MEANDERS: Pools and riffles:

1) 2) 3)

4) 5) 6) 7)

8)

TIME 1: River is thought to have alternating regions of shallow areas riffles and deep areas- pools. They are spaced at repeating distance of 5-6 times the width of the channel. TIME 2: At times of high flow, as river flows and weaves through these accumulated deposits (riffles), the swing of the river flow tends to direct the thalweg to one side of the channel by centripetal force. Since pools are regions of deep areas, rivers gain energy and erosion occurs at this region. The outer bank thus experience erosion and undercutting by abrasion and hydraulic action, eventually forming the river cliff. At the opposite (inner) bank however, there is lower velocity, causes deposition to occur. As sediments accumulate, a slip-off slope is formed. The river then leaves the region of pools and re-enters another section of riffles where it slows down and the thalweg is redirected again. As such a series of bends can be observed. TIME 3: With erosion on one side and deposition on the other, the whole channel migrates while keeping a relatively constant width. As it does so, it becomes more sinuous, acquiring a typical meander shape.

Helicoidal Flow:

1) Water moves in a helicoidal fashion at bends of the river. 2) Firstly, the velocity closest to the surface is the maximum while it is the minimum close to the river bed, due to frictional forces on the surface. 3) As such water speeds are unequal throughout the channel. 4) Therefore the thalweg shifts its location along the channel. 5) This creates an unequal pressure distribution such that the water on the outer bank is deflected and drawn downwards towards the inner bank helicoidal flow. 6) Thus this helicoidal motion is significant in moving sediment eroded from the outer bank, and transporting and then depositing it onto the slip-off slope. Coarser sediments are found at the base and smaller ones on the bar surface. 7) Thus, this corkscrew motion gives rise to a point bar deposit on the inner bank and a deep pool at the outer bank (or one bank erode, the other bank deposited) which then encourages the formation of meanders.

OX BOW LAKES:

1) 2) 3) 4)

TIME 1: Meanders eventually form oxbow lakes. River continually erodes the outer banks. Bends of adjacent outer banks meet and form a neck. Active erosion narrows the neck between two bends.

Time 2: 5) During high discharges, some amount of water may cross over the narrow neck, without meandering. 6) Eventually, the narrow neck will eroded by flowing water and water now takes the quickest route. TIME 3: 7) At the same time, active deposition occurs during flooding periods where sediments are deposited on floodplains. 8) This causes the bend to be cut off from the meander. 9) An ox-bow lake is thus formed.