capacity and suitable accuracy to supply the relay load together with any other loads that may be imposed on the transformers. These relay impedances are listed in relay publications. This subject will be treated further when we examine the characteristics of voltage and current transformers. TIME CHARACTERISTICS: A typical time curve for a high-speed relay is shown in Fig. It will be noted that this is an inverse curve, but that a 3-cycle (60-cycle-per-second basis) operating time is achieved only slightly above the pickup value, which permits the relay to be called High speed(HS).

Fig.: Time Characteristics of High Speed One should not rely on the operation of any relay when the magnitude of the actuating quantity is only slightly above pickup, because the net actuating force is so low that any additional friction may prevent operation, or may increase the operating time. Even though the relay closes its contacts, the contact pressure may be so low that contamination of the contact surface may prevent electrical

contact. This is particularly true in inverse-time relays where there may not be much impact when the contacts close. Reset Time: For accurate data, the manufacturer should be consulted. The reset time will vary directly with the time-dial adjustment. The method of analysis described under Time Characteristics for estimating the amount of disc travel during short time intervals, combined with the knowledge of reset time, will enable one to estimate the operation of inverse-time relays during successive application and removal of the actuating quantity, as when a motor is Plugged or when a circuit is tripped and then automatically reclosed on a fault several times, or during power surges accompanying loss of synchronism. Differential Relay: Differential relays take a variety of forms, depending on the equipment they protect. The definition of such a relay is one that operates when the vector difference of two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined amount. Most differential-relay applications are of the current-differential type.

Fig.: differential Relay Application The dashed portion of the circuit of Fig. represents the system element that is protected by the differential relay. This system element might be a length of circuit, a winding of a generator, a portion of a bus, etc. A current transformer (CT) is shown in each connection to the system element. The secondaries of the CTs are interconnected, and the coil of an overcurrent relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit. Now, suppose that current flows through the primary circuit either to a load or to a short circuit located at X. The conditions will be as in Fig. If the two current transformers have the same ratio, and are properly connected, their secondary currents will merely circulate between the two CTs as shown by the arrows, and no current will flow through the differential relay.

But, should a short circuit develop anywhere between the two CTs, the conditions of Fig. will then exist. If current flows to the short circuit from both sides as shown, the sum of the CT secondary currents will flow through the differential relay. It is not necessary that short-circuit current flow to the fault from both sides to cause secondary current to flow through the differential relay. A flow on one side only, or even some current flowing out of one side while a larger current enters the other side, will cause a differential current. In other words, the differential-relay current will be proportional to the vector difference between the currents entering and leaving the protected circuit; and, if the differential current exceeds the relays pickup value, the relay will operate. Restricted earth fault relays: These relays are differential relays connected to provide sensitive protection for equipment against ground faults. The most common usage is for the protection of delta-wye transformers with a resistance grounded neutral. One CT in the transformer neutral is balanced against the neutral of three phase CTs in the transformer output connection (or bushing CTs in the transformer circuit breaker) and connected in parallel. The REF relay is connected across the two CT leads - this relay is a high impedance type, operating on fault voltage developed across the CT leads for an internal fault. For an external earth fault, the zero sequence current in both sets of CTs is balanced and there is no fault voltage developed on the CT leads. The REF scheme is a high speed differential protection, with instantaneous operation for internal faults and high stability (depending on setting) for external faults. Over fluxing Relay: Over fluxing is a dangerous situation in which the magnetic flux density increases to extremely high levels. The high flux density can induce excessive eddy currents in the windings and in other conductive parts inside the transformers. The heat generated by these

eddy currents can damage the windings and the insulation. The high flux density also causes magnetostriction inside the transformer core and produces noise.

The powerful magnetostrictive forces can also cause damage. The winding temperatures may also increase due to the heat produced. The magnetic flux density is dependent on the current flowing through the primary windings in a transformer. This current is dependent on the voltage applied across the windings and the winding impedance. The impedance is dependent on the frequency of the applied voltage. Over fluxing can be prevented by the use of a Over fluxing relay. An over fluxing is an adaptation of an over voltage relay. The PT voltage is connected across a resistor and a capacitor in series. The voltage sensing relay is connected across the capacitor. The relay operates in the event of an over fluxing and isolates the transformer. IDMT Relays: An inverse time relay is one in which the operating time is approximately inversely proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity. Fig. show the time current characteristics of an inverse current relay. At values of current less than pickup, the relay never operates. At higher values, the time of operation of the relay decreases steadily with the increase of current. The inverse-time delay can be achieved by associating mechanical accessories with relays.

The inverse-time characteristic is obtained by connecting a time-limit fuse in parallel with the trip coil terminals. The shunt path formed by time-limit fuse is of negligible impedance as compared with the relatively high impedance of the trip coil. Therefore, so long as the fuse remains intact, it will divert practically the whole secondary current of the CT from the trip Coil. When the secondary current exceeds the current carrying capacity of the fuse will blow and the whole current will pass through the trip coil, thus opening the circuit breaker. The time lag between the incidence of excess current and the tripping of the breaker is governed by the characteristics of the fuse. Careful selection of fuse can give the desired inverse-time characteristics. Current Setting: It is often desirable to adjust the pickup current to any value. This is know as current setting and is usually achieved by the use of tapping on the relay coil. The taps are brought out to a plug bridge, which permits to alter the number of turns on the relay coil, this changes the torque on the disc and the hence the time of operation of the relay. Pickup current = Rated secondary current of CT x Current setting

Plug setting multiplayer (P.S.M): It is the ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pick up current. P.S.M = Fault current in relay coil

pick up current = fault current in relay coil rated secondary current of CT x current setting

Time- Setting Multiplier(T.M.S): A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is known as time setting multiplier the time setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps 0.05. These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from time/p.s.m curve into the actual operating time. The actual time of operation is calculated by multiplying the time setting multiplier with the time obtained from time/ p.s.m curve of the relay. NUMERICAL RELAYS: MIT 114: MIT has three pole version with two phase & one earth element and four pole version with 3 phase and one earth element. MIT 114-3 O/C + 1E/F with Highset. The MIT 103/104/113/114 Protection unit consists of the following modules within its compact dimensions. Input Module Power Supply and Output Relay module Measuring Module Front Fascia The three modules viz. Input, Power supply and Measuring modules are plugged into the Front fascia which houses switches, LEDs and LED display for the human machine interface. The relay has 3 or 4 input current transformers. The output from the current transformer is transformed to an equivalent voltage and sampled at the rate of 16 samples per cycle and digitized by means of analog to digital converter. The basic relay has output relay with 2 N/O and1 N/C contacts as standard: Trip 1 N/O Alarm 1 N/O Protection unhealthy 1 N/C Additional 5 output contacts can be given as follows: Starter 1 C/O IDMTL Phase fault 1 N/O IDMTL Earth fault 1 N/O Highset Phase fault 1 N/O Highset Earth fault 1 N/O

CT Input Rating:1A/5A Frequency: 50Hz Auxiliary supply 48/110/220V DC/110V AC or 24/30/48/110V DC Settings: Phase fault 5% to 250% insteps of 1% Earth fault 5% to 250% insteps of 1% Highset for Phase fault 50% to 3000% insteps of 50%, OFF Highset for Earth fault 50% to 3000% insteps of 50%, OFF Time multiplier for Phase fault 0.025 to 1.0 insteps of 0.001 Time multiplier for Earth fault 0.025 to 1.0 insteps of 0.001 Reset delay 0 to 60sec insteps of 1sec Inverse Characteristics: Operating time can be calculated as follows:

T=

K [I/Is]-1

xTm

where I=fault current, Is=current setting, Tm=time multiplier, SI3 - k = 0.14, = 0.02 SI1 - k = 0.0613 = 0.02 VI - k = 13.5, = 1.0 EI - k = 80.0, = 2.0 LTI - k = 120.0, = 1.0 Definite Time relay For DTL t=0 to 20sec insteps of 0.01sec Burden: AC Current Input (Phase/Earth): 5 A Rating 0.4 VA 1 A Rating Auxiliary input 0.05 VA Quiescent (typical) 5 W (DC)12VA (AC)

MIB 202 (DIFFERENTIAL RELAY): The MIB202 is micro-controller based Numerical Biased Differential Protection Relay with inbuilt Current Amplitude and Vector Group Compensation features and also with Instantaneous Differential Highset Element for two winding Power Transformer and Autotransformers. MIB202 relay, which can be used to operate for internal faults, like phase to phase, phase to earth and inter turn faults in the Transformers. The same relay, we can use for 1A or 5A CT input on both LV & HV side.

Working: The currents entering and leaving the transformer are measured, taking in to the Power Transformer vector grouping and transformation ratio. Software interposing current transformers can be applied to each set of current inputs to correct for any magnitude and vector mismatch and to remove zero sequence components where necessary. They are then summed to form an operate signal which is applied to a three part biased differential characteristic on a phase by phase basis. The relay is provided with triple slope characteristics. 1. Initial Differential setting 2. Differential Bias slope 3. Differential Bias slope limit INITIAL DIFFERENTIAL SETTING: This is the value of current, expressed as a percentage of the chosen current rating, at which the relay will operate with zero bias current. Its setting would normally be the same as that for the differential bias slope value. Setting Range: I - 10% to 50% of In in steps of 5%. DIFFERENTIAL BIAS SLOPE: Some unbalance current will appear in the differential circuit of the relay for predictable reasons, e.g. due to the transformer tap position and to CT errors. The current will increase with increasing load or through fault current in the transformer so, to maintain stability, the biasing current must increase proportionately. The bias slope expresses the current to operate the relay as a percentage of the biasing (restraint) current. The differential bias slope setting chosen must be greater than the maximum predictable percentage unbalance. Setting Range: bS - 10% to 70% of In in steps of 5%5x

DIFFERENTIAL BIAS SLOPE LIMIT:

This setting defines the upper limit of the bias slope and is expressed in multiples of nominal rated current. A setting value must be chosen which will cover the maximum through fault current of the transformer. This setting gives more stability during CT saturation for heavy through fault. Setting Range: SL - 200% to 2000% of In in steps of 100% INTERPOSING CT MULTIPLIER (HV AND LV SIDE): This range of settings enable the effective ratio of the HV & LV CT's to be adjusted. Setting Range: Ah & Al - 0.50 to 2.50 in steps of 0.01 HV INTERPOSING CT CONNECTION: An equivalent interposing CT connection can be selected from this range of settings. The settings define the LV and HV winding configuration. E.g. Yd, followed by the angular position of the LV phasor with respect to the HV phasor. The angular position is described by the hour - hand position on the twelve-hour clock face, e.g. Yd1 or Yd11. In each setting, this is followed by the same angular relationship expressed in degrees. The complete Yd1 setting will therefore read Yd1, -30 and Yd11 will read Yd11, 30. Setting Range: Vh - Yy0, Yy2, Yy4, Yy6, Yy8, Yy10, Yd1, Yd3, Yd5, Yd7, Yd9, Yd11, Ydy0 and Ydy6 LV INTERPOSING CT CONNECTION: As the HV connection but now applied to the LV CT's. Setting Range: VL - Yy0, Yy2, Yy4, Yy6, Yy8, Yy10, Yd1, Yd3, Yd5, Yd7,Yd9, Yd11, Ydy0 and Ydy6.

TYPICAL RELAY SETTING CALCULATION: Power Transformer Details: Voltage = 132 / 33KV Rating = 60MVA Tap Changer = +5% - 15% Vector Group = Yd1 Current Transformer Details: CT Ratio For HV Side = 300/1 For LV Side = 1200/1 Calculation: HV rated current = 60MVA / (132 * 1.732)= 262.4A. CT ratio for HV side is 300/1 LV rated current = 60MVA / (33* 1.732)= 1049.76A CT ratio for LV side is 1200/1 Mean tap value = [(+5) + (-15)] / 2 = -5% HV current at 5% tap = (60MVA) / (1.732 * 132KV *0.95)= 276.2A HV Multiplier = 300 / 276.2 = 1.086 = 1.09 LV CT secondary current = 1049.7 / 1200 = 0.87475A So the LV multiplier = 1200 / 1049.7 = 1.143 = 1.14 Initial Setting = 200mA (20%) or 2 times of maximum spill current whichever is greater. Bias setting = 20% 2 times of maximum tap change % Bias Slope Limit = 4 times of full load current HV ICT vector connection = Yd1, 30 LV ICT vector connection = Yy0, 0 HV ICT multiplier = 1.09 LV ICT multiplier = 1.14 Output relays

1.Trip 1 N/O contacts (13 & 14, 15 & 16).This contact to be used whiles testing the Bias characteristic and Highset of the relay. 2. Biased Differential - 1 N/O Contact (17 & 19) . This contact to be used whiles testing the Bias characteristic and of the relay. 3. Differential Highset 1 N/O contact (17 & 20). This contact to be used while testing the highset characteristic. 4. Protection Unhealthy - 1 N/C contact (17 & 18).

Energy Conservation: Ways to reduce loss of energy in transmission lines: 1. Feeder Balancing: The procedure must consider all possible combinations of phase load changes at each 3-phase connection point for either singlephase spurs or loads. Consideration must be given to the order in which loads are considered so as not to exclude the best combinations of load phase connections when all selections have been made. The best set of connections will minimize the imbalance as far as possible for each 3-phase section of feeder between spur/load connections.

Balancing reduces feeder losses because any phase peak reduction affects the losses for the phases as the square of the current magnitude. A feeder section with 1-ohm resistance that has phase currents of 50A/100A/150A will have 35kW in losses. When balanced at 100A/100A/100A, the loss reduces to 30kW. The same effect is even more evident in the reduction of reactive power losses because the X/R ratio of most feeder sections is greater than 1. Balancing improves voltage on a feeder by equalizing the voltage drops in each phase along the feeder. Released feeder capacity provides more reserve loading capacity for emergency loading conditions. It is realistic to assume that the benefits in improved use of feeder capacity and improved voltage quality are of more significance than the value of loss reduction except when loading is already high. 2. Phase Balancing: Phase imbalance is calculated from line flows resulting from the Power Flow application. Phase balancing calculations can be based on either power (kW) or complex power magnitude (kVA). Phase balancing will run for multiple circuits. The imbalance will not be calculated at the substation, but at each start of circuit component. Therefore, the resulting imbalance at the substation may not improve and could possibly be worse. The Phase Balancing application recommends phase movements of single and two-phase laterals for all user selected circuits, making use of all time points selected for analysis. Typically, Phase Balancing should be run at the time of peak loading. For multiple time point selections, analysis uses the average load over selected time points. The lateral movements are to improve the balance at the three-phase, grounded start of circuit component. If the start of circuit component is ungrounded, i.e. delta connected, then phase balancing will improve the balance at all of the three-phase power transformers closest to substations grounded on the secondary side. 3. Energy Efficient Transformers: Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from the core. The new high-efficiency transformers

minimize these losses. The conventional transformer is made up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any transformer depends on Energy Efficient Technologies in Electrical System Bureau of Energy Efficiency 187 Fluid Coupling the type of core used in the transformer. However the latest technology is to use amorphous material - a metallic glass alloy for the core. The expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si Fe core) transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quite significant. By using an amorphous core- with unique physical and magnetic properties- these new type of transformers have increased efficiencies even at low loads 98.5% efficiency at 35% load. Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provide excellent opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation. Though these transformers are a little costlier than conventional iron core transformers, the overall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the higher initial investment. At present amorphous metal core transformers are available up to 1600 kVA. 4. Energy Efficient Lighting: Using CFL Lamps LED Lamps Calculated Illumination in specific areas Control of Lighting: 1. Manual Control of Switches. 2. Remote Switching. 3. Proximity Switches. 4. Photoelectric Sensors. 5. Timer Switches. 6. Computerized Switching. 7. Door Switches. Use of 3 phase load instead of 1 phase load for purpose of exhaust fans, welding, tube well, pumps, etc. Mechanical Balancing of Electricity driven equipments. Use of Energy Efficient Lubricants. Comparison of specifications incl. energy loss of rewinded motor with standard motor. Use of 1 phase preventer.