1-Gas Welding (oxyacetylenewelding)

are processes that use gases to weld and cut metals. The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 C. The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.

A-Equipment:

B- Advantages & Disadvantages:

2- Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW):

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding, flux shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes. It dominates other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the construction of steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages
Versatility - readily applied to a variety of applications and a wide choice of electrodes Relative simplicity and portability of equipment Low cost

Adaptable to confined spaces and remote locations Suitable for out-of-position welding

Disadvantages
Not as productive as continuous wire processes

Likely to be more costly to deposit a given quantity of metal Frequent stop/starts to change electrode

Relatively high metal wastage (electrode stubs)

Current limits are lower than for continuous or automatic processes (reduces deposition rate)

3-Gas metal arc welding (GMAW):

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding. It is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding gas are fed through a welding gun. A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations. Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it allowed for lower welding time compared to other welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process, preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility. A related process, flux cored arc welding, often does not utilize a shielding gas, instead employing a hollow electrode wire that is filled with flux on the inside. A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Limitations:

Advantages of GMAW
The GMAW process enjoys widespread use because of its ability to provide high quality welds, for a wide range of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, at a low price. The ability to join a wide range of material types and thicknesses. Simple equipment components are readily available and affordable. GMAW has higher electrode efficiencies, usually between 93% and 98%, when compared to other welding processes. Higher welder efficiencies and operator factor, when compared to other open arc welding processes. GMAW is easily adapted for high-speed robotic, hard automation and semiautomatic welding applications. All-position welding capability. Excellent weld bead appearance. Lower hydrogen weld deposit generally less than 5 mL/100 g of weld metal. Lower heat input when compared to other welding processes. A minimum of weld spatter and slag makes weld clean up fast

and easy. Less welding fumes when compared to SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding) and FCAW (Flux-Cored Arc Welding) processes. Generally, lower cost per length of weld metal deposited when compared to other open arc welding processes. Lower cost electrode. Less distortion with GMAW-P (Pulsed Spray Transfer Mode), GMAW-S (Short-Circuit Transfer Mode) and STT (Surface Tension Transfer). Handles poor fit-up with GMAW-S and STT modes. Reduced welding fume generation. Minimal post-weld cleanup.

Limitations of GMAW
The lower heat input characteristic of the short-circuiting mode .of metal transfer restricts its use to thin materials The higher heat input axial spray transfer generally restricts its .use to thicker base materials The higher heat input mode of axial spray is restricted to flat or .horizontal welding positions The use of argon based shielding gas for axial spray and pulsed spray transfer modes is more expensive than 100% carbon .(dioxide (CO2

4-Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding

It is an arc welding process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by a shielding gas (usually an inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply produces energy which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma. GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:Advantages Applicable to a very wide range of materials.

Especially good for welding thin sections and delicate workpieces Capable of producing welds of high quality and appearance

Disadvantages
Generally restricted to flat or horizontal welding

5-Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW or FCA):

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW or FCA) is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process. FCAW requires a continuously-fed consumable tubular electrode containing a flux and a constant-voltage or, less commonly, a constant-current welding power supply. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and portability. FCAW was first developed in the early 1950s as an alternative to shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). The advantage of FCAW over SMAW is that the use of the stick electrodes used in SMAW is unnecessary. This helped FCAW to overcome many of the restrictions associated with SMAW.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages
Versatility - suitable for a variety of positions and applications Capable of relatively high deposition rates

Enables one process operation for individual projects simplifies training, supervision and logistics

Disadvantages
Incorrect selection of consumables and parameters may lead to lower weld toughness Potential for lack-of-fusion type defects if welding parameters are incorrect or misalignment occurs Fume extraction may be required

6-Submerged arc welding (SAW):

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. Originally developed by the Linde - Union Carbide Company.[citation needed] It requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (flux cored) electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being submerged under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as suppressing the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process. SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to the flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported this compares to ~10 lb/h (5 kg/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding. Although Currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly utilized, currents of up to 5000 A have also been used (multiple arcs). Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be used, and combinations of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant voltage welding power supplies are most commonly used; however, constant current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are available.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages
Lends itself to the production of consistently high quality welds with minimum operator skills. Minimum of welding fume and of arc visibility (radiation). Well suited to welding thick sections.

Suitable for welding carbon, low alloy and alloy steels. Relatively high metal deposition rates

Disadvantages
Flat or horizontal position welding only

Care required to preserve correct electrode alignment, as electrode Tip and weld pool are underneath solid flux cover

7-Resistance Spot welding (RSW):

Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces.it includes (seam welding , spot welding , projection welding). Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current is passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high.

Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick.[28] Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by industrial

robots. A specialized process, called shot welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Limitations: Advantages:

Adaptability for Automation in High-Rate Production of Sheet Metal Assemblies High Speed Economical Dimensional Accuracy Disadvantages:
Difficulty for maintenance or repair

 Adds weight and material cost to the product, compared with a butt joint Generally have higher cost than most arc welding equipment Produces unfavorable line power demands Low tensile and fatigue strength The full strength of the sheet cannot prevail across a spot welded joint

8-Laser beam welding (LBW):

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:

ADVANTAGES:
1. There is a short time factor associated with source of heat , laser in this case , the components around the weld are affected .It also contributes to smaller Heat affected zone . This in turn favors the heat treated and magnetic materials to retain their property around the heat affected zone . 2. Welding in otherwise inaccessible areas is possible , problems associated with physical contact of weld tools and other media are totally rectified . 3. Does not require a specific environment or high vaccum conditions . 4. Materials difficult or impossible to weld by the more conventional techniques are easily joined by using lasers . Very useful in micro welding and micro machining . 5. Distortion and shrinkage of the weldement are negligible . 6. A CCTV is used to view the system , this ensures safety and on the spot inspection of the object .

DISADVANTAGES:
1.The Pulse rate causes the slow welding speeds which in turn results in puddle sizes at the fusion point. 2.There are limitations on the depths of laser welding , to achieve additional depth we need more energy and it tends to create a gas void. 3.Some metals like Magnesium tend to vaporize and produce severe surface voids .

9-Electron beam welding (EBW):

Electron beam welding (EBW) is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to the materials being joined. The workpieces melt as the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact, and the filler metal, if used, also melts to form part of the weld. The welding is often done in conditions of a vacuum to prevent dispersion of the electron beam. German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald, who was at the time working on various electron beam applications, perceived and developed the first practical electron beam welding machine which began operation in 1958.

A-Equipment:

B-Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
EBW is an automatic process. It's usually performed with fully robotic equipment. Advantages are, it produces a weld of superb quality, with extremely deep penetration, while at the same time minimizing overall heat input. Another advantage is EBW can even weld extremely thin materials with ease. It can also weld thicker sections in a single pass. It can be possible to achieve a nearly 0% reject rate,(with strict management and knowledgeable operators)

Disadvantages:
The major disadvantage is cost. EBW is by far the most costly welding process; the equipment can cost hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars. EBW requires a vacuum chamber containing a hard vacuum. Only small to medium size items can be welded. Though the welding itself can be done very fast, overall EBW is time consuming. The equipment is complex and there are quite a few process variables involved. In other words, more ways to do it wrong; or according to Murphy's law "if there is a way to do it wrong, someone will do it.

10-under-water welding:
UNDERWATER WELDING

CLASSIFICATION Underwater welding can be classified as 1) Wet Welding-MMA (manual metal arc welding) is used. 2) Dry Welding

In wet welding the welding is performed underwater, directly exposed to the wet environment. In dry welding, a dry chamber is created near the area to be welded and the welder .does the job by staying inside the chamber

Power supply used :DC Polarity: -ve

When DC is used with +ve polarity, electrolysis will take placeand cause rapid deterioration of any metallic components in the electrode holder. For wet welding AC is not used on account of electrical safety and difficulty in maintaining an arc .underwater :Equipment

Advantages of Wet Welding

Wet underwater MMA welding has now been widely used for many years in the repair of offshore platforms. The benefits of wet welding are: 1) The versatility and low cost of wet welding makes this method highly desirable. 2) Other benefits include the speed. With which the operation is carried out. 3) It is less costly compared to dry welding. 4) The welder can reach portions of offshore structures that could not be welded using other methods. 5) No enclosures are needed and no time is lost building. Readily available standard welding machine and equipments are used. The equipment needed for mobilization of a wet welded job is minimal.

Disadvantages of Wet Welding

1) There is rapid quenching of the weld metal by the surrounding water. Although quenching increases the tensile strength of the weld, it decreases the ductility and impact strength of the weldment and increases porosity and hardness. 2) Hydrogen Embrittlement Large amount of hydrogen is present in the weld region, resulting from the dissociation of the water vapour in the arc region. The H2 dissolves in the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and the weld metal, which causes Embrittlement, cracks and microscopic fissures. Cracks can grow and may result in catastrophic failure of the structure. 3) Another disadvantage is poor visibility. The welder some times is not able to weld properly.

ALL welding types:

Welding of plastics:
Plastic welding processes can be divide into two groups: a) Processes involving mechanical movement ultrasonic welding, friction welding, vibration welding. b) Processes involving external heating hot plate welding, hot gas welding and resistive and implant welding. Processes 1) Ultrasonic welding This method uses mechanical vibrations to form the joint. The vibrations are of high frequency. The parts to be assembled are held together under pressure between the oscillating horn and an immobile anvil and are subjected to ultrasonic vibrations of frequency 20 to 40 KHz at right angles to the contact area. Alternating high frequency stresses generate heat at joint interface to produce a good quality weld. The tools for this process are quite expensive so that large volume production runs are preferred. The welding is limited to small components with weld lengths not exceeding few centimeters. Applications range from valves and filters used in medical equipment, to cassette bodies, automotive components and vacuum cleaner bodies welded on multi-head machines.

2) Friction Welding The friction welding of thermoplastic (also called spin welding) is based on the same principle as that employed for welding metals. In this process one of the substrates is fixed, while the other is rotated with a controlled angular velocity. When the parts are pressed together, frictional heat causes the polymer to melt and a weld is created on cooling. Major welding parameters include rotational speed, friction pressure, forge pressure, weld time and burn off length. The advantages of friction welding are high weld quality and the simplicity and reproducibility of the process. The drawback of this process is that, in

its simplest form it is suitable only for applications in which at least one of the components is circular and requires no angular alignment. Arrangement for rotary friction welding (a) Rotary member brought up to speed (b) Rotary member advanced into contact under axial load (c) Rotary contact pressure maintained for specified period. (d) Rotation stopped and pressure maintained or increased for specified period to produce weld. 3) Vibration Welding This process is also called linear friction welding. Two thermoplastic parts are rubbed together under pressure and at a suitable frequency and amplitude, until enough heat is generated to melt the polymer. After vibration is stopped, the parts are aligned and the molten polymer is allowed to solidify creating the weld. The process is similar to spin welding, except the motion is linear rather than rotational. The process is rapid; the vibrations applied typically of 100 240 Hz, 1-5 mm amplitude. The main advantage of this process is its ability to weld large complex linear joints at high production rates. Other advantages are the ability to weld a number of components simultaneously, simplicity of tooling and suitability for welding almost all thermoplastic materials. Vibration welding has found its principal applications in the automobile and domestic appliance industry. Vibration welding can be applied to almost all thermoplastic materials, whether injected molded, extruded , blow moulded, thermoformed, foamed or stamped. 4) Hot Plate Welding It is the simplest of the mass production techniques to join plastics. A heated plate is clamped between the surfaces to be joined until they soften. The plate is then withdrawn and the surfaces are brought together again under controlled pressure for a specific period. The fused surfaces are allowed to cool, forming a joint. The welding tool or heating element has built in electric heaters to prevent the plastics sticking to it. Temperatures are generally between 1800 C and 2300 C depending on the thickness and type of the material to be welded. This process is commonly used to weld together the butt ends of plastic pipes used in gas and water distribution, sewage and effluent disposal and in chemical industries; attachment of filler tubes and connectors onto blow molded fuel tanks for automotive applications. Many items of daily use are produced by this process vacuum cleaner housings, components for washing machines and dishwashers, automotive parts such as brake fluid reservoirs, rear lights, indicator lights, etc. The drawback of this process is that it is relatively slow. Weld times range from 10 to 20 seconds for small items and to as much as 30 minutes for very large pipes. Hot plates for conventional type of welding (using temperature up to 3000 C) are made mainly of aluminium. Hot plates for high temperature welding mainly consist of aluminium copper alloy. The temperature of hot plates is controlled by electronic regulators, with the thermosensor located as close as possible to the working surface. 5) Hot Gas Welding This is similar to oxy-acetylene welding of metals. The only difference is that the open flame of oxyacetylene welding is replaced by a stream of hot gas. Compressed air, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen or carbon dioxide is heated by an electric coil as it passes through a welding gun.

Hot gas welding is a fabrication process for thermoplastic materials. The process, invented in the mid 20 century, uses a stream of heated gas, usually air, to heat and melt both the thermoplastic substrate material and the thermoplastic welding rod. The substrate and the rod fuse to produce a weld. To ensure welding takes place, adequate temperature and pressure must be applied to the rod, along with the use of the correct welding speed and gun position. Typical applications include chemical storage vessels, ventilation ducting and repair of plastic moldings such as car bumpers. Nitrogen is used for oxygen sensitive plastics such as polyethylene while oxygen results in higher weld strengths. Compressed air is popular since it gives satisfactory results for many purposes and is cheap. Plastics, which can be welded, are PVC, polyethylene, polycarbonates and nylons. The main advantage of this process is that large, complex fabrications can be constructed. This process is slow and the weld quality is entirely dependent on the skill of the welder. 6) Implant Welding In this process, metal inserts are placed between the parts to be joined and are then heated by means of induction or resistance heating. The resistance method requires that wires be placed along the joint to carry current to the implants; this is not required for induction welding. The thermoplastic material melts around the implants and flows to form a joint. Implant welding has been applied to complicated joints in large components such as vehicle bumpers, electrically driven vehicles and sailing dinghy hulls. New Methods Laser welding is suitable for joining both sheet film and molded thermoplastics. It uses a laser beam to melt the plastic in the joint region. The laser generates an intense beam of radiation (usually in the infra red area of the electromagnetic spectrum) which is focussed onto the material to be joined. This excites a resonant frequency in the molecule, resulting in heating of the surrounding material. Laser welding is a high volume production process with the advantage of creating no vibrations and generating minimum weld flash. The benefits of a laser system include; a controllable beam power, reducing the risk of distortion or damage to components; precise focussing of the laser beam allowing accurate joints to be formed; and a non contact process which is both clean and hygienic. Laser welding may be performed in a single-shot or continuous manner, but the materials to be joined require clamping. Weld speeds depend on polymer absorption.
th

Soldiering and brazing:

Welding uses steel rod, which is melted into the joints or voids. Strongest of the three. Its used to connect two metal bodies in high heat up to the molten state of melting state of medium used. Medium may made by iron derivatives and its mixtures.

Soldering is similar, except a low temperature melting point lead//tin alloy is used. Weakest of the three. Also there os silver solder, somewhat stronger. Its used to fix the electrical and electronic components to specific designed boards to get a required output. Brazing is similar to soldering, except higher melting point material is used, and it's stronger than soldering, but not as strong as welding. Its like makeup work. This has been done for similar materials. Soldering - The AWS defines soldering as a group of joining processes that produce coalescence of materials by heating them to the soldering temperature and by using a filler metal (solder) having a liquidus not exceeding 840F (450C), and below the solidus of the base metals. Brazing - Brazing joins materials by heating them in the presence of a filler metal having a liquidus above 840F (450C) but below the solidus of the base metal. Welding - In welding, fusion takes place with melting of both the base metal and usually a filler metal. 2.The difference between soldering and brazing is temperature. The American Welding Society defines soldering as metal coalescence below 800 F and brazing as metal coalescence above 800 F. Both processes bond adjoining metal surfaces by completely wetting the surfaces with molten filler metal and maintaining that bond until solidified. The bond is only as strong as the filler metal, but some braze metals can be very strong indeed. 3.Welding melts the metals at the joint using very high temperatures. Essentially the metal from the two parts is blended by heat. However, if the metal melts too easily it will become a liquid and run out of the weld area. Properly executed, a weld is just as strong as the metal being joined. However, the higher heat of welding can change the material properties if you aren't careful. This change in the metals properties can make the weld weak. Therefore,

welds are commonly performed on like materials only. Brazing uses a braze alloy that become liquid at a moderate temperature to join two other metals. These metals can be the same or dissimilar. The joined materials are NOT molten as they are in welding, but the braze alloy is liquid and flows between the joint. Properly performed brazed joints can possibly be stronger than the work pieces they joined. Unlike welding, brazing only has minimal impact on material properties. Braze alloys can also be expensive. Copper alloys are commonly brazed, particularly since copper's properties make it very difficult to weld. Soldering uses an alloy that is liquid at relatively low temperatures to join two other metals. It has the least impact on the base materials, and also provides the weakest joint. It is particularly useful when heat can damage or distort the materials being joined. Electrical components are commonly soldered to avoid heat damage. This method is more delicate than that of the other two described here. Various metals can be soldered together, such as gold and sterling silver in jewelry, brass in watches and clocks, copper in water pipes, or iron in leaded glass stained windows.

.Welding defects and discontinuities

DEFECT : A flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications.The term designates .rejectability DISCONTINUITY: An interruption of the typical structure of a material,metallurgical,or physical characteristics. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect

Welding of plastics
.(Types of plastics : 1-thermosetting (non-weldable .(thermoplastics(weldable -2 :Welding joint design Butt weld -Fillet weld -Edge weld -Corner weld -Lap weld Strip weld :Plastic welding processes tool welding Hot gas weldingHigh frequency welding -Friction welding -Extruded filler welding -Ultrasonic welding
-Heated

:Heated Tool Welding -1 It is the process in which heat is applied to the surfaces to be joined, bymeans of contact Once the plastic is softened, the heat source is removed and thecomponents are quickly welded together under slight pressure until the joint has cooled :Hot Gas Welding -2 It is a technique which basically consists of using as tream of hot gas tosoften both filler rod and the parent metal Hot gases are not fuel gases.Gases can be heated directly or indirectly:Extruded Filler Welding -3 Filler is in viscous state, which is directly fed to the joint:Friction Welding -4 The joint is produced as the direct result of friction heat generated by.rubbing two surfaces together :Ultrasonic Welding -5 A process in which ultrasonic vibrations are transmitted into the plastic.and travel until they meet the surface where one part joins another These vibrations create local heat by mutual friction on a molecular scale.to melt and weld the joining surfaces to give a permanent bond :High Frequency Production Welding-6 Only those plastics which are imperfect dielectric can be welded by this.process Few electrons which are existing in such plastics give rise to conduction.current, when the metal is placed in the HF field .Work done to displace the charge particles are converted into heat-

.Heat generated is of very high frequency current-No filler material is used.