Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 2630e2639

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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A functional analysis of grinding stones from an early holocene site at Donghulin, North China
Li Liu a, *, Judith Field b, Richard Fullagar c, Chaohong Zhao d, Xingcan Chen e, Jincheng Yu f
a

La Trobe University, Kingsbury Drive, 3086, Bundoora, VIC, Australia University of Sydney, Australia c Scarp Archaeology and University of Wollongong, Australia d Peking University, China e Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, China f Beijing Institute of Cultural Relics, China
b

a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 16 September 2008 Received in revised form 27 May 2010 Accepted 30 May 2010 Keywords: Starch Usewear Grinding stone Acorn Early Holocene North China

a b s t r a c t
The processes that led to the transition from small mobile groups of hunter-gatherers in the Late Pleistocene to sedentary communities of the Early Holocene in north China are poorly understood. The Donghulin site in Beijing was occupied at the onset of the Holocene, and excavations have revealed a rich archaeological record for investigating the changing subsistence strategies during this transitional period. A functional study of two grinding stones (a slab and a handstone) near a burial dated to 9220e8750 cal BC at Donghulin investigated the range of plants exploited during this early occupation period. Starch residues indicate that the grinding stones were used for processing plants, and conrm processing of acorns, which is consistent with the incidence of oak in the pollen record. The usewear, with only rare patches of developed polish, suggests that plant parts of low silica content were processed, although usewear on the handstone suggests processing of two or more plant taxa. The results suggest that the use of grinding stones to process plant foodstuffs, particularly acorns, may have played a major role in the subsistence strategy during the transitional period to sedentism and agriculture in some parts of north China. 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Early Holocene, starting around 11,700 cal BP, coincided with the transition from small mobile Palaeolithic groups to sedentary communities in north China. This change is indicated by the emergence of settlements which contain new sets of artifacts and features in the archaeological record. In addition to microliths, which constitute a late Palaeolithic tradition in this region, the material assemblages also include grinding stones and, in most cases, pottery (Lu, 1999). Only a small number of Early Holocene settlements have been found, dating to around 11,000e9000 cal BP. These include Shizitan in Jixian (Shanxi province) (National Bureau of Cultural Relics, 2004), Nanzhuangtou in Xushui (Hebei province) (Guo and Li, 2002), Donghulin (Archaeology Department et al., 2006) and Zhuannian (Yu et al., 1998) in Beijing, and a cave site at Bianbiandong in Yiyuan (Shandong province) (Sun and Cui, 2008) (Fig. 1). The new types

of artifacts revealed in these sites are likely to be the exploitation and manipulation of particular plant food resources. However, until recently there have been few opportunities for functional studies of the tools from these sites (Wang, 2008:140e141), an approach which is crucial for gaining insight to the economy of ancient societies. This paper reports the results of a residue and usewear analysis of two grinding stones from Donghulin. The aim of the study was to examine the subsistence strategies of these Early Holocene communities, the development of which ultimately led to the Neolithic revolution several thousand years later in north China. 2. The Donghulin site Donghulin (11,000e9000 cal. BP) is located on the third level terrace on the northern bank of the Qingshui River, in the mountainous region which forms the transition between the North China Plains and Loess Plateau. The site is ca. 3000 m2 in size and 25 m above the Qingshui River. In antiquity the river course was much higher in elevation and closer to the site (Archaeology Department et al., 2006) (Fig. 2).

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: l.liu@latrobe.edu.au (L. Liu). 0305-4403/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.05.023

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Fig. 1. Distribution of archaeological sites mentioned in the text 1: Donghulin; 2: Zhuannian; 3: Nanzhuangtou; 4: Cishan; 5: Xiachuan; 6: Shizitan; 7: Longwangchan; 8: Bianbiandong.

Pollen proles from the site show that the late Pleistocene is characterized by high frequencies of herbaceous pollen of Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia. In the early Holocene (c. 10,000e8200 BP) woody plants become more abundant, contributing up to 55% of the pollen assemblage, with high frequencies of Pinus (pine), Quercus (oak) and Juglans (walnut). As a general trend woody plants decrease and herbaceous increase, with Poaceae and Leguminosae becoming predominant toward the later part of this time period. In addition, eleven species of terrestrial snails were found in the early Holocene strata, and their abundance and diversity indicate that this period was characterized by warm and wet conditions, with intermittent dry and cool periods. In general the Donghulin site was located in a region characterized by mixed forest and grasslands, with an annual temperature 2e3  C higher than the present (Hao

et al., 2002; Zhao et al., 2003). These climatic conditions are consistent with other regions in north China (An et al., 2000). Excavations since the 1960s have revealed human burials, hearths and ash pits, along with a large quantity of material remains including pottery, stone and bone tools. No house structures have been identied. The nal excavation report has not been published, so our interpretations rely on currently available preliminary reports. The lithic assemblage mainly consists of chipped tools including microliths, polished axes and adzes and grinding stones. The faunal remains, which have only been very briey described, are reportedly predominated by deer, followed by pigs and badgers, and freshwater shells are also abundant (Archaeology Department et al., 2006; Zhou and You, 1972). Two species of hackberry seeds (Celtis bungeana Bl. and C. cf. koraiensis Nakai) have been uncovered from a burial (Hao et al., 2008). The pollen and archaeological data indicate that various types of nuts and probably some edible grass seeds were locally abundant, and as such may have been collected for food.

3. Donghulin grinding stones Donghulin has yielded a few dozen grinding stones, including slabs (mopan) and handstones (mobang). Grinding stone technology was widespread globally at this time and while grinding stones were used for a variety of functions, many were primarily used for processing plant foodstuffs, particularly nuts, tubers, fruits, and cereals, among others (e.g., Field and Fullagar, 1998; Watanabe, 1986; Wright, 1994). In north China grinding stones rst appeared in hunting-gathering groups, revealed from two late Palaeolithic site clusters, Xiachuan in Shanxi (23,900e16,400 BP) (Wang et al., 1978) and Longwangchan in Shaanxi (20,000e15,000 BP) (Institute of Archaeology and Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology,

Fig. 2. Landscape of the Donghulin site (photo: L. Liu).

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2007), both located in the Middle Yellow River valley. This tool type became common in Early Holocene sites, which extended to the Lower Yellow River region, as mentioned above (Fig. 1). Among these sites, Donghulin has yielded the most numerous examples of grinding stones. The function of grinding stones in China is a controversial issue. While many believe that such tools were used typically for dehusking domesticated cereals (e.g., Chen, 2002; Song, 1997), others argue they were used for processing wild plants (Wu, 1986), particularly acorns (Liu, 2008). To date, there have only been a few attempts to analyze residues and usewear in order to investigate the function of the early grinding stones in north China. According to Lus (1999: 30) observation, one of the usewear patterns on Xiachuan grinding implements resembles that on some grinding stones found in Australia, which were used for wet-grinding of seeds usually after winnowing soft glumes or husks (OConnell et al., 1983: 89). Wang has analyzed the usewear patterns on a sandstone slab from Bianbiandong, and argued that this tool was used for processing nuts (Wang, 2008:140e141). The grinding stones from Donghulin are commonly assumed to have been used for cereal processing (Cao, 2003), but their exact function has never been established. In this paper, we present a functional analysis (morphology, residues and use wear) on a pair of grinding stones (mopan and mobang), which were uncovered near a human burial at Donghulin, 03BMDT8M1 (Table 1; Fig. 3). An assessment of the potential of usewear and residues to improve understanding of subsistence strategies and settlement history is presented. The grinding stones and burial were excavated from Layer 9, the lowest stratum of the deposits, and the human bones date to 9570 70 BP, or 9220e8750 cal. BC (Archaeology Department et al., 2006; Donghulin Archaeology Team, 2004). Based on the stratigraphy relating to the grinding stones, these tools likely date to the beginning of the Holocene. The two grinding stones examined here are unmodied water worn cobbles. However, both have signs of use in the form of abrasive smoothing, polish and striations. The slab or mopan (T8M1:2) is made of medium coarse sandstone, nearly rectangular in plan-view (weight, 8.2 kg), with dimensions: 306e350 mm long, 178e188 mm wide, and 52.7e76.7 mm thick. The utilized surface is slightly concave. The hand stone or mobang (T8M1:3) is an elongated slab of ne-grained diabase with rounded ends, almost rectangular in plan-view; the cross-section is nearly square (weight, 1.6 kg), and dimensions are: 266e270 mm long, 43.7e57 mm wide, and 47.7e56.1 mm thick (Fig. 3). 4. Residues The aim of the residue analysis was to determine if starch residues were preserved on the used surfaces and whether they were present in sufcient quantities to enable identication to genera or species. Starch survives in a range of depositional contexts and over long periods of time and as such may provide important information about long term plant exploitation and artifact function (Cosgrove et al., 2007; Field, 2007; Fullagar et al., 2006; Fullagar et al., 2008; Lu, 2003; Mercader et al., 2008; Piperno et al., 2004). The grinding stones were kept in the archaeology storage room at Peking University. They were not

Fig. 3. Grinding stones examined, showing locations where VPS and residue samples were taken and analyzed in this study. A. Slab (03BMDT8M1:2); a: VPS peel, 1e2: starch sample; B. Handstone (03BMDT8M1:3); b: VPS peel, 3: starch sample (the fourth sample taken from the other side of the handstone, not shown here).

washed after excavation, and the residues were clearly visible on the tool surfaces (Fig. 3). Four samples (two from each tool) were collected from the used surfaces by the application of water to the stone surface, the area was agitated with a nylon pipette tip to dislodge any residue, and the sample withdrawn to a 1.5 ml micro-centrifuge tube (Fig. 9A). Starch was extracted from the sample by heavy liquid separation using sodium polytungstate with a specic gravity (SG) of 2.35 to maximize recovery of microfossil remains, including phytoliths. No phytolith remains were observed in the samples, and the study focused on identication of starch. Following heavy liquid processing, the samples were rinsed and mounted on glass slides in 50% glycerol. Total scans of the slides were undertaken using a Zeiss Axioskop II transmitted brighteld microscope tted with polarizing lters and Nomarksi (Differential Interference Contrast) optics. The Nomarksi method is used because it is designed to give contrast to unstained specimens, as well as providing good visualization of surface features. A Zeiss HRc digital camera and Zeiss Axiovision software was used for image capture and archiving. The results of this analysis are shown in Table 2.

Table 1 Artifacts examined in this study. Artifact no. 03BMD T8M1:2 03BMD T8M1:3 Tool type Slab Hand-stone Stone raw material sandstone river cobble Diabase river cobble No. used surfaces & shape one; concave Multiple; convex and at Starch sample no. BMD M1:2/2 BMD M1:3/1 BMD M1:3/2 PVS sample no. BMD M1:2 BMD M1:3

L. Liu et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 2630e2639 Table 2 Starch grain counts and measurements for the samples from Donghulin T8M1 grinding stones and modern reference samples collected from China. Sample/species BMD T8M1:2/1 BMD T8M1:3/2 Quercus acutissima Quercus dentata Lithocarpus fenestratus Lithocarpus glaber Cyclobalanopsis euryi Cyclobalanopsis nubium Setaria italica Panicum miliaceum Count 45 92 101 123 135 189 117 130 124 131 Min 4.8 2.72 3.31 4.07 5.67 6.77 7.9 5.92 5.83 3.93 Median 12.07 9.98 9.94 10.06 11.54 12.36 15.82 10.52 10.02 7.73 Max 25.46 27.24 27.53 24.46 38.63 24.13 25.14 19.15 20.54 13.07 Mean 13.36 10 10.9 10.75 13.05 12.93 15.57 11.16 10.58 7.9 Std Dev 4.87 5.48 4.74 4.12 5.24 3.24 4.05 3.03 2.73 1.76
length (microns)
40

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30

20

10

Cyclobalanopsis nu bium (130)

BMD T 8M1:2 (45)

Lithocar pus fenestratus (135)

Lithocor pus glaber (189)

Setaria italica (124)

Quercus acutissima (101)

One of the two samples collected from each tool yielded starch (Fig. 3). The maximum dimension of starch grains (through the hilum) has been plotted against a number of comparative reference samples that are mostly found in the same region (Fig. 4). The relatively high starch counts for each sample increase the probability of allocation to a species or genera. In this case many of the grains were found in clumps and were sometimes associated with cell tissue, increasing the probability that they derive from a single population. 4.1. Mopan sample (T8M1:2/1) Most of the grains were clumped in a mass on the slide and the range documented above is likely to represent one species. A number of attributes can be collated for this population and in

Fig. 4. Box plots of maximum dimension of starch grains from the archaeological Donghulin samples plotted with six species of acorn (Quercus, Lithocarpus and Cyclobalanopsis), foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum); no. in brackets indicating number of grains measured.

general they are described as round to ovoid to polygonal in shape; faceting is present on some grains though it is not common; ssures are also present but not common and range from a pit at the hilum to straight and tri shaped ssures; lamellae are also visible. Examples of some of these grains are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Starch grains from Donghulin grinding stones, showing characteristics similar to acorn samples (AeC from slab, T8M1:2/1; D,E from handstone, T8M1:3/2) A. Lamellae visible on a polygonal grain; B. Fissuring as seen in reference acorn material and damage consistent with grinding; C. Clumping of grains with a damaged grain similar to that in B; D. Grains still enclosed by cell walls; note the ssures at hilum and the presence of faceted grains in the sample; E. Clumps of grains with associated plant tissue from the same population as shown in D; note damaged grain in bottom centre of image. Faceted grains also occur and lamellae are visible (Photos: J. Field).

Cyclobalanopsis fleuryi (117)

Panicum miliaceum (131)

Quercus dentata (123)

BMD T 8M1:3 (92)

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A minimum of 30 grains from a single population is required before allocation to species can be made. In many instances the recovery of grains is far less than those described here. The grains share distinct similarities with acorns (Fig. 6CeF), and while the median value is higher than the two Quercus species shown here (Fig. 4), it is consistent with some of the Lithocarpus and Cyclobalanopsis material we have documented from southern China (Fig. 6E, F). The starches from Quercus species tend to have a smaller median size than Lithocarpus. Cyclobalanopsis shows marked variation in size range in the two species presented here and cannot be separated from the other genera on this basis alone (Fig. 4).

italica and Panicum miliaceum (cf. 6A and 6B), however the sample size is too small to make a denitive identication. It is important to recognize that it is the assemblage of closely associated grains that are considered rather than individuals, as the variability in a single population within one species may be greater than that between species. Identication based on a single grain will always be tentative for this reason, unless, like tuber grains there are distinctive morphological features that are unique to that group of plants.

5. Usewear 4.2. Mobang sample (T8M1:3/2) The second sample produced double the number of grains from the rst. Most of the starch grains were aggregated in a large clump and some appeared to be enclosed by cell walls (Fig. 5D). This may also account for the incidence of smaller grains measured in the sample as the complete range of starch sizes, as seen in comparative reference samples, were present. There were also altered grains consistent with grinding damage (Fig. 5E). The starch from this sample is consistent with Quercus species in both size and morphology (Figs. 4 and 6). It is interesting to note that the morphology of some of the starch grains show similarities to Setaria Polyvinyl siloxane (PVS) impressions or peels were developed by dentists (Mandikos, 1998), and applied by archaeologists (e.g., Dubreuil, 2004; Fullagar, 2006) to document surface details at high resolution. PVS impressions of two grinding stones from Donghulin were made to provide durable records (Figs. 3 and 9B), particularly so that usewear and other surface details could be examined under a compound (reected light) microscope at magnications of 100 and 200. A limitation of this study is that few experimental studies have been undertaken with locally available tool stone and plants (Cunnar, 2007; Wang, 2008), although recent experiments utilized sandstone, tuff and slate to process similar taxa including Quercus oak, Typha reeds, Avena oats and Setaria millet. Our

Fig. 6. Comparative reference samples known from the study region. A. foxtail millet (Setaria italica); B. broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum); C. acorn (Quercus dentata); D. acorn (Quercus acutissima); E. acorn (Lithocarpus glaber); F. acorn (Cyclobalanopsis nubium).

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database of usewear patterns also includes experimental, ethnographic and archaeological tools from tropical, temperate and arid environments in Australia including sandstone, dolerite and granite tool stone (unpublished results). The initial, preliminary research questions addressed here were (1) to assess usewear variability for different tools and different classes of tools, and (2) to ascertain whether the usewear patterns were similar to those found on experimental grinding stones used for processing seeds, nuts and other materials following methods and wear patterns commonly recognized by microwear analysts (e.g., Cunnar, 2007; Dubreuil, 2004; Fullagar et al., 2008; Hamon, 2008; Verbaas and Gijn, 2007). 5.1. Mopan (T8M1:2) One PVS peel was examined from the at worn surface of this sandstone slab. No striations were visible at low magnication. The surface micro-topography is relatively rough with raised smoother patches (Fig. 7A and B). At higher magnication (100 and 200), the surface appears smooth with raised patches of smoothing and polish; but reticular patterns are rare, and polish development is generally low. Fine striations are visible in various directions where crystals appear to have been worn down and subsequently polished (Fig. 7D). However, striations are rare compared with grinding stones used to manufacture ground stone tools (Fig. 8C) or

compared with seed grinding stones. In summary, the smoothing and polish indicates the processing of low silica plant tissue. An upper grinding surface in an irregular, naturally formed slight depression also suggests grinding with a hand stone but one that is smaller than the elongated mobang described here. The generally low incidence of striations on the irregular upper grinding surface also contrasts with our stone-on-stone grinding experiments. Smoothing and polish were not as extensive or developed as the attened, homogenous surfaces described by Cunnar (2007: 228) in grinding experiments or with polishing rhyolite implements, using various materials (skin, bamboo, wood etc.) as polishing agents. Nevertheless, more information is needed about how rapidly the stone material sustains polish and other wear as a consequence of processing particular kinds and particular combinations of plant (e.g. siliceous, non-siliceous, and oily) under various conditions (wet, dry, dusty, etc.). Low incidence of striations and an undulating polished surface often with pitting were typical of experiments used to mash and grind acorns (see Fig. 8). 5.2. Mobang (T8M1:3) The PVS peel from the Donghulin handstone was also examined. Striations were only visible at higher magnication. Polish

Fig. 7. Usewear on Donghulin mopan and PVS peels from experimental, archaeological, and modern grinding stones (sandstone). Usewear associated with grinding and pounding acorns (apparently distinct from seed grinding) includes relatively few striations and an uneven (irregular) polish texture, with shallow polished pits. The archaeological specimen has less developed polish than the experimental tools. A. Donghulin mopan, width of eld 20 cm; B. Donghulin mopan, width of eld 9 cm; C. Xiazhang modern millsone, multifunctional, scale bar is 0.2 mm; D. Donghulin mopan, scale bar is 0.2 mm. Striations are rare but visible in this image. Note the pitting with polish at base of pits, as found in experimental processing of wet acorns; E. experimental handstone, sandstone (2 hr pounding acorn with shells and 0.5 hr grinding kernels, scale bar is 0.2 mm; note the pitting; F. Donghulin mopan, scale bar is 0.2 mm. Note two forms of wear. Left (arrowed) has pitting, similar to E; striations to the right are associated with stone-on-stone wear.

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Fig. 8. Experimental usewear on PVS peels from experimental sandstone tool XS13. A. unworked surface: fresh fracture features (stress lines and undulations) on quartz crystals; B. striations typical of stone on stone abrasion after 20 min to prepare grinding surface; C. striations typical of extended grinding to manufacture stone spades (8 h); D. usewear after grinding oats with husks after 20 min following surface preparation (8B); note at surface with ne striations; E. usewear after grinding acorns with shells after soaking; F. detail of 8E; note undulating polish surface, pitting and few striations; G: Donghulin mobang; cf. experimental polish from processing cereal grain and wood. Pitting is also present but with unpolished lower surfaces as found by Dubreuil, 2004; H: Donghulin mobang; cf. experimental plant polish overlapping with acorn and cereal grain processing. Note polish on upper and lower surfaces.

development was low but more developed than on the mopan. The higher polish development on the diabase mobang compared with the sandstone mopan is probably due in part to the different rock properties. The diabase mobang is a very tough ne-grained rock (see discussion below), and appears to have sustained less surface erosion and more polish development. The sandstone mopan is less well cemented and the surface probably wears down before extensive polish can develop. On the diabase mobang a distinct reticular pattern was visible (rarely) in some areas, with higher zones of polish and lower unpolished areas (Fig. 9C, D) (note that high and low points here refer to the rock surface itself and not the

PVS peel which is a negative impression where high and low points are reversed). The polish on the mobang suggests processing of plants with higher silica content (relative to the wear on the mopan). We observed on the mobang several kinds of polished surface that seem to overlap with processing of both acorns and cereal grain (Fig. 9). Some small patches of polish are strikingly similar to the surfaces that Dubreuil (2004) described on PVS peels of basalt (probably similar to diabase) rocks used to process wheat and barley. In particular, she mentions more striations and more rounded high points or plateau regions of the surface (see Fig. 9). In summary,

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Fig. 9. Taking samples from Donghulin mobang (AeB) and usewear on PVS peels from mobang (CeD). A. the starch sample is taken from the surface of the mobang which shows visible residues; B. the PVS peel is removed from a different side of mobang and mounted for microscopy; C. ne striations are visible running horizontally across the polished area; pitting is also present; scale bar is 0.2 mm. D. unlike the slab, the handstone has brighter, more extensive polish with a reticular pattern. scale bar is 0.2 mm.

variation in wear on the mobang suggests that several kinds of plant material were processed. The closest match for usewear on the mobang is a modern millstone from Xiazhuang (Slab A) in Songxian, Henan, which has been used for multiple tasks including grinding cereals and acorns (see Fig. 7C). 6. Discussion The two grinding tools examined in this study are from the early phase of the settlement occupation when nut-bearing trees (Quercus sp. and Juglans sp.) were abundant. Both residue and usewear analyses indicate that the two grinding stones were used for processing plants, probably acorn, which is consistent with the incidence of oak (Quercus sp.) in the pollen record. The mopan usewear, with only rare patches of developed polish, suggests that plants of low silica content were processed. The low frequency of ne striations and undulating polish on the sandstone mopan is inconsistent with experimental and ethnographic usewear from processing cereal grass seeds. The usewear is also similar to wear on recent grinding stones used for multiple tasks including grinding of acorns. The diabase mobang is a form of basalt, commonly described as the toughest group of stone materials (see Kamminga, 1982: 27ff where toughness is dened according to the Los Angles Abrasive test that measures overall toughness, tenacity, resistance to abrasion and resistance to fracture). Consequently diabase is more likely to sustain extensive use-polish development than sandstone. Nevertheless, the more developed use-polish on the mobang suggests the presence of a polishing agent like silica (Fullagar, 1991). A source of silica or other polishing agent is not possible to identify without further experiments, and could likely be part of a seed husk or other plant part. Quercus acorn kernels were found to have no phytoliths (Alison Weisskopf, personal communication), but grinding acorns with shells can produce a similar wear pattern. The usewear indicates that siliceous plants may have been processed with the mobang, while

residue analysis suggests exploitation of grasses but has failed to condently identify cereal starch; and phytoliths were absent. Usewear and residues provide different kinds of evidence and are limited by sampling and other factors. For example, residue samples collected by water extraction from a tool surface may not have captured the range of plants which were processed by these tools. Furthermore, if the tool users washed their grinding implements after use, the recovered residues may only reect the last processing task, which in this case was the preparation of acorns. On the other hand, usewear patterns may reect a longer life history of grinding activities than what is revealed by residues. A further limitation on interpretations is that there are few experimental studies on processing the possible plant species (and combinations thereof) using grinding stones made of diabase. This usewear/residue study has shed light on the subsistence strategies of the Donghulin people and provided specic support for the processing of acorns. This site is likely to have been occupied to exploit multiple types of food resources, including animals, shell sh, and nuts. There is only a suggestion that grass seeds were exploited at the Donghulin site, but it is unclear what types of grass may have been used, based on our data. Acorns provide substantial amounts of dietary starch and are ideal for long-term storage, but they also contain considerable quantities of tannins, which have to be removed before human consumption. The acid removal process, often involving grinding, leaching and cooking, requires the use of grinding tools, easy access to running water, and baskets or pottery vessels for cooking (Kobayashi, 2004; Mason, 1992, 1996; Ortiz, 1991). The fact that Donghulins location is near the river and its material assemblages consist of pottery and grinding stones is consistent with the scenario of intensied acorn collection, which is further conrmed by this study. Functional studies on grinding stones from the Lower Yangzi River valley have demonstrated that using grinding stones to process plant foodstuffs, particularly acorns, was a crucial subsistence adaptation in the Early Holocene (Liu et al., 2010).

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7. Conclusion Functional study of grinding stones based on residue and usewear analyses is still in its early stages in China, but our research has shown a great potential of these methods. Since grinding stones were used by Early Holocene peoples in various natural environments over a broad region in north China, their functions are likely to have been diverse in time and space. The results from our study of the Donghulin tools suggest that mainly nuts, such as acorns, were intensively exploited as important foodstuffs at this site during the period prior to farming, but we would not rule out the possibility that grinding stones from other Early Holocene sites were also used for processing wild cereals. This research is a small step toward a better understanding of the life way of the Donghulin people. More artifacts from late phases of the Donghulin occupation need to be examined in order to investigate changes in subsistence economy over time. Further residue and usewear studies, in conjunction with other ongoing investigations on residential patterns and faunal and oral assemblages from Donghulin, will provide a more comprehensive interpretation on the subsistence strategies in this settlement. Previous studies on the emergence of Neolithic cultures in China tended to focus on the origins of cereal domestication; but several recent investigations have begun to emphasize the importance of acorn exploitation before the full development of agriculture (Fuller and Qin, 2009; Liu, 2008; Qin et al., 2006). Residue analysis on grinding stones from several sites have also conrmed that acorns were intensively exploited for thousands of years during early and middle Holocene in many locations in the Yellow and Yangzi River valleys (Liu et al., 2010; Wang, 2008; Yang et al., 2009). The current study, along with other investigations, challenges some traditional views and suggests that there may have been alternative pathways to Neolithization in China. Functional study of stone tools and other artifacts from many more sites is needed in order to achieve a holistic understanding of the transition to sedentism and plant manipulation in this part of the world. Acknowledgements We thank Zhekun Zhou, Yaqin Hu, Yonggang Liu, Rudy Frank, Sheahan Bestel, Duncan Jones, Ming Wei, Shaodong Zhai, Wei Ge and Anthony Wilson for their assistance in this research. We appreciate the constructive comments from three anonymous reviewers. The authors acknowledge the facilities as well as scientic and technical assistance from the staff in the Australian Microscopy and Microanalysis Research Facility (AMMRF) and the Australian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis at the University of Sydney. The project was funded by the Australian Research Council Discovery Grant (DP0450025 to Li Liu), La Trobe University and the University of Sydney. References
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