CADOY, JOSHUA PETER E. PROCESS DYNAMICS AND CONTROL CH42FB1 ASSIGNMENT NO. 1 ENGR. CATHERINE GANDHI B.

BELIZAR

Float-Actuated Devices Float-actuated devices are characterized by a buoyant member which floats at the interface between two fluids. Because a significant force is usually required to move the indicating mechanism, float-actuated devices are generally limited to liquid- gas interfaces. By properly weighting the float, they can be used to measure liquid-liquid interfaces. Disadvantage of the float gauge are high maintenance and poor accuracy, and for that reason is being replaced and displaced by less intrusive, lower maintenance devices. Float-actuated devices may be classified on the basis of the method used to couple the float motion to the indicating system, as discussed below. Chain or Tape Float Gauge In these types of gauges, the float is connected to the indicating mechanism by means of a flexible chain or tape. These gauges are commonly used in large atmospheric storage tanks. The gauge-board type is provided with a counterweight to keep the tape or chain taut. The tape is stored in the gauge head on a spring-loaded reel. The float is usually a pancake-shaped hollow metal float, with guide wires from top to bottom of the tank to constrain it. These devices measure liquid level using a float, which lies on the surface of the liquid and changes its position as the liquid level varies. The figure presents a schematic view of a float-actuated device. The level of the liquid 1 in the tank 4 2 is under measurement. A Fa sensitive element 3 (a float of a 3 cylindrical shape) is placed on the 5 7F w, c, fr surface of this liquid. This sensor 8 is connected through a cable 4 2 and two rotating wheels 5 with a hm in 1 balancing weight 6. A position of the balancing weight and a pointer hmax 7, attached to it, in respect to a Ffl scale 8 determines the level of the hmin liquid in the tank. Density of the X float should be less than that of hm ax 7 6

the liquid. Usually, plastic materials are used for manufacturing of floats. Lever and Shaft Mechanisms In pressurized vessels, float actuated lever and shaft mechanisms are frequently used for level measurement. This type of mechanism consists of a hollow metal float and lever attached to a rotary shaft which transmits the float motion to the outside of the vessel through a rotary seal. Ball float devices use a principle similar to the torque tube in the displacer to eliminate the stuffing box. These are widely used for on-off service, operating valves or alarms in applications such as high levels in compressor and fuel gas knock-out drums and distillate drums, where dependable action at infrequent intervals is necessary. The flattened section of the ball arm allows sufficient motion to be transferred out of the pressure zone to operate a pneumatic or electric switch. Level instruments using a ball float on a lever arm operating a standard controller or switch require a stuffing box, and are now considered obsolete. They have generally been replaced by the displacer. Generally for internal ball float level device the measurement range same at the external ball float level device. This device normally used for control the level of water in basin for the cooling water tower.

Magnetically Coupled Devices A variety of float-actuated level devices which transmit the float motion by means of magnetic coupling have been developed. Typical of this class of devices are magnetically operated level switches and magnetic-bond float gauges. A typical magneticbond float gauge consists of a hollow magnet-carrying float which rides along a vertical nonmagnetic guide tube. The follower magnet is connected and drives an indicating dial similar to that on a conventional tape float gauge. The float and guide tube are in contact with the measured fluid and come in a variety of materials for resistance to corrosion and to withstand high

pressures or vacuum. Weighted floats for liquidliquid interfaces are available. The MLI (Magnetic Level Indicator) consists of a sealed bypass cage, a float containing a magnet and a visual indicator rail with bi-coloured flags that individually contain a magnet. The indicator rail is external mount on the cage and its flags are magnetically coupled/aligned with the magnet of the float. As the level changes, the float will follow and its magnet will attract the magnets in the flags. This will cause the flags to rotate showing their opposite coloured side. The same electro-magnetic coupling will activate/deactivate switches or change the output of an externally clamped on magnetostrictive transmitter.

Head Devices A variety of devices utilize hydrostatic head as a measure of level. As in the case of displacer devices, accurate level measurement by hydrostatic head requires an accurate knowledge of the densities of both heavier-phase and lighter-phase fluids. The majority of this class of systems utilize standard pressure and differential pressure measuring devices. Displacers measure the change in buoyancy of a solid body that is partially submerged in the liquid. Buoyancy is equal to the weight of the volume of liquid displaced. By varying the cross-section of the displacer (volume per unit length) the linear change in level can be measured for a variety of ranges. The success of the displacer is due to the development of a suitable torque tube, which translates the resultant buoyancy into an upward movement and allows the motion of the displacer [less than 1 in. (25.4 mm)] to be transmitted outside the process pressure zone without a stuffing box or similar seal. The torque tube has the elastic properties that permit it to twist as the displacer tries to float. This device normally limited to measure level height up to 3 meter only.

Bubble Tube Systems The commonly used bubble tube system sharply reduces restrictions on the location of the measuring element. To eliminate or reduce variations in pressure drop due to the gas flow rate, a constant differential regulator is commonly employed to maintain a constant gas flow rate. Because the flow of gas through the bubble tube prevents entry of the process liquid into the measuring system, this technique is particularly useful with corrosive or viscous liquids, liquids subject to freezing, and liquids containing entrained solids. Bubblers use compressed air or an inert gas (usually nitrogen) introduced through a dip pipe (Figure 7-4A). Gas flow is regulated at a constant rate (usually at about 500 cc/min). A differential pressure regulator across a rotameter maintains constant flow, while the tank level determines the back-pressure. As the level drops, the back-pressure is proportionally reduced and is read on a pressure gage calibrated in percent level or on a manometer or transmitter. The dip pipe should have a relatively large diameter (about 2 in.) so that the pressure drop is negligible. The bottom end of the dip pipe should be located far enough above the tank bottom so that sediment or sludge will not plug it. Also, its tip should be notched with a slot or "V" to ensure the formation of a uniform and continuous flow of small bubbles. An alternative to locating the dip pipe in the tank is to place it in an external chamber connected to the tank.

Electrical Methods Two electrical characteristics of fluids, conductivity and dielectric constant, are frequently used to distinguish between two phases for level measurement purposes. An application of electrical conductivity is the fixed-point level detection of a conductive liquid such as high and low water levels. A voltage is applied between two electrodes inserted into the vessel at different levels. When both electrodes are immersed in the liquid, a current flows. Capacitance-type level measurements are based on the fact that the electrical capacitance between two electrodes varies with the dielectric constant of the material between them. A typical continuous level measurement system consists of a rod electrode positioned vertically in a vessel, the other electrode usually being the metallic vessel wall. The electrical capacitance between the electrodes is

a measure of the height of the interface along the rod electrode. The rod is usually conductively insulated from process fluids by a coating of plastic. The dielectric constants of most liquids and solids are markedly higher than those of gases and vapors (by a factor of 2 to 5). The dielectric constant of water and other polar liquids is 10 to 20 times that of hydrocarbons and other nonpolar liquids.

There are limitations to the conductivity method. The first is process substance must be conductive. Second, only point detection measurements can be obtained. The possibility of sparking also makes this method prohibitive for explosive or flammable process substances. Advantages include low cost and simple design, as well as the fact that there are no moving parts in contact with the process material. These advantages make this type of system an effective method of detecting and indicating level for many water-based materials.

Thermal Methods Level-measuring systems may be based on the difference in thermal characteristics between the fluids, such as temperature or thermal conductivity. The principle of thermal level sensors is to differentiate between the temperatures of the vapor above the liquid and the liquid itself or, more commonly, the increase in thermal conductivity as a probe becomes submerged in the process liquid. A fixed-point level sensor based on the difference in thermal conductivity between two fluids consists of an electrically heated thermistor inserted into the vessel. The temperature of the thermistor and consequently its electrical resistance increase as the thermal conductivity of the fluid in which it is immersed decreases. Because the thermal conductivity of liquids is markedly higher than that of vapors, such a device can be used as a point level detector for liquid-vapor interface.

Sonic Methods A fixed-point level detector based on sonic propagation characteristics is available for detection of a liquidvapor interface. This device uses a piezoelectric transmitter and receiver, separated by a short gap. When the gap is filled with liquid, ultrasonic energy is transmitted across the gap, and the receiver actuates a relay. With a vapor filling the gap, the transmission of ultrasonic energy is insufficient to actuate the receiver. The measuring equipment consists of: a transmitter that periodically sends a sound pulse to the surface of the liquid, a receiver that amplifies the returning pulse, and a time interval counter that measures the time elapsing between the transmission of a pulse and receipt of the corresponding pulse echo.

Laser Level Transmitters These are designed for bulk solids, slurries, and opaque liquids. A laser near the vessel top fires a short pulse of light down to the surface of the process liquid, where it reflects back to a detector at the vessel top. A timing circuit measures the elapsed time and calculates the fluid depth. Lasers are attractive because lasers have no false echoes and can be directed through tight spaces. Another type has a fixed light source and irradiated surface, the normal of the laser incidence angle will produce a horizontal movement along with the vertical movement of liquid level. The reflected light image also will be change on the detection surface, and thus we can know the amount of liquid surface displacement. At the same time in a wide range of measurement, we can take the angular displacement synchronization tracking method. Namely, when the liquid level is changed on large scale, to change the incident angle of the light source. according to changes in the amount of angular displacement, we can also be achieve the amount of liquid displacement. This method of system provides another new option. for non-contact measurement.

Radar Level Transmitters Radar systems operate by beaming microwaves downward, from either a horn or parabolic dish located on top of the vessel. The signal reflects off the fluid surface back to the source after it detects a change in dielectric constant from the vapor to the fluid. The round-trip time is proportional to the distance to the fluid level. Through-air radar technology was among the pioneers in noncontact level measurement, but false echoes were and remain a significant problem. Simply pointing a radar transmitter toward the bottom of a silo allows unguided waves to bounce off the sides of the vessel, creating spurious returning signals that must be canceled out at the receiving end. Guided-wave radar systems provide a rigid probe or flexible cable to guide the microwave down the height of the tank and back. Guided-wave radar is much more efficient than open-air radar because the guide provides a more focused energy path. In guided-wave technology, the radar beam is focused by a probe, or waveguide, in the form of a specially designed metal rod or cable that is inserted into the product to be measured. This guide serves to concentrate the radar signal into a small-diameter (often <12 in.) cylindrical pattern along the probe length and so prevent dispersion in the vessel. The results are better performance and reliability. Furthermore, it is not necessary to program a unit to ignore spurious readings from the sides of the vessel.