INST250 Sec1

INST 250 (Final Control Elements), section 1 Lab Control valve rebuild and bench-set: Questions 91 and 92,
completed objectives due by the end of day 4, section 2 Exam Day 5 of next section only a simple calculator may be used! Question 93 previews the mastery exam circuit-building activity Recommended daily schedule Day 1 Theory session topic: Principles of uids and uid pressure Questions 1 through 20; answer questions 1-10 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 2 Theory session topic: Fluid power systems Questions 21 through 40; answer questions 21-30 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 3 Theory session topic: Pneumatic instruments Questions 41 through 60; answer questions 41-50 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Day 4 Theory session topic: Pneumatic instruments (continued) Questions 61 through 80; answer questions 61-70 in preparation for discussion (remainder for practice) Feedback questions (81 through 90) are optional and may be submitted for review at the end of the day
Course Syllabus INSTRUCTOR CONTACT INFORMATION: Tony Kuphaldt (360)-752-8477 [oce phone] (360)-752-7277 [fax] tkuphald@btc.ctc.edu DEPT/COURSE #: INST 250 CREDITS: 5 Lecture Hours: 26 Lab Hours: 66 Work-based Hours: 0
COURSE TITLE: Final Control Elements COURSE OUTCOMES: Students will construct and document manual control systems using industrial control valves as nal control elements, calculate proper valve sizes for process applications, congure splitrange control valves, and demonstrate prociency in loop troubleshooting. COURSE DESCRIPTION: In this course you will learn how to precisely control energy in process systems using uid valves and motors. You will also learn how uid power systems work, and how to eciently troubleshoot nal control elements. Pre/Corequisite course: INST 200 (Introduction to Instrumentation) COURSE OUTLINE: a course calendar in electronic format (Excel spreadsheet) resides on the Y: network drive, and also in printed paper format in classroom DMC130, for convenient student access. This calendar is updated to reect schedule changes resulting from employer recruiting visits, interviews, and other impromptu events. Course worksheets provide comprehensive lists of all course assignments and activities, with the rst page outlining the schedule and sequencing of topics and assignment due dates. These worksheets are available in PDF format at http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst INST250 Section 1 (Fluid system principles): 4 days theory and labwork INST250 Section 2 (Control valve basics): 4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for mastery/proportional Exams INST250 Section 3 (Valve positioners, MOVs): 4 days theory and labwork INST250 Section 4 (Valve sizing, characterization): 4 days theory and labwork + 1 day for mastery/proportional Exams
STUDENT PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES: Mastery exams (two per course): without references or notes, within a limited time (3 hours total for mastery and proportional exams), independently perform the following activities with no errors given a maximum of two attempts per exam sitting (up to three exam sittings allowed with a 10% score deduction levied on the proportional exam score if not passed on rst sitting). At least 60% of exam questions are Application level or higher according to Blooms Taxonomy. Exam 1: Build a circuit to energize an electromechanical relay Exam 1: Determine response of a pneumatic force-balance mechanism to dierent conditions Exam 1: Determine the eect of a fault in a simple solenoid system Exam 1: Calculate instrument calibration points given input and output ranges Exam 1: Circuit Fault Review: determine possibility of open/short faults in a simple circuit given measured values (voltage, current) Exam 1: INST240 Review: Identify proper use of DP instrument for pressure or vacuum measurement Exam 1: INST260 Review: Identify the purpose of termination resistors in a digital network Exam 1: Only a simple (non-programmable) scientic calculator will be allowed for this exam (and its proportional counterpart) Exam 2: Build a circuit to sense pressure or vacuum using a DP transmitter Exam 2: Determine proper fail-safe mode for a control valve in a given process Exam 2: Flow/Pressure/Cv calculation for a liquid control valve application Exam 2: Calculate instrument calibration points given input and output ranges Exam 2: Circuit Fault Review: determine possibility of open/short faults in a simple circuit given measured values (voltage, current) Exam 2: INST240 Review: Identify suitability of basic level-measuring instruments to dierent process liquids Exam 2: INST260 Review: Perform conversions between numeration systems (binary, octal, decimal, hex) Exam 2: Only a simple (non-programmable) scientic calculator will be allowed for this exam (and its proportional counterpart) Proportional exams (two per course): without references or notes, independently solve several quantitative, conceptual, and diagnostic problems relating to the course subject. At least 60% of exam questions are Application level or higher according to Blooms Taxonomy. Lab exercises (two per course): in a team environment and with full access to references, notes, and instructor assistance; build and document functioning instrumentation systems as documented in the Lab Exercise questions found in all course worksheets. Each lab exercise includes a set of qualitative and conceptual questions to be answered individually without references or notes, and also lists mastery objectives for the lab exercise (must be completed with no errors) including: Generate an accurate loop diagram compliant with ISA standards documenting your teams system, personally veried by the instructor. Calibrate all system instruments to specied accuracy using lab calibration equipment, personally veried by the instructor. Diagnose a fault placed in another teams system by the instructor within a limited time (5 minutes max.), properly using no test equipment except a multimeter, with each step logically justied in the instructors direct presence. Quizzes (daily): with access to notes, independently answer quantitative and conceptual questions relating to the days assigned questions and reading. Feedback question sets (four per course): ungraded exercises designed to review critical concepts and provide bidirectional student/instructor feedback on learning prior to exams.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION: Course structure and methods are intentionally designed to develop critical-thinking and life-long learning abilities, continually placing the student in an active rather than a passive role. Independent study: daily worksheet questions specify reading assignments, problems to solve, and experiments to perform in preparation (before) classroom theory sessions. Open-note quizzes and work inspections ensure accountability for this essential preparatory work. The purpose of this is to convey information and basic concepts, so valuable class time isnt wasted transmitting bare facts, and also to foster the independent research ability necessary for self-directed learning in your career. Classroom sessions: a combination of Socratic discussion, short lectures, small-group problem-solving, and hands-on demonstrations/experiments review and illuminate concepts covered in the preparatory questions. The purpose of this is to develop problem-solving skills, strengthen conceptual understanding, and practice both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. Lab activities: an emphasis on constructing and documenting working projects (real instrumentation and control systems) to illuminate theoretical knowledge with practical contexts. Special projects o-campus or in dierent areas of campus (e.g. BTCs Fish Hatchery) are encouraged. Hands-on troubleshooting exercises build diagnostic skills. Tours and guest speakers: quarterly tours of local industry and guest speakers on technical topics add breadth and additional context to the learning experience. STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS/REQUIREMENTS: All assignments for this course are thoroughly documented in the following course worksheets located at: http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst/index.html INST250 INST250 INST250 INST250 sec1.pdf sec2.pdf sec3.pdf sec4.pdf
EVALUATION AND GRADING STANDARDS: (out of 100% for the course grade) Mastery exams and mastery lab objectives = 50% of course grade Proportional exams = 40% (2 exams at 20% each) Lab questions = 10% (2 question sets at 5% each) Quiz penalty = -1% per failed quiz Tardiness penalty = -1% per incident (1 free tardy per course) Attendance penalty = -1% per hour (12 hours sick time per quarter) Repair bonus = +5% per repaired instrument (instruments broken and repaired statuses must be validated by the instructor) All grades are criterion-referenced (i.e. no grading on a curve) 100% A 95% 90% > B+ 86% 80% > C+ 76% 70% > D+ 66% 95% > A- 90% 86% > B 83% 76% > C 73% 66% > D 63% 83% > B- 80% 73% > C- 70% (minimum passing course grade) 63% > D- 60% 60% > F
Failing a mastery exam will result in a 10% deduction from the proportional exam score, and you get a maximum of two re-takes (sittings) to pass new versions of the same mastery exam which must occur before the next exam date. Failure to pass the mastery within three sittings will result in a failing grade (F) for the course. Absence on a scheduled exam day will result in a 0% score for the proportional exam unless you provide documented evidence of an unavoidable emergency. If any other mastery objectives are not completed by their specied deadlines, your overall grade for the course will be capped at 70% (C- grade), and you will have one more school day to complete the unnished objectives. Failure to complete those mastery objectives by the end of that extra day (except in the case of documented, unavoidable emergencies) will result in a failing grade (F) for the course. Lab questions are assessed by individual questioning, at any date after the respective lab objective (mastery) has been completed by your team. These questions serve to guide your completion of each lab exercise and conrm participation of each individual student. Grading is as follows: full credit for thorough, correct answers; half credit for partially correct answers; and zero credit for major conceptual errors. All lab questions must be answered by the due date of the lab exercise.
REQUIRED STUDENT SUPPLIES AND MATERIALS: Course worksheets available for download in PDF format Lessons in Industrial Instrumentation textbook, available for download in PDF format Access worksheets and book at: http://openbookproject.net/books/socratic/sinst Spiral-bound notebook for reading annotation, homework documentation, and note-taking. Instrumentation reference CD-ROM (free, from instructor). This disk contains many tutorials and datasheets in PDF format to supplement your textbook(s). Tool kit (see detailed list) Simple scientic calculator (non-programmable, non-graphing, no unit conversions, no numeration system conversions), TI-30Xa or TI-30XIIS recommended ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES: Control Valve Handbook, by Emerson Process Management (Fisher Controls International). This book is hard to nd in print, but it may be obtained in electronic (PDF) format from Emersons website, and is also included on the reference CD-ROM. The BTC Library hosts a substantial collection of textbooks and references on the subject of Instrumentation, as well as links in its online catalog to free Instrumentation e-book resources available on the Internet. BTCInstrumentation channel on YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/BTCInstrumentation), hosts a variety of short video tutorials and demonstrations on instrumentation. ISA Student Section at BTC meets regularly to set up industry tours, raise funds for scholarships, and serve as a general resource for Instrumentation students. Membership in the ISA is $10 per year, payable to the national ISA organization. Membership includes a complementary subscription to InTech magazine. ISA website (http://www.isa.org) provides all of its standards in electronic format, many of which are freely available to ISA members. Instrument Engineers Handbook, Volume 2: Process Control and Optimization, edited by Bla Liptk, e a published by CRC Press. 4th edition ISBN-10: 0849310814 ; ISBN-13: 978-0849310812. Purdys Instrument Handbook, by Ralph Dewey. ISBN-10: 1-880215-26-8. A pocket-sized eld reference on basic measurement and control. Cad Standard (CadStd) or similar AutoCAD-like drafting software (useful for sketching loop and wiring diagrams). Cad Standard is a simplied clone of AutoCAD, and is freely available at: http://www.cadstd.com
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Sequence of second-year Instrumentation courses
Core Electronics -- 1 year (or equivalent) 1st quarter INST 200 -- 1 wk Intro. to Instrumentation 2nd quarter INST 205 -- 1 wk Job Prep I 3rd quarter INST 206 -- 1 wk Job Prep II
INST 240 -- 4 wks Pressure and Level Measurement Winter quarter Fall quarter
INST 250 -- 4 wks Final Control Elements Spring quarter
INST 260 -- 3 wks Data Acquisition Systems
INST 241 -- 4 wks Temperature and Flow Measurement
INST 251 -- 4 wks PID Controllers and Tuning
INST 261 -- 4 wks Programmable Logic Controllers
INST 242 -- 3 wks Analytical Measurement
INST 252 -- 3 wks Process Optimization and Control Strategies
INST 262 -- 4 wks DCS and Fieldbus
continuing students (after completing all three quarters)
GRADUATION !
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General student expectations (Punctuality) You are expected to arrive for each theory and lab session on time, every day. If a session begins at 12:00 noon, 12:00:01 is considered late. One late arrival is permitted during the timespan of each sequential course (e.g. INST240, INST241, etc.) with no grade deduction. The grade deduction rate for late arrivals is 1% per incident. (Attendance) You are expected to attend all day, every day. Each student has 12 sick hours per quarter applicable to absences not veriably employment-related, school-related, weather-related, or required by law. The grade deduction rate is 1% per hour of absence in any course. Each student must confer with the instructor to apply sick hours to any missed time this is not done automatically for the student. Students may donate unused sick hours to whomever they specically choose. You should contact your instructor and team members immediately if you know you will be late or absent. Absence on an exam day will result in a failing grade for that exam, unless due to a documented emergency. Exams may be taken in advance for full credit. (Participation) You are expected to participate fully in all aspects of the learning process including independent study, lab project completion, and classroom activities. It is solely your responsibility to catch up on all information missed due to absence. Furthermore, you shall not interfere with the participation of others in the learning process. (Teamwork) You will work in instructor-assigned teams to complete lab assignments. Team membership is determined by accumulated attendance and punctuality scores: students with similar participatory trends are teamed together. Any student compromising team performance through frequent absence, habitual tardiness, or other disruptive behavior(s) will be expelled from their team and required to complete all labwork independently for the remainder of the quarter. (Preparation for theory sessions) You must reserve sucient time for reading assignments and homework questions to prepare yourself for theory sessions, where you will actively contribute your new knowledge. The exact amount of time varies with each person, but 2 hours per day is the bare minimum for most. Graded quizzes during each theory session will gauge your independent learning. If absent, you may receive credit by having your preparatory work thoroughly reviewed prior to the absence, or passing a comparable quiz following the absence. (Feedback questions) You may submit answers to feedback questions at the end of each course section. Your answers will be checked by the instructor, but neither count toward nor against your grade for the course. The purpose of feedback questions is exactly that: to provide feedback for both you and the instructor regarding your learning. (Disciplinary action and instructor authority) The Student Code of Conduct (Washington Administrative Codes WAC 495B-120) explicitly authorizes disciplinary action against the following types of misconduct: academic dishonesty (e.g. cheating, plagiarism), dangerous or lewd behavior, harassment, intoxication, destruction of property, and/or disruption of the learning environment. Furthermore, the Code states Instructors have the authority to take whatever summary actions may be necessary to maintain order and proper conduct in the classroom and to maintain the eective cooperation of the class in fullling the objectives of the course. Distractive or disruptive behavior such as (but not limited to) unauthorized telephone or computer use, disrespectful comments, sleeping, and conversation that either impede your participation or the participation of others may result in temporary dismissal from class with attendance hours deducted.
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General tool and supply list Wrenches Combination (box- and open-end) wrench set, 1/4 to 3/4 the most important wrench sizes are 7/16, 1/2, 9/16, and 5/8; get these immediately! Adjustable wrench, 6 handle (sometimes called Crescent wrench) Hex wrench (Allen wrench) set, fractional 1/16 to 3/8 Optional: Hex wrench (Allen wrench) set, metric 1.5 mm to 10 mm Optional: Miniature combination wrench set, 3/32 to 1/4 (sometimes called an ignition wrench set) Note: when turning a bolt, nut, or tube tting with a hexagonal body, the preferred ranking of hand tools to use (from rst to last) is box-end wrench or socket, open-end wrench, and nally adjustable wrench. Pliers should never be used to turn the head of a tting or fastener unless it is absolutely unavoidable! Pliers Needle-nose pliers Slip-joint pliers (sometimes called Channel-lock pliers) Diagonal wire cutters (sometimes called dikes) Screwdrivers Slotted, 1/8 and 1/4 shaft Phillips, #1 and #2 Jewelers screwdriver set Measurement tools Tape measure. 12 feet minimum Optional: Vernier calipers Electrical Multimeter, Fluke model 87-IV or better Wire strippers/terminal crimpers with a range including 10 AWG to 18 AWG wire Soldering iron, 10 to 25 watt Rosin-core solder Package of compression-style fork terminals (e.g. Thomas & Betts Sta-Kon part number 14RB-10F, 14 to 18 AWG wire size, #10 stud size) Safety Safety glasses or goggles (available at BTC bookstore) Earplugs (available at BTC bookstore) Miscellaneous Teon pipe tape Utility knife You are recommended to engrave your name or place some other form of identifying mark on your tools, as you will be doing a lot of your work in teams, and it is easy to get tools mixed up. Also, lost tools get returned to their owners much faster when they are marked! An inexpensive source of high-quality tools is your local pawn shop. Look for name-brand tools with unlimited lifetime guarantees (e.g. Sears Craftsman brand, Snap-On, etc.). le tools 9
Methods of instruction This course develops self-instructional and diagnostic skills by placing students in situations where they are required to research and think independently. In all portions of the curriculum, the goal is to avoid a passive learning environment, favoring instead active engagement of the learner through reading, reection, problem-solving, and experimental activities. The curriculum may be roughly divided into two portions: theory and practical.
Theory In the theory portion of each course, students independently research subjects prior to entering the classroom for discussion. At the start of the classroom session, the instructor will check each students preparation with a quiz. Students then spend some class time working in small groups coordinating their presentations. The rest of the class time is spent interacting Socratically with the instructor in a large-group dialogue. The instructor calls students (or student groups) to present what they found in their research, questions that arose during their study, their solutions to problems, and any problem-solving techniques applied. The instructors role is to help students take the information gleaned from their research and convert this into understanding.
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Lab In the lab portion of each course, students work in teams to install, congure, document, calibrate, and troubleshoot working instrument loop systems. Each lab exercise focuses on a dierent type of instrument, with a eight-day period typically allotted for completion. An ordinary lab session might look like this: (1) Start of practical (lab) session: announcements and planning (a) The instructor makes general announcements to all students (b) The instructor works with team to plan that days goals, making sure each team member has a clear idea of what they should accomplish (2) Teams work on lab unit completion according to recommended schedule: (First day) Select and bench-test instrument(s) (One day) Connect instrument(s) into a complete loop (One day) Each team member drafts their own loop documentation, inspection done as a team (with instructor) (One or two days) Each team member calibrates/congures the instrument(s) (Remaining days, up to last) Each team member troubleshoots the instrument loop (3) End of practical (lab) session: debrieng where each team reports on their work to the whole class Troubleshooting assessments will be conducted in the following manner: The student approaches instructor when ready to troubleshoot. The instructor selects a loop diagram for a system not built by that students team. The student evaluates that system to ensure it is working properly. The student submits the loop diagram to the instructor and leaves the lab room with all teammates. The instructor faults the system, then calls the whole team back into the lab room. It is entirely valid to fault a component of the system the student has not studied in detail! The instructor plays the part of a bewildered operator, declaring the system broken. Throughout the exercise, the student may ask questions of the instructor, who will answer as a real operator would: describing symptoms but not providing any recommendations. The instructor will have a realistic scenario in mind, and answer these questions accordingly. The student must begin their troubleshooting with a measurement or a response test. The instructor will start a timer as soon as this rst diagnostic step begins, giving the student 5 minutes to identify the location and nature of the fault. Most importantly, the instructor challenges the student to defend all diagnostic steps throughout the exercise. Every step must be logically justied, with the student correctly narrowing the eld of possible faults as time goes on. If the student at any point concludes a type or location of fault incompatible with the gathered data, they fail the exercise. Likewise, if the student begins looking for specic faults (e.g. checking conguration parameters, looking for loose wires) prior to gathering test data sucient to positively identify that location and type of fault, they fail the exercise. If by the end of the allotted time the student correctly identies the location and type of fault (e.g. open, short, ground, miscalibration, misconguration, etc.), they will be given extra time if needed to precisely pinpoint the fault without instructor supervision. If the fault happens to be something of a nature the student has not yet studied in detail (e.g. a controller misconguration, prior to the student having learned how to congure controllers), and the student has correctly identied that component as the culprit, the exercise is declared a success. If by the end of the allotted time the student fails to correctly identify the location and type of fault, any observing teammate may continue diagnosis of the same system for full credit, with the instructor re-starting the timer for another 5 minutes. The instructor reviews the entire eort with student and teammates, identifying correct procedures and logical conclusions as well as any incorrect or inecient steps. The student then repairs the fault and veries the system works properly. The student returns loop diagram to the common holding area. le instructional 11
Distance delivery methods Sometimes the demands of life prevent students from attending college 6 hours per day. In such cases, there exist alternatives to the normal 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM class/lab schedule, allowing students to complete coursework in non-traditional ways, at a distance from the college campus proper. For such distance students, the same worksheets, lab activities, exams, and academic standards still apply. Instead of working in small groups and in teams to complete theory and lab sections, though, students participating in an alternative fashion must do all the work themselves. Participation via teleconferencing, video- or audio-recorded small-group sessions, and such is encouraged and supported. There is no recording of hours attended or tardiness for students participating in this manner. The pace of the course is likewise determined by the distance student. Experience has shown that it is a benet for distance students to maintain the same pace as their on-campus classmates whenever possible. In lieu of small-group activities and class discussions, comprehension of the theory portion of each course will be ensured by completing and submitting detailed answers for all worksheet questions, not just passing daily quizzes as is the standard for conventional students. The instructor will discuss any incomplete and/or incorrect worksheet answers with the student, and ask that those questions be re-answered by the student to correct any misunderstandings before moving on. Labwork is perhaps the most dicult portion of the curriculum for a distance student to complete, since the equipment used in Instrumentation is typically too large and expensive to leave the school lab facility. Distance students must nd a way to complete the required lab activities, either by arranging time in the school lab facility and/or completing activities on equivalent equipment outside of school (e.g. at their place of employment, if applicable). Labwork completed outside of school must be validated by a supervisor and/or documented via photograph or videorecording. Conventional students may opt to switch to distance mode at any time. This has proven to be a benet to students whose lives are disrupted by catastrophic events. Likewise, distance students may switch back to conventional mode if and when their schedules permit. Although the existence of alternative modes of student participation is a great benet for students with challenging schedules, it requires a greater investment of time and a greater level of self-discipline than the traditional mode where the student attends school for 6 hours every day. No student should consider the distance mode of learning a way to have more free time to themselves, because they will actually spend more time engaged in the coursework than if they attend school on a regular schedule. It exists merely for the sake of those who cannot attend during regular school hours, as an alternative to course withdrawal.
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General advice for successful learning Cultivate meta-cognitive skills (the ability to monitor your own thinking on a subject)! Whenever you get stuck trying to understand a concept, clearly identify where you are getting stuck, and where things stop making sense. When you think you understand a concept, test your understanding by explaining it in your own words. You can do this by trying to explain it to a willing classmate, or by imagining yourself trying to explain it to someone. If you cannot clearly explain a concept to someone else, you do not understand it well enough yourself ! The technique of trying to explain a concept also works well to identify where you are stuck. The point at which you nd yourself unable to clearly articulate the concept is very likely the exact point of your misconception or confusion. Join or create a study group with like-minded classmates! Read the textbook assignments together. Solve assigned problems together. Collectively identify dicult concepts and areas needing clarication, to bring up later during class. Take turns trying to explain complicated concepts to each other, then critiquing those explanations. Eliminate distractions in your life! Time-wasting technologies: televisions, internet, video games, mobile phones, etc. Unhelpful friends, unhealthy relationships, etc. Make use of wasted time to study! Carefully plan your lab sessions with your teammates to reserve a portion of each days lab time for study. Bring a meal to school every day and use your one-hour lunch break for study instead of eating out. This will not just save you time, but also money! Plan to arrive at school at least a half-hour early (the doors unlock at 7:00 AM) and use the time to study as opposed to studying late at night. This also helps guard against tardiness in the event of unexpected delays, and ensures you a better parking space! Take responsibility for your learning and your life! Do not procrastinate, waiting until the last minute to do something. Obtain all the required books, and any supplementary study materials available to you. If the books cost too much, look on the internet for used texts (www.amazon.com, www.half.com, etc.) and use the money from the sale of your television and video games to buy them! Make an honest attempt to solve problems before asking someone else to help you. Being able to problem-solve is a skill that will improve only if you continue to do work at it. If you detect trouble understanding a basic concept, address it immediately. Never ignore an area of confusion, believing you will pick up on it later. Later may be too late! Do not wait for others to do things for you. No one is going to make extra eort purely on your behalf.
. . . And the number one tip for success . . . Realize that there are no shortcuts to learning. Every time you seek a shortcut, you are actually cheating yourself out of a learning opportunity!!
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Creative Commons License This worksheet is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, version 1.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. The terms and conditions of this license allow for free copying, distribution, and/or modication of all licensed works by the general public.
Simple explanation of Attribution License: The licensor (Tony Kuphaldt) permits others to copy, distribute, display, and otherwise use this work. In return, licensees must give the original author(s) credit. For the full license text, please visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/ on the internet.
More detailed explanation of Attribution License: Under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License, you may make freely use, make copies, and even modify these worksheets (and the individual source les comprising them) without having to ask me (the author and licensor) for permission. The one thing you must do is properly credit my original authorship. Basically, this protects my eorts against plagiarism without hindering the end-user as would normally be the case under full copyright protection. This gives educators a great deal of freedom in how they might adapt my learning materials to their unique needs, removing all nancial and legal barriers which would normally hinder if not prevent creative use. Nothing in the License prohibits the sale of original or adapted materials by others. You are free to copy what I have created, modify them if you please (or not), and then sell them at any price. Once again, the only catch is that you must give proper credit to myself as the original author and licensor. Given that these worksheets will be continually made available on the internet for free download, though, few people will pay for what you are selling unless you have somehow added value. Nothing in the License prohibits the application of a more restrictive license (or no license at all) to derivative works. This means you can add your own content to that which I have made, and then exercise full copyright restriction over the new (derivative) work, choosing not to release your additions under the same free and open terms. An example of where you might wish to do this is if you are a teacher who desires to add a detailed answer key for your own benet but not to make this answer key available to anyone else (e.g. students).
Note: the text on this page is not a license. It is simply a handy reference for understanding the Legal Code (the full license) - it is a human-readable expression of some of its key terms. Think of it as the user-friendly interface to the Legal Code beneath. This simple explanation itself has no legal value, and its contents do not appear in the actual license.
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Metric prexes and conversion constants Metric prexes Yotta = 1024 Symbol: Y Zeta = 1021 Symbol: Z Exa = 1018 Symbol: E Peta = 1015 Symbol: P Tera = 1012 Symbol: T Giga = 109 Symbol: G Mega = 106 Symbol: M Kilo = 103 Symbol: k Hecto = 102 Symbol: h Deca = 101 Symbol: da Deci = 101 Symbol: d Centi = 102 Symbol: c Milli = 103 Symbol: m Micro = 106 Symbol: Nano = 109 Symbol: n Pico = 1012 Symbol: p Femto = 1015 Symbol: f Atto = 1018 Symbol: a Zepto = 1021 Symbol: z Yocto = 1024 Symbol: y
METRIC PREFIX SCALE T tera 1012 G M giga mega 109 106 k kilo 103 (none) 100 m milli micro 10-3 10-6 n nano 10-9 p pico 10-12
102 101 10-1 10-2 hecto deca deci centi h da d c
Conversion formulae for temperature o F = (o C)(9/5) + 32 o C = (o F - 32)(5/9) o R = o F + 459.67 K = o C + 273.15 Conversion equivalencies for distance 1 inch (in) = 2.540000 centimeter (cm) 1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) 1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft)
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Conversion equivalencies for volume 1 gallon (gal) = 231.0 cubic inches (in3 ) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt) = 128 uid ounces (. oz.) = 3.7854 liters (l) 1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3 )
Conversion equivalencies for velocity 1 mile per hour (mi/h) = 88 feet per minute (ft/m) = 1.46667 feet per second (ft/s) = 1.60934 kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.44704 meter per second (m/s) = 0.868976 knot (knot international)
Conversion equivalencies for mass 1 pound (lbm) = 0.45359 kilogram (kg) = 0.031081 slugs
Conversion equivalencies for force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)
Conversion equivalencies for area 1 acre = 43560 square feet (ft2 ) = 4840 square yards (yd2 ) = 4046.86 square meters (m2 )
Conversion equivalencies for common pressure units (either all gauge or all absolute) 1 pound per square inch (PSI) = 2.03602 inches of mercury (in. Hg) = 27.6799 inches of water (in. W.C.) = 6.894757 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 0.06894757 bar 1 bar = 100 kilo-pascals (kPa) = 14.504 pounds per square inch (PSI)
Conversion equivalencies for absolute pressure units (only) 1 atmosphere (Atm) = 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA) = 101.325 kilo-pascals absolute (kPaA) = 1.01325 bar (bar) = 760 millimeters of mercury absolute (mmHgA) = 760 torr (torr)
Conversion equivalencies for energy or work 1 british thermal unit (Btu International Table) = 251.996 calories (cal International Table) = 1055.06 joules (J) = 1055.06 watt-seconds (W-s) = 0.293071 watt-hour (W-hr) = 1.05506 x 1010 ergs (erg) = 778.169 foot-pound-force (ft-lbf)
Conversion equivalencies for power 1 horsepower (hp 550 ft-lbf/s) = 745.7 watts (W) = 2544.43 british thermal units per hour (Btu/hr) = 0.0760181 boiler horsepower (hp boiler)
Acceleration of gravity (free fall), Earth standard 9.806650 meters per second per second (m/s2 ) = 32.1740 feet per second per second (ft/s2 )
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Physical constants Speed of light in a vacuum (c) = 2.9979 108 meters per second (m/s) = 186,281 miles per second (mi/s) Avogadros number (NA ) = 6.022 1023 per mole (mol1 ) Electronic charge (e) = 1.602 1019 Coulomb (C) Boltzmanns constant (k) = 1.38 1023 Joules per Kelvin (J/K) Stefan-Boltzmann constant () = 5.67 108 Watts per square meter-Kelvin4 (W/m2 K4 ) Molar gas constant (R) = 8.314 Joules per mole-Kelvin (J/mol-K) Properties of Water Freezing point at sea level = 32o F = 0o C Boiling point at sea level = 212o F = 100o C Density of water at 4o C = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1 kg/liter = 62.428 lb/ft3 = 1.94 slugs/ft3 Specic heat of water at 14o C = 1.00002 calories/go C = 1 BTU/lbo F = 4.1869 Joules/go C Specic heat of ice 0.5 calories/go C Specic heat of steam 0.48 calories/go C Absolute viscosity of water at 20o C = 1.0019 centipoise (cp) = 0.0010019 Pascal-seconds (Pas) Surface tension of water (in contact with air) at 18o C = 73.05 dynes/cm pH of pure water at 25o C = 7.0 (pH scale = 0 to 14) Properties of Dry Air at sea level Density of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 1.204 mg/cm3 = 1.204 kg/m3 = 0.075 lb/ft3 = 0.00235 slugs/ft3 Absolute viscosity of dry air at 20o C and 760 torr = 0.018 centipoise (cp) = 1.8 105 Pascalseconds (Pas)
le conversion constants 17
Question 0 How to read actively: Make notes in a notebook while reading if youre not reading with a pencil, youre not actively reading! Shorthand notation, diagrams, and other notes jotted in a notebook are more eective at prompting active reading than underlining, highlighting, or otherwise marking up the original text. Mentally summarize each new concept or application you encounter in your own words. If you cannot do this, you know you need to re-read the relevant sections until you can! Try to link new concepts to previously-learned concepts, and imagine how new concepts might apply to applications not mentioned in the text. Make notes on these points so you may raise them as questions during class time. Note page numbers where important concepts, equations, images, tables, and problem-solving techniques are introduced. This will help you locate these important references during class time when you will contribute in the discussion (On page 572 it shows . . .). Note page numbers of any sections in the reading that confound you, so you may call attention to it at the start of class time to get help from classmates and/or the instructor. If the text demonstrates a mathematical calculation, such as how to apply a new equation to solving a problem, pick up your calculator and work through the example as you read! Applications of math are an ideal opportunity to actively read a technical book, actually engaging in the material rather than passively observing what it says. Reserve the front pages of your notebook (or keep a separate notebook) for all mathematical formulae you come across in your reading. Briey explain in your own words what each formula does and what its terms mean. Problem-solving techniques Clearly identify all given information, and also what the question is asking you to determine or solve. Sketch a diagram or graph to organize all the given information and show where the answer will t. Performing thought experiments to visualize the eects of dierent conditions. Working backward from a hypothetical solution to a new set of given conditions. Changing the problem to make it simpler, and then solving the simplied problem (e.g. changing quantitative to qualitative, or visa-versa; substituting dierent numerical values to make them easier to work with; eliminating confusing details; adding details to eliminate unknowns; considering limiting cases that are easier to grasp). Identify any rst principles of science, electronics, and/or instrumentation (e.g. Conservation laws, Feedback, Zero and Span, Ohms Law, etc.) that might apply to the question. Specically identify which portion(s) of the question you nd most confusing and need help with. The more specic you are able to be, the better. Above all, cultivate an attitude of persistence in your studies. The ability to intently focus and not give up when faced with a challenge is necessary for mastery of anything non-trivial. They keys to enabling persistence are (1) having the desire to achieve that mastery, and (2) knowing that challenges are normal and not an indication of something gone wrong.
le question0 18
Questions Question 1 A group of mechanics are trying to gure out a solution to a problem. They are trying to remove the lid from a large metal vessel, but the lid is stuck and will not come o. Several of the mechanics try to use pry-bars to lift the lid, but to no avail. Others try to heat the lid with oxygen-acetylene torches and then pry while its hot, but this does not budge the lid either. Finally, one of the mechanics decides to plug all the pipe holes exiting this vessel except for one, then connect a water supply hose to that last pipe hole and use water pressure to force the lid o. After doing this, the lid comes o quite easily. Explain why the last mechanics solution worked, addressing the following points in your explanation: What is pressure? How much force will a uid such as water exert on a surface, given a certain uid pressure? Why was it prudent for the mechanic to use pressurized water and not compressed air to force the lid o? le i00018 Question 2 Read and outline the Pressure subsection of the Fluid Mechanics section of the Physics chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03894 Question 3 Read and outline the Pascals Principle and hydrostatic pressure subsection of the Fluid Mechanics section of the Physics chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03895
19
Question 4 If force is exerted on the piston of this hydraulic cylinder, in what direction(s) will this force be transmitted to the cylinder walls? In other words, how does a uid under pressure push against its surrounding container?
Force
Rod Piston
Fluid Steel cylinder wall Hydraulic cylinder

le i00142 Question 5 In this hydraulic system, a force of 25 pounds is applied to the small piston (area = 10 in2 ). How much force will be generated at the large piston (area = 40 in2 )? Also, calculate the uids pressure.
Steel cylinder wall
25 lb
Force = ???
10 in2
40 in2
Fluid
Finally, explain how Pascals Principle relates to this scenario. le i00150
20
Question 6 Read and outline the Systems of Pressure Measurement subsection of the Fluid Mechanics section of the Physics chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03897 Question 7 Read the Systems of Pressure Measurement subsection of the Fluid Mechanics section of the Physics chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook, particularly how to use fractions for cancellation of units, and how to manage conversions between units of pressure measurement that do not share the same zero point. Then, use that same mathematical technique to convert between the following units of pressure: 25 PSI = ??? kPa 40 W.C. = ??? PSI 5.60 bar (gauge) = ??? PSI 3 atm = ??? PSIA 1,200 Hg = ??? W.C. 12 feet W.C. = ??? PSI 4 PSI vacuum = ??? PSIA 110 kPa = ??? W.C. 982 mm Hg = ??? Hg 50 Pa = ??? PSI 21 atm = ??? Hg absolute 270 PSIG = ??? atm le i00146 Question 8 Complete the following table of equivalent pressures: PSIG 18 PSIA 400 33 60 452 12 1 -5 le i02938 inches Hg (G) inches W.C. (G)
21
Question 9 A surface-mounted water pump pulls water out of a well by creating a vacuum, though it might be more technically accurate to say that the pump works by reducing pressure in the inlet pipe to a level less than atmospheric pressure, allowing atmospheric pressure to then push water from the well up the pumps inlet pipe:
Pump
Atmospheric pressure
Water
Based on this description of pump operation, what is the theoretical maximum height that any pump can lift water out of a well? Hint: how much is the pressure of Earths atmosphere at sea level? Domestic water wells may be hundreds of feet deep. How can water be pumped out of wells this deep, given the height limitation of vacuum pumping? le i00147
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Question 10 Water pressure available at a re hydrant is 80 PSI. If a re hose is connected to the hydrant and the hydrant valve opened, how high can the end of the hose be raised and still have water ow out the end?
How high???
80 PSI
Now, suppose that a spray nozzle attached to the end of the hose requires at least 30 PSI of pressure at the coupling in order to function properly. How high can the hose be raised then, and still have enough water pressure at the nozzle to allow for the ghting of a re?
At least 30 PSI required here
How high???
80 PSI
le i00148
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Question 11 A force of 50 pounds is applied longitudinally through a at-ended steel rod 1/4 inch in diameter, pressing against a at surface. An equal amount of force is applied longitudinally through a pointed center-punch tool, against the same at surface.
50 lb
50 lb
rod
centerpunch
flat surface
pressure
pressure
The two forces are equal. Are the two pressures equal as well? Explain. le i00141 Question 12 Suppose a small rubber ball is oating inside the uid of a hydraulic cylinder as shown below. What will happen to the ball when a pushing force is exerted on the cylinders rod? What will happen to the ball when a pulling force is exerted on the rod?
Rubber ball
le i00143 Question 13 Identify and distinguish between absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and dierential pressure. Give at least one example of each kind of pressure. le i00144
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Question 14 A scuba divers air tank contains 2,000 PSI of air, as measured by a pressure gauge before descending into the water. The diver descends 50 feet into the water, where the surrounding water pressure caused by the waters weight (called hydrostatic pressure) is approximately 22 PSI. Assuming that the diver consumes an inconsequential amount of air from the tank during the 50 foot descent, express the air pressure inside the tank in terms of absolute pressure, gauge pressure, and dierential pressure (the dierential pressure between the tank and the surrounding hydrostatic pressure of the water). le i00145 Question 15 The following hydraulic system is made up of three cylinders connected together by the same tube:
cylinder #1
cylinder #2
tubing
Assuming that all three pistons are the same size, calculate the force generated by the pistons of cylinders #2 and #3 if the piston of cylinder #1 is pushed with 500 pounds of force. le i00152
25
cylinder #3
Question 16 A free-oating piston inside a hydraulic cylinder has a 1000 PSI of uid pressure applied to one side of the piston, and 850 PSI of pressure applied to the other side of the piston. The piston itself is 2.75 inches in diameter. How much force will act on the piston, with these pressures applied to it?
Force on piston ??? tubing piston

2.75"
850 PSI
tubing
1000 PSI
le i00155 Question 17 Calculate the force generated at the large piston (area = 40 in2 ), given a 25 pound force applied to the small piston (area = 10 in2 ). Also, calculate the pressures where the two pressure gauges are located, and explain how the hydrostatic pressure of the water columns 20 foot vertical height factors in to this force calculation.
25 lb
Force = ???
10 in2
40 in2
Pressure = ???
20 feet
Water
Pressure = ???
le i00159
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Question 18 Question 19 Question 20 Question 21 Read and outline the Fluid Power Systems section of the Discrete Control Elements chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i04178 Question 22 Calculate the amount of force generated by this hydraulic ram for the given pressures, assuming a circular piston with a diameter of 5 inches:
rod
(vented) piston 5"
Fluid pressure
P = 260 PSI P = 1100 PSI P = 461 kPa P = 399 W.C. P = 2.77 bar le i04179 F = F = F = F = F =
27
Question 23 Calculate the amount of force generated by this pneumatic diaphragm valve actuator for the given pressures, assuming a circular diaphragm with a diameter of 14 inches:
Air pressure in
Spring
(vent)
Actuator stem
Force (F)
P = 15 PSI P = 60 PSI P = 22 Hg P = 50 kPa le i04180 F = F = F = F =
28
Question 24 A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has 500 PSI of pressure applied to the side without the rod and 750 PSI of pressure applied to the rod-side. Calculate the resultant force generated at the piston and transmitted through to the rod, and also determine this forces direction. The piston is 5 inches in diameter, and the rod is 1 inch in diameter.
Force ??? 1"
rod
750 PSI piston 5"
500 PSI
le i00156
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Question 25 Two pressure-actuated lifts are used to raise a heavy weight o the ground. One lift uses oil under pressure (from a hydraulic pump) while the other lift uses air under pressure (from an air compressor). Each lift is equipped with a shut-o valve on the line feeding uid to the cylinder, so that the pistons motion may be halted:
Weight Weight
Air
Oil
Shut-off valve . . . from air compressor
Shut-off valve . . . from hydraulic pump
What will happen if the weight were to fall o the lift platform after it had been raised up from ground level, in each case? Assume that the shut-o valve is closed (no uid ow from pump or compressor into the cylinder) when this happens. le i00750
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Question 26 Automobile lifts used in repair shops are often powered by an oil under air pressure system. Compressed air from the shops compressor (used to power hand tools, pump up at tires, clean parts, etc.) is readily available, and may be used as a source of pressure for a piston-and-cylinder lift machine. Using compressed air means that there need not be a separate hydraulic pump to impart pressure to the oil used in the cylinder:
Shut-off valve #2
Compressed air Oil Oil
. . . from air compressor
Shut-off #1 valve
Which shut-o valve would be the safer one to close for halting the platforms upward motion when lifting an automobile o the ground? Why? le i00751 Question 27 Control valves used in pneumatic and hydraulic uid power systems often take the form of a spool mechanism, and the uid power schematic symbols for these spool valves are quite unlike that of valve symbols in P&IDs and loop diagrams:
Solenoid-actuated on/off spool valve

1
Dual solenoid-actuated reversing spool valve

1 2
Explain what these symbols represent, and how they are to be interpreted. Also, comment on the construction of a spool valve. le i00753
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Question 28 Hydraulic (liquid) power systems require pressure regulation just like pneumatic (air) power systems. However, pressure control must be done dierently in a hydraulic system. In a pneumatic system, the electric motor driving the air compressor is simply turned on and o to maintain air system pressure between two setpoints. In a hydraulic system, the electric motor driving the positive-displacement pump continually runs, with a pressure relief valve regulating line pressure:
Hydraulic motor Hand-actuated lever

(return to reservoir)
Control valve Constant hydraulic pressure maintained Hydraulic here pump M Electric motor
Pressure relief valve
(return to reservoir)
Filter
Oil reservoir
If not for the pressure-relief valve, the hydraulic pump would lock up and refuse to turn whenever the control valve was placed in the stop position (as shown in the diagram). With the pressure-relief valve in place, the pump will continue to spin and hydraulic pressure will be maintained. Explain why a positive-displacement hydraulic pump will lock up if its outlet line is blocked, and explain the operating principle of the pressure-relief valve. le i00752
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Question 29 Examine the hydraulic schematic diagram for a reversing cylinder system:
When the lever is pulled, the cylinders piston moves in one direction. When the lever is pushed, it moves in the other direction. When the lever is released, it spring-returns to a center position, and the piston remains where it is. Identify each component within this system, and explain in detail how the system works in each of the control valves three positions. Also, determine whether the piston will be locked in position or free-oating when the directional spool valve is left in its center position. le i00754 Question 30 Suppose a particular hydraulic pump outputs a ow rate of 8 gallons per minute (GPM) when turned by an electric induction motor at 1720 RPM. How fast would this pump be able to move the piston in an hydraulic cylinder with a diameter of 3.35 inches? Also, calculate the hydraulic system pressure if the cylinder has to exert 1900 pounds of force as it moves. le i00755
33
Question 31 In this hydraulic lift system, the oil pressure is registered by a pressure gauge as the vehicle is lifted o the ground. The heavier the vehicle, of course, the more oil pressure will be required to lift it:
Valve
Compressed air Oil Valve Oil
. . . from air compressor
Pressure gauge
We know that force is equal to pressure times area in a uid system (F = P A), and from this relationship we could calculate how much force was being exerted by the lift in raising a vehicle o the ground for any given amount of oil pressure. For example, if we knew the hydraulic pressure was 350 PSI and the piston area was 13.7 square inches, we could calculate that the vehicle weighs 4795 pounds. It is important for unit cancellation in the F = P A formula that we know the pressure in units of lb/in2 and the area in units of in2 , otherwise the force would not come out in units of pounds: F = PA [lb] = lb in2 in2
Suppose, though, we knew neither the area of the piston (A) nor the unit of pressure measurement (imagine a pressure gauge with numbers and divisions on the scale, but no unit written). We do know, however, that the pressure gauge needle rises to 37.2 when a 5000 pound vehicle is lifted o the ground. You are asked to gure out a multiplying constant for mechanics to use when determining the weight of a vehicle from the gauges indication. In other words, you need to calculate a number which when multiplied by the gauges reading will give vehicle weight in pounds. In physics, this number is known as a constant of proportionality, and it is usually signied by the letter k. Knowing that force is proportional to pressure for a constant piston area, we can say that force is equal to some constant (k) multiplied by uid pressure (P ): F P F = kP Solve for k in this hydraulic lift system. le i02991
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Question 32 A very useful principle in physics is the Ideal Gas Law, so called because it relates pressure, volume, molecular quantity, and temperature of an ideal gas together in one neat mathematical expression: P V = nRT Where, P = Absolute pressure (atmospheres) V = Volume (liters) n = Gas quantity (moles) R = Universal gas constant (0.0821 L atm / mol K) T = Absolute temperature (K) Apply this law to the scenario of a gas-lled cylinder and movable piston:
Gas
Cylinder
Piston
In particular, sketch how the gas pressure inside the cylinder relates to changes in cylinder volume caused by piston movement, assuming no change in gas temperature or leakage of gas molecules from the cylinder:
le i02923 35
Question 33 Question 34 Question 35 Question 36 Question 37 Question 38 Question 39 Question 40 Question 41 Read and outline the Pneumatic Sensing Elements section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03924 Question 42 Read and outline the Self Balancing Pneumatic Instrument Principles section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03926 Question 43 Read and outline the Pilot Valves and Pneumatic Amplifying Relays section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03925
36
Question 44 What will happen to the pressures in this apper/nozzle system if the nozzle becomes completely plugged, from debris in the tube (most likely from an unclean air supply)?
???
???
From compressed air supply Debris plugging nozzle

What will happen to the pressures in this apper/nozzle system if the orice becomes completely plugged, from debris in the tube?
???
???
From compressed air supply Debris plugging orifice

In both scenarios, the blockage limits air ow out the nozzle. Will this reduction in air ow have any eect on the apper? Explain why or why not. le i00192
37
Question 45 What will the output voltage do if the variable resistance increases in value? Will the output voltage increase, decrease, or stay the same?
+V
Vout ???
What change in pneumatic output pressure will result in this pilot valve mechanism if the control rod moves in the downward direction (so that the plug moves closer to the seat)?
Compressed air supply Output pressure ???
orifice
plug
se at se at
(vent)
(vent) Control rod moved down
Compare these two systems, one electrical and one pneumatic. What similarities and dierences do you notice? le i00193
38
Question 46 Compare the following devices: a pneumatic pilot comprised of two plug/seat valve assemblies actuated by the same control rod, and a two-rheostat voltage divider circuit actuated by the same control knob:
Compressed air supply Output pressure

plug
+V
Control knob
plug
se at at se
Vout
(vent) (vent) Control rod

If the control rod of the pneumatic pilot moves up, what will the output pressure do (increase, decrease, or stay the same)? Assuming the two rheostats in the voltage divider circuit move in complementary fashion (one increases resistance while the other decreases resistance, with the same knob motion), which resistance must increase and which must decrease in order to mimic the behavior of the pneumatic pilot? In other words, after determining the pilot mechanisms output response, determine what changes in electrical resistance will produce an analogous response in the voltage divider circuit. Now compare the following devices: a dierent pneumatic pilot comprised of two plug/seat valve assemblies actuated by the same control rod, and a two-rheostat voltage divider circuit actuated by the same control knob:
Compressed air supply Output pressure +V
Control knob
Vout
(vent)
(vent)
Control rod
39
If the control rod of the pneumatic pilot moves up, what will the output pressure do (increase, decrease, or stay the same)? Once again, determine what resistance changes must occur in the electrical circuit to achieve results analogous to the pilot mechanisms actions. le i00194 Question 47 Does the output pressure of this relay increase with increasing input pressure, or decrease with increasing input pressure? In other words, is it a direct-acting or reverse acting type of relay?
Input
Supply
vent
le i00197
Output
40
Question 48 What is the response of this pneumatic relay to increasing pressure on each of its inputs? Does the output pressure increase as input As pressure increases? What happens when input Bs pressure increases?
Input B
sealing diaphragm
Input A
sensing diaphragm
Supply
vent
Output
Can you think of an electronic circuit or device that acts in an analogous manner? Also, explain why the following relay design is better, using two sealing diaphragms instead of just one:
Input A
Input B
Supply
vent
le i00198
Output
41
Question 49 A pneumatic dierential pressure transmitter has a calibrated range of -100 to +100 inches of water column ( W.C.), and its output signal range is 3 to 15 PSI. Complete the following table of values for this transmitter, assuming perfect calibration (zero error). Be sure to show your work! Input pressure applied (W.C.) 0 -30 Percent of span (%) Output signal (PSI)
8 13 65 10 le i00096 Question 50 Complete the following table of equivalent pressures: bar 0.59 PSI 4.1 200 35 308 105 88 5.91 le i03927 inches W.C. inches mercury
42
Question 51 The transfer function (graph of output versus input) for a pneumatic bae/nozzle assembly looks something like this:
Clearance
From compressed air supply (20 PSI) 20 18 16 14 12 Pressure at 10 nozzle (PSI) 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Nozzle
Baffle
9 10
Clearance, mils (thousandths of an inch)

As you can see, this is a very sensitive mechanism. A nearly full swing of pressure (0 PSI to supply) is obtained with just several thousandths of an inch of bae movement. It is this extreme sensitivity that allows us to assume there is negligible motion in a pneumatic force-balance mechanism operating within its calibrated range. However, the bae/nozzle mechanism is certainly not equally sensitive throughout all portions of its operating range. Identify the most sensitive portion of its range on the transfer function graph, and explain you selection criterion. le i02907
43
Question 52 One of the most basic components of a pneumatic instrument is the so-called apper/nozzle, or bae/nozzle assembly. It consists of two restrictions to air ow, one within a tube (the orice) and the other at the end of a tube (the nozzle). The apper, or bae, is nothing more than a at piece of metal in close proximity to the nozzle tip. These mechanisms serve as extremely sensitive position detectors, generating a pneumatic pressure output signal that varies with apper (bae) position:
Output pressure port From compressed air supply Orifice Nozzle Flapper, or Baffle
Suppose that two pressure gauges were installed along the length of the tube, one upstream of the orice and the other downstream of the orice, like this:
???
???
From compressed air supply Orifice Nozzle
Flapper, or Baffle
Qualitatively speaking, what would these two pressure gauges indicate? Assume that the air supply is regulated by a pressure regulator, and so remains at a constant pressure. Would the two pressure gauges indicate the same amount of pressure? Would one of them indicate a higher pressure than the other? Explain your answer. If the apper (bae) is brought closer to the nozzle, the nozzle will become more restrictive to air ow through it. What eect will this have on the two pressure gauge indications in this apper/nozzle system?
???
???
From compressed air supply Flapper moved closer to nozzle
If the apper travels further away from the nozzle, what eect will it have on the two pressure gauges indications? 44
???
???
From compressed air supply Flapper moved further away from nozzle
le i00191 Question 53 Here, a simple pneumatic relay is shown next to an electronic circuit performing an analogous function:
Compressed air supply +V Output pressure
Vin
Vout
(vent)
diaphragm
-V
Input pressure
Describe what happens to the output of each system (pneumatic relay, and electronic circuit) if the input signal increases. For the pneumatic relay, this means an increasing (positive) input pressure to the diaphragm. For the electronic circuit, this means a more positive Vin with respect to ground. Will the output signal(s) increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain your answers. Do either of these devices consume power (i.e. pass air from source to vent, or electrical current from rail to rail) under steady-state conditions? Why or why not? le i00195
45
Question 54 Here, a simple pneumatic relay is shown next to an electronic circuit performing a similar, analogous, function:
Compressed air supply +V Output pressure
spring
Vin
Vout
sealing diaphragm sensing diaphragm
(vent)
-V
Input pressure
Describe what happens to the output of each system (pneumatic relay, and electronic circuit) if the input signal increases. For the pneumatic relay, this means an increasing (positive) input pressure to the diaphragm. For the electronic circuit, this means a more positive Vin with respect to ground. Will the output signal(s) increase, decrease, or stay the same? Explain your answers. Do either of these devices consume power (i.e. pass air from source to vent, or electrical current from rail to rail) under steady-state conditions? Why or why not? le i00196
46
Question 55 Shown here is a cut-away diagram of a simple pressure repeater, a device used to duplicate the pressure inside an enclosed process vessel with clean pneumatic (air) pressure, so it may be read with a remote gauge:
Vessel wall
Pressure indicating gauge

diaphragm
Process pressure
Vent
nozzle
Output pressure
orifice
Vessel wall
Compressed air supply

Describe the response of this device, step by step, to an increase in process pressure. Hint: the diaphragm in this device is slack, meaning it has negligible spring eect. This means even very small pressure dierences are sucient to move the diaphragm signicantly. Also, explain where we might want to use such a device, in lieu of simply connecting the pressure indicating gauge directly to the process vessel. le i00199 Question 56 Question 57 Question 58 Question 59 Question 60 Question 61 Read and outline the Analogy to Opamp Circuits section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03930
47
Question 62 Read the Analogy to Opamp Circuits section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook and answer the following questions: Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:
Pout +V Vin(-) Vin(+) + -V Vout Air supply

Bellows Bellows Orifice Nozzle
Baffle
Pin(-)
Pivot
Pin(+)
Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:
Pout +V Vin + -V
Pivot Orifice Nozzle
Baffle Bellows Pin
Vout
Air supply
Challenge question: research the work of Harold Black in the 1920s, when he applied the principle of negative feedback to the design of telephone amplier circuits. How well was this novel concept accepted by the professional community? le i03928
48
Question 63 Read the Analogy to Opamp Circuits section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook and answer the following questions: Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:
R Pout +V Vin + -V x Vout Air supply

Orifice Nozzle
Baffle Bellows Pin 2x
Calculate Vout if Vin = 3.4 volts. Calculate Pout if Pin = 3.4 PSI. Is the pneumatic system a motionbalance or a force-balance mechanism? Explain how the following systems (analog electronic versus pneumatic) are similar in their behavior:
R Pout +V Vin + -V Vout Air supply 2x

Orifice Nozzle
Pin
Calculate Vout if Vin = 5.1 volts. Calculate Pout if Pin = 5.1 PSI. Is the pneumatic system a motionbalance or a force-balance mechanism? le i03929
49
Question 64 In the following bae/nozzle system, the nozzle pressure is allowed to react against any external force by generating a force with a bellows unit, to push the bae away from the nozzle. The particular bellows in this mechanism is designed to be slack, having little spring eect to self-restrain its motion. Whatever force generated by the pressure acting against the bellows surface area gets directly transferred to the lever:
P = ???
From compressed air supply
Nozzle Baffle
Bellows
Applied force 1.2 lbs
0.75 in2
Pivot
What will happen if someone pushes the lever toward the nozzle with their thumb, with a force of 1.2 pounds? Assuming a bellows area of 0.75 square inches, how much pressure should the gauge register? How far do you think the bae will be moved by this applied force? Now, suppose we modify this system to have a larger bellows unit (area = 1.5 square inches), once again designed to directly transfer the force of the air pressure to the lever:
P = ???
Nozzle Baffle
Bellows
Applied force 1.2 lbs
1.5 in2
Pivot
What will happen if someone pushes the lever toward the nozzle with the same amount of force as before (with the smaller bellows)? How will this system respond to the same stimulus? Challenge question: suppose the compressed air supply pressure was 10 PSI in both cases. If this supply pressure were to drop to a lower value such as 8 PSI, what eect (if any) would this have on the gauge pressure in each scenario as the system responds to the same amount of applied force? le i00200
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Question 65 Explain how each of the following pressure instruments works, identifying whether each one uses the principle of motion-balance or the principle of force-balance: Example 1:
Pressure signal output Flexure Bellows Nozzle

force bar
Flapper Bellows
Applied pressure
Example 2:
Flexible tube Bellows
Pressure signal output
Nozzle Spring (compression) Fulcrum Flapper Bellows
Applied pressure
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Example 3:
Current signal output + Light source Amplifier S N "Force motor" (applies force proportional to DC current)
Flexure
Diaphragm Box
Closely-spaced photoresistors Applied pressure
le i00208 Question 66 Read and outline the Foxboro Model 13A Dierential Pressure Transmitter subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03931 Question 67 Read and outline the Foxboro Model E69 I/P Electro-Pneumatic Transducer subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03932 Question 68 Read and outline the Fisher Model 546 I/P Electro-Pneumatic Transducer subsection of the Analysis of Practical Pneumatic Instruments section of the Pneumatic Instrumentation chapter in your Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation textbook. Note the page numbers where important illustrations, photographs, equations, tables, and other relevant details are found. Prepare to thoughtfully discuss with your instructor and classmates the concepts and examples explored in this reading. le i03933
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Question 69 Since precision pneumatic instruments operate best when their supply air pressure is at a constant pressure, it is necessary to regulate the uctuating air pressure from the receiver vessel down to a lower, more constant level for the instrument. The device designed to do this is called an air pressure regulator. A cut-away diagram of an air pressure regulator is shown here:
setpoint adjust (turn down for more pressure)

screw vent
spring diaphragm
Low pressure (regulated) air out
plug
High pressure air in
The wedge-shaped plug can move down to open the passageway and allow more of the high-pressure air to enter the chamber below the diaphragm, and can move up to close o the passageway and reduce the ow of incoming air into the diaphragm chamber. The regulation setpoint is adjustable by the position of the threaded rod pressing down on the diaphragm through a spring. Describe how this air pressure regulator functions. Suppose that the outlet air pressure is below setpoint. How does this mechanism respond to bring the outlet pressure back up to where it is supposed to be? If the outlet air pressure rises to too high a level, how does the mechanism compensate to reduce it back down to the setpoint level? le i00190 Question 70 Read the Siemens model 61 Booster Relay installation and service manual (document SD61, revision 7; originally a publication of the Moore Products company), and answer the following questions: Identify how such a volume-boosting relay is used in conjunction with a pneumatically-actuated control valve. Examine the cut-away drawing for the model 61L relay (page 6) and explain how it functions. Describe a thought experiment where the signal pressure increases, and the relay produces a matching output pressure. The models 61F and 61E relays have a capability that the model 61L does not. Identify what this capability is, by examining the respective drawings (pages 6-7). le i04181
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Question 71 The sensitivity and linearity of a pneumatic force-balance instrument may be improved with the addition of a pneumatic amplifying relay to amplify the response of the apper/nozzle assembly. It other words, the inclusion of an amplier into the system increases the systems gain. Explain what happens, step by step, in the system shown, if force is applied to the lever by someones thumb:
From compressed air supply Output air pressure signal

input
Restriction
Nozzle
Applied force
Bellows
output supply (vent)
leaf spring ball
Pneumatic amplifying relay
stem valve diaphragm
Pivot
Also, determine whether the mechanism will still produce the same amount of output pressure for any given amount of applied force without the amplifying relay in place. In other words, if we removed the relay from the system, would the output pressure be greater than before, less than before, or the same as before given the same force applied to the lever?
Restriction
Nozzle
Applied force
Bellows
Pivot
Challenge question: if we reduced the restriction (orice) bore size in this system such that less air owed through the nozzle, would the output pressure be greater than before, less than before, or the same as before given the same force applied to the lever? le i00201
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Question 72 Determine the nal eect of each fault for this pneumatic force-balance system:

input
Restriction
Nozzle
Applied force
Bellows
leaf spring ball

Pivot
Clogged nozzle Clogged restriction Clogged tube at supply port of amplifying relay Broken leaf spring inside amplifying relay Major hole or tear in diaphragm inside amplifying relay Be sure to explain the nal eects for each of these faults! le i00202
Question 73 The following pneumatic transducer converts between a 3-15 PSI signal range and a 6-30 PSI signal range. Based on the illustration shown here, which pressure range corresponds to the input and which pressure range corresponds to the output? Does it input 3-15 PSI and output 6-30 PSI, or visa-versa? How can you tell??

input
Input pressure
Bellows
Bellows
Pivot Pneumatic amplifying relay

spring ball
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Question 74 The following force-balance mechanism responds to an applied force by increasing its output pressure:
Restriction
Nozzle
Applied force
Bellows
output input supply (vent)

leaf spring ball
How will this mechanism respond to the exact same amount of manual force applied at a lower level, closer to the pivot point?
Restriction
Nozzle
Applied force
Bellows
output input supply (vent)

leaf spring ball
Be sure to explain why this is! le i00798
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Question 75 Shown here is a diagram for an electronic force-balance pressure transmitter:
Current signal output + Magnet

N S N
Magnet Magnet
S beam
S N
"Force motor" (applies force proportional to DC current)
Flexure
Diaphragm Box Hall Effect sensor
Applied pressure
Explain the following things in reference to this transmitter: What is a exure? How is the opposing force generated? What does a Hall Eect sensor do? How is an imbalance of force detected? How would you incorporate a zero adjustment into this transmitter? How would you incorporate a span adjustment into this transmitter? le i00207
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Question 76 Identify the high and low ports on this pneumatic dierential pressure transmitter, and explain your reasoning:
Regulated compressed air supply
orifice
nozzle flapper bellows
Air pressure signal out
force bar
fulcrum diaphragm
Flexure
Port "A"
Port "B"
Also, explain how this transmitter will respond to an increasing pressure at each of its two ports, including the operation of the bellows feedback mechanism. le i00223 Question 77 Question 78 Question 79 Question 80
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Question 81 Complete the following table of equivalent pressures. Show enough of your work that it is clear how you performed each type of conversion (e.g. from PSIG to PSIA, from Torr to PSIA, etc.): PSIG 15 PSIA 2.1 900 100 5 -30 10 85 inches Hg (G) inches W.C. (G)
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Question 82 Make your own force-area-pressure calculation problem, in a two-piston hydraulic system, showing how a small force may be translated into a large force. Be sure to show all the necessary steps for solving your problem, as well as the solution:
Fluid
This is a graded question: you will be graded on accuracy and originality (no plagiarized answers!). le i00765 60
Question 83 Identify all components in this hydraulic schematic diagram, and also explain what the system does:
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Question 84 Suppose a control valve fails to respond to an electronic (4-20 mA) signal from a controller. Regardless of the controllers output (as shown on the controller faceplate or computer display), the valve always remains fully closed:
20 PSI air supply 4-20 mA signal (from controller) I/P Control valve (air-to-open)
An instrument technician removes the cover from the I/P transducer and momentarily presses the bae against the nozzle. The control valve immediately responds by opening fully. Identify the likelihood of each possible fault in this list by cheking boxes in the table whether the fault is probable (worth considering as a cause of this systems trouble) or is unlikely (either completely ruled out as a cause, or just not worth considering at this point in the diagnosis) following the results of the technicians test: Fault I/P amplifying relay broken Air leak in valve actuator 4-20 mA loop wiring failed open Low supply air pressure I/P restrictor (orice) clogged Controller mis-congured I/P nozzle clogged 4-20 mA loop wiring failed shorted Small calibration error Probable Unlikely
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Question 85 Sketch a diagram of an air pressure regulator and explain in your own words how it functions:
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Question 86 Electrical power may be calculated as the product of resistance (R) and the square of current (I): P = I 2R Where, P = Power (Watts) I = Current (Amperes) R = Resistance (Ohms) Manipulate this equation to solve for resistance (R), and again to solve for current (I). Be sure to show all your work!
R=
I=
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Question 87 Complete the table of values for this circuit. Be sure to show all your work!
180 R1 R2 7V
250 R3 100
R1 V I R P 180
R2
R3
Total
100
250
As you solve this problem, be sure to store all intermediate calculations (i.e. answers given to you by your calculator which you will use later in the problem) in your calculators memory locations, so as to avoid re-entering those values by hand. Re-entering calculated values unnecessarily introduces rounding errors into your work, as well as invites keystroke errors. Avoiding the unnecessary introduction of error is a very important concept in Instrumentation! If your nal answers are rounded as a result of not doing this, you will only receive half-credit for your work. This is a general policy for all your mathematical work in this program, not just this particular problem!
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Question 88 Identify what will happen to the output waveform from this amplier circuit if resistor R2 fails open, and explain why it will happen:
R1 + Vin U1
fails open R2
Vout
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Question 89 Small relays often come packaged in clear, rectangular, plastic cases. These so-called ice cube relays have either eight or eleven pins protruding from the bottom, allowing them to be plugged into a special socket for connection with wires in a circuit. Note the labels near terminals on the relay socket, showing the locations of the coil terminals and contact terminals:
(top views)
Com #1 Com #2 N.C. #2 coil coil
Relay
Relay socket
N.O. #1
Draw the necessary connecting wires between terminals in this circuit, so that actuating the normallyopen pushbutton switch sends power from the battery to the coil to energize the relay:
Battery Relay (plugged into socket)
N.O. switch
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N.O. #2
N.C. #1
Question 90 The following lamp circuit has a problem. The lamp refuses to turn on, no matter what position the switch is set in:
Lamp Terminal block

1 2 3 4
Battery + -
Switch
With the switch in the on position, you measure normal battery voltage between terminals 1 and 4 on the terminal block. Based on this information, identify which of these proposed faults could possibly account for the observed behavior of this circuit and which could not. Consider each fault one at a time (in other words, ask yourself whether or not each proposed fault by itself could account for the behavior of the circuit): Lamp failed open (lament broken in half) possible or not possible? Broken wire between lamp and switch possible or not possible? Broken wire between switch and terminal block possible or not possible? Completely dead battery possible or not possible?
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Question 91 Lab Exercise Your teams task is to completely disassemble, reassemble, and calibrate the bench-set of a pneumatically actuated control valve, preferably a Fisher (Emerson) E-body globe valve. Also, you will build a control loop to actuate that valve with an electronic 4-20 mA signal, using a Fisher model 546 I/P transducer as the signal converter between the controller and the valve. Each instrument in the loop should be labeled with a proper tag name (e.g. HV-44 for a hand-controlled valve), with all instruments in each loop sharing the same loop number. Write on pieces of masking tape to make simple labels for all the instruments and signal lines. When completely assembled, wired, and calibrated, the control valve should be controllable from the control room area by adjusting the output of a controller in its manual mode. The controller thus functions as a Hand Indicating Controller (HIC) since it is being used to manually position the valve rather than automatically positioning it according to some process measurement. Each student must correctly identify components of their teams disassembled valve before the team reassembles it. Each student is given 5 minutes to diagnose a fault placed by the instructor in another teams system, correctly identifying both the general location and nature of the fault, and logically justifying all diagnostic steps taken to the supervising instructor. A standard multimeter is the only test equipment allowed during the time limit. No diagnostic circuit breaks are allowed except by instructor permission, and then only after correctly explaining what trouble this could cause in a real system. If the fault is generally identied within the initial time limit, more time will be given to precisely identify and correct it. Failure to correctly identify both the general location and nature of the fault within the allotted time, and/or failing to demonstrate rational diagnostic procedure to the supervising instructor will disqualify the eort, in which case the student must re-try with a dierent fault. Multiple re-tries are permitted with no reduction in grade. Objective completion table: Performance objective Component selection and testing Loop diagram and inspection Control valve disassembly Valve component identication Set proper stroke length of valve Bench-set control valve I/P calibration Troubleshooting (5 minute limit) Lab question: Diagnosis Lab question: Instruments Lab question: Math Lab question: Tools/safety Grading mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery mastery proportional proportional proportional proportional 1 2 3 4 Team
Cut out tag(s) with scissors, then affix to instrument(s) using transparent tape to show calibration: CALIBRATED By: Range: Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date: By: Range: CALIBRATED Date:
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Lab questions (reviewed between instructor and student team in a private session) Diagnosis Explain what will happen (and why) if the valve (I/P) cable fails open Explain what will happen (and why) if the I/P air supply fails (0 PSI) Explain what will happen (and why) if a leak develops in the valves actuating piston or diaphragm Identify problems caused by packing that is not compressed tight enough Identify problems caused by packing that is compressed too tightly Identify the fail-safe mode of a specic control valve Identify the eects of faults within an I/P transducer (plugged nozzle, plugged restriction, hole in relay diaphragm, weakened magnet, hole in bellows, etc.).
Instruments Identify the zero adjustment on the I/P transducer, and explain how it works. Identify the span adjustment on the I/P transducer, and explain how it works. Explain how a tube tting seals against uid leaks Explain how a tapered-thread pipe tting seals against uid leaks Explain the function of stem packing, and how to change it Explain the function of a stem packing lubricator, and how to operate it Explain how to adjust the compression on a valves packing Identify alternative actuators (other than pneumatic diaphragm) Explain how to lap globe valve trim during a rebuild Identify the major components of a rotary ball control valve from a diagram Explain the operation of the Fisher model 546 I/P transducer, including the bae/nozzle assembly, the force coil, the amplifying relay, the bellows, the magnet, etc. Explain the operation of the amplifying relay, given a cut-away diagram of it. Identify where the restriction is in the I/Ps pneumatic circuitry, and how you would clean it if it became plugged. Identify and explain routine servicing procedures for instrument air ltering/drying equipment Math (no calculator allowed!) Convert between dierent pressure units, without relying on the use of a reference for conversion factors (i.e. you must commit the major conversion factors to memory) Calculate the correct pneumatic output pressure (PSI) from an I/P transducer given an applied current (mA) signal input and a specied range (e.g. 4-20 mA input ; 3-15 PSI output) Calculate the applied input current (mA) to an I/P transducer given a measured pneumatic output pressure (PSI) and a specied range (e.g. 4-20 mA input ; 3-15 PSI output) Calculate the percentage of span error for an I/P transducer given a calibration range and an As-Found calibration table Calculate force generated by a diaphragm or piston actuator given diameter and applied uid pressure in units of PSI Tools/Safety Identify the preferred tools (in order) to use when connecting tube tting components: open-end wrench, box-end wrench, pliers, adjustable wrench Identify safety hazards associated with spring-return control valves, and how to safely disassemble/reassemble them Identify safety hazards associated with large actuators Identify safety hazards and protocols associated with pure oxygen as a process uid Identify safety hazards and protocols associated with cryogenic process uids Explain how to isolate a control valve for removal and service using manual block and bypass valves le i00769
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Loop diagram template
Question 92
Loop Diagram:
Revised by:
Date:
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Tag #
Description
Manufacturer
Model
Input range
Output range
Notes
Loop diagram requirements Perhaps the most important rule to follow when drafting a loop diagram is your diagram should be complete and detailed enough that even someone who is not an instrument technician could understand where every wire and tube should connect in the system! Instrument bubbles Proper symbols and designations used for all instruments. All instrument bubbles properly labeled (letter codes and loop numbers). All instrument bubbles marked with the proper lines (solid line, dashed line, single line, double lines, no lines). Optional: Calibration ranges and action arrows written next to each bubble.
Text descriptions Each instrument documented below (tag number, description, etc.). Calibration (input and output ranges) given for each instrument, as applicable. Connection points All terminals and tube junctions properly labeled. All terminal blocks properly labeled. All junction (eld) boxes shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled. All control panels shown as distinct sections of the loop diagram, and properly labeled. All wire colors shown next to each terminal. All terminals on instruments labeled as they appear on the instrument (so that anyone reading the diagram will know which instrument terminal each wire goes to).
Cables and tubes Single-pair cables or pneumatic tubes going to individual instruments should be labeled with the eld instrument tag number (e.g. TT-8 or TY-12) Multi-pair cables or pneumatic tube bundles going between junction boxes and/or panels need to have unique numbers (e.g. Cable 10) as well as numbers for each pair (e.g. Pair 1, Pair 2, etc.). Energy sources All power source intensities labeled (e.g. 24 VDC, 120 VAC, 20 PSI) All shuto points labeled (e.g. Breaker #5, Valve #7)
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Sample Loop Diagram (using a single-loop controller)
Loop Diagram: Furnace temperature control Process area
Revised by: Mason Neilan Field panel JB-12
Date: April 1, 2007 Control room panel CP-1

0-1500oF Red Cable TT-205 Blk TY Red Blk Blk
TE 205
0-1500oF Yel
TB-15
Red Cable TT-205 Blk Blk Red
TB-11
Wht/Blu
1 2
TT 205
3 4
Wht/Blu
Cable 3, Pr 1
Blu Blu
1 2
Red
7 22 TIC 21 205 19 18 H N
Blk Wht
Red
TB-15 TY 205b
Red Red Cable TY-205b Blk Blk
TB-11
Wht/Org
205a
/P
5 6
Wht/Org
Cable 3, Pr 2
Org Org
3 4
Red Cable TY-205b Blk
Tube TV-205
73
TV 205
AS 20 PSI Valve #15 Column #8
ES 120 VAC Breaker #4 Panel L2
Tag # TE-205 TT-205 TY-205a TIC-205 TY-205b TV-205
Description Thermocouple
Temperature transmitter
Manufacturer Omega Rosemount Vishay Siemens Fisher Fisher
Model 444 PAC 353 546 Easy-E
Input range 0-1500o F 1-5 V 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI
Output range Type K 4-20 mA 250 0-1500o F 3-15 PSI 0-100%
Notes Ungrounded tip Upscale burnout Reverse-acting control Fail-closed
Resistor Controller I/P transducer Control valve
Sample Loop Diagram (using DCS controller)
Loop Diagram: Blue team pressure loop Field process area

0-50 PSI
Revised by: Duncan D.V. Field panel JB-25 TB-52 TB-80

Red Red
Date: DCS cabinet
April 1, 2009
H L
Red
Red
PT 6
Cable PT-6
Blk Blk
1 2
Cable 4, Pr 1
Blk Blk
11 12
Red
Red
Cable PT-6 Blk Blk
11 12
Card 4 Channel 6 Analog input
Tube PV-6
0-50 PSI
PIC 6
74
PV 6
I
/P
TB-52
Red Red
TB-80
Red Red
PY 6 AS 20 PSI Tag # PT-6 PIC-6 PY-6 PV-6 Description Pressure transmitter Controller I/P transducer Control valve
Cable PV-6
Blk Blk
15 16
Cable 4, Pr 8
Blk Blk
29 30
Red
Red
Cable PV-6 Blk Blk
11 12
Card 6 Channel 6 Analog output
Manufacturer Rosemount Emerson Fisher Fisher
Model 3051CD DeltaV 846 Vee-ball
Input range Output range 0-50 PSI 4-20 mA 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI 4-20 mA 4-20 mA 3-15 PSI 0-100%
Notes
HART-enabled input Direct-acting control
Fail-open
Sample Loop Diagram (using pneumatic controller)
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Loop Diagram: Sludge tank level control Process area
Revised by: I. Leaky Bulkhead panel B-104
Date:
April 1, 2008
Control panel CP-11
H L
(vent)
LT 24 In
Tube LT-24a
Out
Tube LT-24b 14
C A.S. 21 PSI LV 24 Tube LV-24 Tube LV-24 Tube LV-24 LIC 24 D A.S. 21 PSI
Supply
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Tag # LT-24 LIC-24 LV-24
Description Level transmitter Controller Control valve
Manufacturer Foxboro Foxboro Fisher
Model 13A 130

Easy-E / 667
Input range 25-150 "H2O 3-15 PSI 3-15 PSI
Output range 3-15 PSI 3-15 PSI 0-100%
Notes
Fail closed
Question 93 Connect an ice-cube relay to a DC voltage source and a switch such that the relay will energize when the switch is closed. All electrical connections must be made using a terminal strip (no twisted wires, crimp splices, wire nuts, spring clips, or alligator clips permitted). This exercise tests your ability to properly interpret the pinout of an electromechanical relay, properly wire a switch to control a relays coil, and use a terminal strip to organize all electrical connections.
Relay socket Relay Terminal strip Switch
The following components and materials will be available to you during the exam: assorted ice cube relays with DC-rated coils and matching sockets ; assorted switches ; terminal strips ; lengths of hook-up wire ; battery clips (holders). You will be expected to supply your own screwdrivers and multimeter for assembling and testing the circuit at your desk. The instructor will supply the battery(ies) to power your circuit when you are ready to see if it works. Until that time, your circuit will remain unpowered.
Study reference: the Control Relays section of Lessons In Industrial Instrumentation. le i03772
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Answers Answer 1 Ill let you gure this out on your own! Answer 2 Answer 3 Answer 4 The uid pressure will exert an outward force on the cylinder walls, like this:
Force
Answer 5 Force at large piston = 100 pounds. Ill let you calculate the uid pressure on your own, as well as explain the relationship of Pascals Principle to this system. Answer 6
pressure
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Answer 7 25 PSI = 172.37 kPa 40 W.C. = 1.4451 PSI 5.60 bar (gauge) = 81.221 PSI 3 atm = 44.088 PSIA 1,200 Hg = 16,314.51 W.C. 12 feet W.C. = 5.2022 PSI 4 PSI vacuum = 10.7 PSIA 110 kPa = 441.622 W.C. 982 mm Hg = 38.661 Hg 50 Pa = 0.007252 PSI 21 atm = 628.522 Hg absolute 270 PSIG = 19.367 atm Answer 8
PSIG 18 385.3 16.21 2.168 222.0 0.4335 -13.7 -5
PSIA 32.7 400 30.91 16.87 236.7 15.13 1 9.7
inches Hg (G) 36.65 784.5 33 4.413 452 0.8826 -27.89 -10.18
inches W.C. (G) 498.25 10665 448.6 60 6145.1 12 -379.2 -138.4
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Answer 9 406.91 inches, which is a little bit less than 34 feet. Deeper wells may be tapped by using submersible pumps (pumps located inside the well, near the bottom):
Pump
Follow-up question: demonstrate how we could have arrived at an approximate answer by using rounded gures for our unit-conversion constants, and mental math instead of a calculator. Answer 10 With no nozzle on the end of the hose, the end may be raised a maximum of 184.54 feet. With a nozzle in place, the hose end may be raised only 115.34 feet. Follow-up question #1: explain how this problem relates to safety and reghting. Follow-up question #2: demonstrate how we could have arrived at an approximate answer by using rounded gures for our unit-conversion constants, and mental math instead of a calculator. Answer 11 Ill answer this question with an equation: P = Where, P = Pressure F = Force A = Area F A
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Answer 12 A pushing force on the rod will compress the rubber ball to a smaller diameter. A pulling force will expand it to a larger diameter.
Rubber ball compresses
Rubber ball expands
Answer 13 Absolute pressure is the measurement of a pressure as compared to a pure vacuum. Atmospheric (barometric) pressure, like the pressure gures reported by meteorologists, is an example of absolute pressure measurement. Gauge pressure is the measurement of a pressure as compared to the pressure of Earths atmosphere. The pressure indicated by a pressure gauge (like an oil pressure gauge for a car engine, or a tire pressure gauge) is an example of gauge pressure. When vented, such a gauge will register zero, even though there is still absolute pressure all around us due to Earths atmosphere. Dierential pressure is the measurement of a dierence between two dierent pressures. In essence, all pressure measurements are dierential in nature: notice how absolute and gauge pressures are dened in terms of a comparison of one pressure against another! Suxes are sometimes appended to pressure units to distinguish between absolute (A), gauge (G), and dierential (D) pressures. For example, you might see an absolute pressure represented as 150 PSIA, a gauge pressure as 35 PSIG, or a dierential pressure as 86.5 PSID. If no such sux is given, the pressure unit is assumed to be gauge. Some units of pressure measurement are always absolute, never gauge or dierential. These units include the atmosphere (14.7 PSIA), the bar (very close to 1 atmosphere think of it as a metric atmosphere), and the torr, which is absolute millimeters of mercury column. Answer 14 Absolute pressure = 2,014.7 PSIA. Gauge pressure = 2,000 PSIG. Dierential pressure (between tank and water) = 1,978 PSID. Answer 15 The force generated at each of the other two pistons will be the same: 500 pounds. If you were thinking that the 500 applied pound force to cylinder #1s piston would somehow be divided between the other two pistons, you need to carefully re-consider the pressure/force/area equation.
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Answer 16 Net piston force = 890.936 pounds. Answer 17 Force at large piston = 100 pounds. The upper pressure gauge will register 2.5 PSI, and the lower pressure gauge will register 11.17 PSI. Follow-up question: is the disparity between the two pressure gauge readings a contradiction of Pascals Principle? Explain why or why not. Answer 18 Answer 19 Answer 20 Answer 21 Answer 22 Partial answer: P = 1100 PSI P = 461 kPa P = 2.77 bar Answer 23 Partial answer: P = 15 PSI P = 22 Hg F = 2309.1 lbs F = 1663.4 lbs F = 21,598.4 lbs F = 1312.8 lbs F = 788.8 lbs
Answer 24 Net force = 4,319.69 pounds, in the downward direction.
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Answer 25 If the weight falls o the oil-actuated lift, the piston will hold its original position. If the weight falls o the air-actuated lift, the piston will rise substantially (perhaps even ejecting from the cylinder!) due to expansion of the air:
Platform rises up Platform remains still

W t gh ei W t gh ei
Air Oil
Shut-off valve
Shut-off valve
Answer 26 Shut-o valve #1 (the oil valve) would be the safer one to close for halting the platforms vertical motion.
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Answer 27 The symbols show each valves normal (unactuated) position. To understand what happens when the valve is actuated, you must visualize the boxes sliding over into alignment with the inlet/outlet pipes, like this:
Valve in "normal" position

1
Valve in actuated position

1
Valve is shut
Valve allows flow
The same holds for the reversing valve, except that it has three positions:
Valve in left position

1 2
Valve in "normal" position

1 2
Valve in right position

1 2
Pressure source to port 1 Port 2 return to tank (reservoir)

Answer 28
Valve is shut
Pressure source to port 2 Port 1 return to tank (reservoir)
A vitally important concept to grasp here is that of incompressibility. Air is a compressible uid, but hydraulic oil is incompressible for all practical purposes. Thus, a positive-displacement pump mechanism will lock up if the incompressible uid has no place to exit. Answer 29 Answer 30 Partial answer: Piston speed = 3.494 inches per second (in/s) Answer 31 k = 134.4
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Answer 32
V
Note that the function is a curve and not a straight line! In essence, the function plotted is this: P = Where k is a constant equal to nRT . Answer 33 Answer 34 Answer 35 Answer 36 Answer 37 Answer 38 Answer 39 Answer 40 Answer 41 Answer 42 Answer 43 Answer 44 Answer 45 Answer 46 Answer 47 k V
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Answer 48 A bit of explanation might be in order for the two diaphragms. The larger diaphragm is called the sensing diaphragm, while the smaller diaphragm is called the sealing diaphragm. The purpose of the sealing diaphragm is to prevent air pressure at input B from leaking out into the vented chamber just to the left of the wedge-shaped pilot plug. This sealing diaphragm is made small enough that its contribution to force on the stem is negligible. Only the sensing diaphragm is large enough to have any consequence upon the pilot valves action. This is an equivalent electronic circuit:
+V
Vout Vin1 Vin2
Answer 49 Partial answer: Input pressure applied (W.C.) 0 -30 Percent of span (%) 35 Output signal (PSI) 7.2 8 13 10.8
30
65 10
85
Answer 50 bar 0.59 0.2827 0.4982 1.185 0.7672 3.556 6.068 5.91 Answer 51 The most sensitive portion of this mechanisms range is where the derivative of the transfer function reaches its maximum (absolute) value. Most sensitive where Where, P = Pressure at nozzle x = Clearance between bae and nozzle Answer 52 The pressure gauge downstream of the orice will indicate a lower pressure than the gauge upstream of the orice. Moving the apper closer to the nozzle increases the downstream pressure, while moving the apper away from the nozzle decreases the downstream pressure. Follow-up question: sketch a schematic diagram for an electrical circuit analogous to this pneumatic circuit formed by the pressure source, orice, nozzle, and apper. Answer 53 For an increasing positive pressure, the pneumatic relays output will increase as well. It is a direct-acting relay. For a more positive input voltage, the electronic circuits output voltage will increase (become more positive) as well. We would call this a non-inverting amplier circuit. Answer 54 For an increasing positive pressure, the pneumatic relays output will increase as well. It is a direct-acting relay. For a more positive input voltage, the electronic circuits output voltage will increase (become more positive) as well. We would call this a non-inverting amplier circuit. dP is at its greatest (absolute) value dx PSI 8.557 4.1 7.225 17.19 11.13 51.57 88 85.71 inches W.C. 236.9 113.5 200 475.8 308 1428 2436 2373 inches mercury 17.42 8.348 14.71 35 22.65 105 179.2 174.5
86
Answer 55
As process pressure increases, the force pressing right on the diaphragm increases as well. This makes the diaphragm move closer to the nozzle, making it more restrictive to air ow:
Vessel wall

diaphragm
Process pressure increases
Vent
nozzle
Output pressure increases
orifice
Vessel wall
As air ow through the nozzle reduces, the backpressure built up by supply air through coming through the orice increases. This increased backpressure forces the diaphragm to the left, against the process pressure, until the diaphragm begins to back away from the nozzle and a new point of balance (equilibrium) is reached: 87
Vessel wall

backpressure
Process pressure
backpressure
Vent
Output pressure
orifice
Vessel wall

Because both pressures (process uid, and air backpressure) act against the same amount of surface area on the diaphragm, the point of force balance between them will be when the two pressures are equal to each other. Thus, the output air pressure (sensed by some remote pressure-measuring instrument) mirrors, or repeats, the process pressure. Applications for a pressure repeater are found in the biopharmaceutical and food processing industries. If a pressure gauge were connected directly to the process vessel, the impulse tube connecting the gauge to the vessel would inevitably retain some of the process uid. In biopharmaceutical and food processes, bacteria will grow in stagnant process uid, meaning that such lengths of tubing will act as reservoirs of harmful bacteria which may contaminate subsequent batches within the vessel. The ush-mounted diaphragm of a pressure repeater is easily cleaned by clean-in-place (CIP) protocols used to clean the process vessel. There are no crevices or small chambers for uid to lie stagnant on the process side of a pressure repeater, therefore pressure repeaters eliminate the problem of bacterial contamination. Answer 56 Answer 57 Answer 58 Answer 59 Answer 60 Answer 61 Answer 62
88
Answer 63 First example: Vout = 6.8 volts ; Pout = 6.8 PSI ; force-balance. Answer 64 Answer to challenge question: so long as the compressed air supply pressure is greater than the pressure needed to balance the applied force, the nozzle (gauge) pressure will remain unchanged. Answer 65 (1) Force-balance (2) Motion-balance (3) Force-balance Answer 66 Answer 67 Answer 68
89
Answer 69 If the chamber air pressure is too high, the excess pressure will exert more force on the underside of the diaphragm to push it up, thus moving the plug up and closing o the passageway, reducing the air supply ow:
Excess pressure
Excess pressure
As the outlet air continues to ow out of the regulator, the chamber pressure will eventually drop back down to setpoint, and the passageway will open again. If the chamber air pressure is too low, the reduced force on the underside of the diaphragm cannot resist the spring force from above, and the plug moves down. This opens up the passageway, allowing more of the supply air to enter the chamber and increase the pressure:
insufficient pressure
insufficient pressure
In short, the opposing forces of spring pressure (and atmospheric air pressure) above the diaphragm, versus the chamber pressure below the diaphragm, act to move the plug up or down as needed to maintain the chamber pressure approximately equal to the equivalent pressure of atmospheric air + spring force on the diaphragm. The threaded rod with an attached turn handle adjusts the compression of the spring above the diaphragm, and changes the pressure regulation setpoint. Screwing the threaded rod in the downward direction will increase the spring force on the top of the diaphragm and likewise increase the equilibrium point between the three forces, increasing the output air pressure regulation setpoint as a consequence. Screwing the threaded rod in the upward direction will decrease the spring force on the diaphragms top, decreasing the equilibrium point between the three forces and decreasing the pressure setpoint. Answer 70
90
Answer 71
Restriction Nozzle

input
Applied force
leaf spring ball
Pivot
If the lever is pushed toward the nozzle by an external force, the following will happen: Pressure upstream of the nozzle will increase, as the nozzle becomes more restricted by the apper. This pressure, going to the relay through the input port, will push up on the relay diaphragm. The relay diaphragm lifts up, pushing the stem valve closer to its seat, and lifting the ball o of its seat. As the ball lifts o its seat, more supply air is allowed to go into the area between the ball and stem. As the stem closes on its seat, the passage from this middle area to the vent port becomes more restrictive. As a result of the previous two factors, the output air pressure to the bellows will increase dramatically. The bellows will expand, pushing to the right on the lever. As the apper will move to the right until a condition of equilibrium is reached with the force from the thumb.
The operation of the pneumatic relay might require a bit more explanation for full understanding. The input pressure sent to the relay from the nozzle tube pushes against the full area of the diaphragm, creating an upward force. Since the area above the diaphragm is vented (at atmospheric pressure), there can be no substantial pressure buildup on the top side of the diaphragm, and thus no downward force generated by the diaphragm to counter the input pressures upward force:
Input pressure
This force acts to lift the ball valve o its seat and also close the cone-shaped stem valve, adding more pressure to the output chamber by opening the passage for supply air to enter and closing the passage for air to vent, respectively: 91
Input pressure
Output pressure
(opens)
(closes)
The only force opposing the diaphragms upward motion is a small leaf spring pressing down against the ball. This spring is not very strong, meaning that small changes in input pressure result in large changes in output pressure. In other words, the pneumatic amplifying relay has a very large gain. Pneumatic relays such as this serve the same purpose as operational ampliers in electronic circuits: ampliers with extremely high gains, used within negative feedback loops to achieve some lesser amount of amplication that is very nearly linear. In this particular example, the nal result (apper, nozzle, lever, relay, and bellows) is a force-balance system that aggressively responds to any external force applied to the lever, such as the force exerted by someones thumb. In a real pneumatic instrument, this external force would represent some signal or process variable, and the balancing pressure at the bellows would be the instruments pneumatic output signal. The presence or absence of the pneumatic amplifying relay does not alter the pressure/force relationship of this mechanism. The relay merely increases sensitivity to small changes in force, and increases the speed of response. Answer to challenge question: although narrowing the restriction would decrease nozzle air ow, this would have no eect on the pressure/force relationship of this mechanism. It is still a force-balance system where bellows force must equal applied force to reach a state of equilibrium, and this bellows force is strictly a function of nozzle pressure (F = P A) not nozzle ow rate. Follow-up question: if the relay does not alter the pressure/force relationship, what other change made to the mechanism would? Be specic in your answer(s)! Answer 72 Clogged nozzle: output pressure saturates high Clogged restriction: output pressure saturates low Clogged tube at supply port of amplifying relay: output pressure saturates low Broken leaf spring inside amplifying relay: output pressure may saturate high or possibly oscillate Major hole or tear in diaphragm inside amplifying relay: System responds very little to applied force
92
Answer 73 The input pressure range is the greater of the two (6-30 PSI), and the output is the lesser of the two (3-15 PSI). Follow-up question: explain how the following op-amp circuit is similar to the pneumatic system shown in the question.
2R Input +
Output
Answer 74 The output pressure will not rise as much, with the same force applied to a point closer to the pivot. Answer 75 Partial answer: A exure is a thin strip of springy material, usually spring steel, designed to act as a frictionless fulcrum and/or a pivoting link. Unlike bearings, exures are usually not able to handle a lot of angular motion. Hall Eect sensors are used to detect magnetic elds. They generate a DC voltage proportional to the magnitude and polarity of an applied magnetic eld and the magnitude and direction of a perpendicular DC current: VHall = K IB x
I x
I V
93
The operation of the Hall Eect sensor may not be clear to all readers. It is oriented such that the magnetic eld is parallel to the Hall Voltage axis and not perpendicular to it, when the beam is exactly level. When the beam tips up or down, however, the magnetic ux lines passing from the North tip of the beams magnet to the South tip of the stationary magnet to the left of the Hall Eect sensor will angle, passing through the Hall Eect sensor with a denite direction, either up or down, depending on which way the beam tips:
N
N S
S beam
(no voltage)
beam
beam N S
Thus, any output voltage from the Hall Eect sensor indicates an out-of-balance condition between the diaphragm and force motor. Answer 76 Port A is the high pressure port on this transmitter, and port B is the low pressure port. Remember: an increasing pressure applied to the high port causes an increasing signal out of the transmitter. Conversely, an increasing pressure applied to the low port causes a decreasing signal out of the transmitter. Answer 77 Answer 78 Answer 79 Answer 80 Answer 81 This is a graded question no answers or hints given!
94
Answer 82 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 83 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 84 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 85 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 86 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 87 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 88 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 89 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 90 This is a graded question no answers or hints given! Answer 91 Answer 92 Your loop diagram will be validated when the instructor inspects the loop with you and the rest of your team. Answer 93
95

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INST 250 (Final Control Elements), section 1 Lab Control valve rebuild and bench-set: Questions 91 and 92,

Sequence of second-year Instrumentation courses

INST 250 -- 4 wks Final Control Elements Spring quarter

INST 260 -- 3 wks Data Acquisition Systems

INST 241 -- 4 wks Temperature and Flow Measurement

INST 251 -- 4 wks PID Controllers and Tuning

INST 261 -- 4 wks Programmable Logic Controllers

INST 242 -- 3 wks Analytical Measurement

INST 252 -- 3 wks Process Optimization and Control Strategies

INST 262 -- 4 wks DCS and Fieldbus

continuing students (after completing all three quarters)

102 101 10-1 10-2 hecto deca deci centi h da d c

Conversion equivalencies for force 1 pound-force (lbf) = 4.44822 newton (N)

Fluid Steel cylinder wall Hydraulic cylinder

Steel cylinder wall

Finally, explain how Pascals Principle relates to this scenario. le i00150

At least 30 PSI required here

Force on piston ??? tubing piston

(vented) piston 5"

Force ??? 1"

750 PSI piston 5"

Shut-off valve . . . from air compressor

Shut-off valve . . . from hydraulic pump

Compressed air Oil Oil

. . . from air compressor

Solenoid-actuated on/off spool valve

Dual solenoid-actuated reversing spool valve

Hydraulic motor Hand-actuated lever

Pressure relief valve

Compressed air Oil Valve Oil

. . . from air compressor

From compressed air supply Debris plugging nozzle

From compressed air supply Debris plugging orifice

Compressed air supply Output pressure ???

(vent) Control rod moved down

Compressed air supply Output pressure

(vent) (vent) Control rod

Compressed air supply Output pressure +V

From compressed air supply (20 PSI) 20 18 16 14 12 Pressure at 10 nozzle (PSI) 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Clearance, mils (thousandths of an inch)

From compressed air supply Orifice Nozzle

From compressed air supply Flapper moved closer to nozzle

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure

Compressed air supply +V Output pressure

sealing diaphragm sensing diaphragm

Pressure indicating gauge

Compressed air supply

Pout +V Vin(-) Vin(+) + -V Vout Air supply

Baffle Bellows Pin

R Pout +V Vin + -V x Vout Air supply

Baffle Bellows Pin 2x

R Pout +V Vin + -V Vout Air supply 2x

From compressed air supply

Applied force 1.2 lbs

From compressed air supply

Applied force 1.2 lbs

Pressure signal output Flexure Bellows Nozzle

Flexible tube Bellows

Pressure signal output

Nozzle Spring (compression) Fulcrum Flapper Bellows

Closely-spaced photoresistors Applied pressure

setpoint adjust (turn down for more pressure)