Experiment #9: Heat Transfer Experiments

MAAE 2400 Section C2 Group 3

Submitted by: Franklin G. Hamilton ID #: [removed]

Date Performed: February 13, 2009 Date Submitted: April 3, 2009

Group Partners: [removed] [removed]

Summary
The purpose of these experiments is to gain an understanding of conduction of heat transfer through solid media, and the radiation and convection heat transfer modes. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through a solid medium, in this case, brass, steel, and aluminium. Fouriers Law of conduction states that the amount of heat transferred will linearly decrease over length while staying within the same medium. We will compare the experimental data to see if this relationship is true. Convection is heat transfer by fluid motion; we will look at both natural and forced convection. Natural convection is when a fluid comes in contact with a hot surface and its density decreases, forcing it to rise upward. Forced convection is when the fluid moves upwards with assistance from a pump or fan for example. Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation, and it requires no medium. An example of this is the heat transfer from the sun through space.

Table of Contents
Summary List of Figures List of Symbols 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Theory 2.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Theory 2.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Theory 3.0 Description of Experiment and Apparatus 3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Apparatus 3.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Apparatus 4.0 Experimental Procedure 4.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Procedure 4.1.1 Brass 4.1.2 Steel 4.1.3 Aluminium 4.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer Procedure 4.2.1 Natural Convection and Radiation 4.2.2 Forced Convection and Radiation 5.0 Results 5.1 Results for Conduction Heat Transfer 5.2 Results for Natural Convection and Radiation 5.3 Results for Forced Convection and Radiation 6.0 Discussion 7.0 Conclusions 8.0 References Tables Figures i ii ii 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 10

List of Figures
Table 1 Data Table for Brass Conduction Table 2 Data Table for Steel and Aluminium Conduction Table 3 Accepted values for thermal conductivity Table 4 Data Sheet for Natural Convection and Radiation Table 5 Data Sheet for Forced Convection and Radiation Table 6 Physical Properties for Air at Atmospheric Pressure Figure 1 Convection Heat Transfer Apparatus Figure 2 Combined Convection and Radiation Apparatus Figure 3 Temperature Gradient Chart for Brass Figure 4 Temperature Gradient Chart for Steel and Aluminium Figure 5 Convection Coefficient vs. Surface Temperature Figure 6 Surface Temperature vs. Corrected Air Speed Graph

List of Symbols
Rate of Heat Transfer: Q [W] Thermal Conductivity: k [W/m-K] Temperature Gradient: dT/dx [K/m] Thermocouple Temperature: T1-10 [K] Area: A [m2] Diameter: D [m] Voltage: V [V] Current: I [A] Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: U [W/m2K] Resistance: R [] Input heat: Qin [W] Natural Convection Coefficient: hnat [W/m2K] Forced Convection Coefficient: hforced [W/m2K] Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient: hrad [W/m2K] Heat transferred by convection: Qconv [W] Heat transferred by radiation: Qrad [W] Total heat transferred: Qtot [W] Surface Temperature: Ts [K] Air Temperature: Ta [K] Nusselt Number: Nu [dimensionless] Reynolds Number: Re [dimensionless] Prandtl Number: Pr [dimensionless] Air Velocity: Ua [m/s] Corrected Air Velocity: Uc [m/s] Kinematic Viscosity of Air: v [m2/s]

1.0 Introduction
The thermal conductivity of a specimen is the most important factor to consider when testing for conduction. This is a value that tells us how good a medium is at transferring heat energy. It can be a very important factor for many aspects of product development, ranging from insulators (low conductivity) to electrical circuits (high conductivity). If a product is using a material with undesirable thermal conductivity, there could be efficiency losses, which could translate into monetary losses. Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by fluid motion. Convection can occur naturally, such as a fluid coming into contact with a hot surface or it forced, by a fan or pump. Whichever the case, radiation will be a by-product of convection. We are interested in how much heat energy is being converted into convective heat, and what is being converted into radiation. This will give us an idea of the efficiency of the system of interest.

2.0 Theory
2.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Theory
Fouriers Law of conduction gives us the following relationship: =

(Equation 2.1.1)

Where Q is the rate of heat transfer (W), k is the thermal conductivity (W/m-K), and A is the cross-sectional area through which the heat is transferred (m2). dT/dx is the temperature gradient, a linearly decreasing relationship of temperature over distance that we expect to observe through the thermocouples on the apparatus. The rate of heat transfer can also be calculated by the V, the voltage (V) and I, the current (A): = (Equation 2.1.2) The area of a circle is given by the diameter as such: = 4 2

(Equation 2.1.3)

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, can be calculated by the first, Ti, and final, To, temperature readings:

=
1

(Equation 2.1.4) (Equation 2.1.5)

The thermal resistance, R, is given by: = Using the Microsoft Excel Trend line function, linear equations of best fit were given as: Brass 9V y = 24.875 - 0.1748x Brass 15V y = 51.608 - 0.4009x Brass 24V y = 100.27 - 0.8013x Pre-Steel Post-Steel y = 24.017 - 0.1434x y = 25.663 - 0.1500x

Pre-Aluminium Post-Aluminium

y = 36.466 - 0.0799x y = 13.163 - 0.0500x

Where x is the position of the thermocouple in millimetres, and y is the temperature of the thermocouple in degrees Kelvin. We can therefore deduce that the temperature gradient dT/dx is the slope for each equation. We can also extrapolate values from this equation, which makes it possible to gather data inside the steel and aluminium specimens.

2.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Theory

Newtons law of cooling gives us an equation for convection: =
2

(Equation 2.2.1)

Where Qconv is the rate of convective heat transfer (W), h is the convection coefficient (W/m K), A is the surface area (m2), Ts is the surface temperature, and Ta is the air temperature (K). The convection coefficient is the most complicated part of this equation. For natural convection in a horizontal, heated cylinder, we can use this simplified equation: = 1.32
0.25

(Equation 2.2.3)

However, for forced convection, it becomes a little more complicated. We will need several non-dimensional coefficients, like the Reynolds number, Re, the Prandtl number, Pr, and the Nusselt number, Nu. =
0.62 0.5 0.33 1+
0.25 0.4 0.66

(Equation 2.2.4) 1+
0.5 282000

= 0.3 +

(Equation 2.2.5)

(Equation 2.2.6)

Where Uc is the corrected air velocity (m/s) defined as Uc=1.22Ua where Ua is the air velocity (m/s) and v is the kinematic viscosity of air (m2/s). D is the diameter of the cylinder. Values of v, k, and Pr can be obtained by table 13-6, using the following equation, and then interpolating for the correct values: =
+ 2

(Equation 2.2.7)

We are also concerned with radiation, by so applying Kirchhoffs law for grey surfaces, we can derive the following formulas:
4 = 4

(Equation 2.2.8) (Equation 2.2.9)

4 4

Where is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4) and is the emissivity, which we will assume to be 0.95 for this experiment.

3.0 Description of Experiment and Apparatus

3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Apparatus
From a heater, heat is passed through a brass specimen, followed by a specimen of interest, followed by a second brass specimen, then finally into cooling water. Along the way, there are eight evenly spaced thermocouples placed along the specimens, which are recording the temperatures. See Figure 1.

3.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Apparatus

Air flows up a shaft by a throttle plate. It passes by a thermocouple which records the air temperature. Then it passes through an anemometer, which measures the air velocity. The air continues up the shaft, where it comes into contact with a heated cylinder, and another thermocouple, which records the temperature of the cylinder. Finally the air is allowed to escape into the atmosphere through the top of the shaft. See Figure 2.

4.0 Experimental Procedure

4.1 Conduction Heat Transfer Procedure
There are three parts to this procedure, as there are three specimens to be tested, brass, steel, and aluminium. In all tests, conductive paste is applied to the surfaces of contact in order to minimize the loss of heat when transferring to another medium. 4.1.1 Brass 1. Turned on the front panel switch and cooling water, with the water valve set to open (parallel to tube) and the water flow rate was set to 1.5 litres per minute. 2. The voltage was set to 9V, and the current was recorded. After allowing the temperatures to stabilize, the readings of thermocouples 1 through 8 were recorded. This step was repeated for 15V and 24V. 3. The voltage was turned off, and the brass specimen was removed, while keeping the water flow on. 4.1.2 Steel 1. Once the specimen was placed, the voltage was set to 9V, and again, the current was recorded. After the temperatures stabilized, the readings of thermocouples 1-3 and 6-8 were recorded. Note: there no thermocouples on the steel specimen, so we skipped thermocouples 4 and 5. 2. The voltage was turned off, and the steel specimen was removed, while keeping the water flow on.

4.1.3 Aluminium 1. Refer to section 4.1.2. 2. The equipment was turned off at the end of this test.

4.2 Combined Convection and Radiation Heat Transfer Procedure

There are two parts to this procedure. The first part is for natural convection and radiation, the second for forced convection and radiation. 4.2.1 Natural Convection and Radiation 1. Turned on the front panel switch, did not turn on the fan. 2. Set the voltage to 5V, and the current was recorded. After the temperatures stabilized, thermocouples 9 and 10 were recorded. This step was repeated for 10V, 15V, and 24V. 4.2.2 Forced Convection and Radiation 1. The fan was turned on, and the voltage was kept at 20V, the current was also recorded. 2. The air velocity was set to 1 m/s by the throttle plate. After the temperatures stabilized, thermocouples 9 and 10 were recorded. This step was repeated for air velocity 3, 5, and 7 m/s. 3. The equipment was turned off after this test.

5.0 Results
5.1 Results for Conduction Heat Transfer
As observed in Figure 3, the temperature gradient for brass remains constant through the three regions (hot, specimen, cold). Therefore, the thermal conductivity remains constant through the brass. For the three tests of different voltages, 9, 15, and 24 V, the thermal conductivity was calculated to be 95, 114, and 146, respectively, with an average of 119 W/mK. The thermal conductivity of steel was calculated to be 21 W/m-K, and for aluminium, 169 W/m-K. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the brass-steel-brass composite was 583.4 W/m2K, and the thermal resistance was 0.001714.

5.2 Results for Natural Convection and Radiation

There were four tests run for the natural convection and radiation experiment, each with different voltages, 5, 10, 15, 24 V. The input heat for these tests was calculated to be 4.15, 16.2, 36, and 79.2 W, respectively. The natural convection coefficient was found to be 12.10, 15.57, 17.71, and 19.48 W/m2K. The radiation heat transfer coefficient was 7.82, 13.71, 23.01, and 38.88 W/m2K. The heat transferred by convection was 1.88, 6.62, 12.62, and 20.30 W, and by radiation, 1.22, 5.83, 16.39, and 40.53 W. The total heat transferred was then found to be 3.10, 12.45, 29.01, and 60.83 W, respectively.

5.3 Results for Forced Convection and Radiation

There were four tests run for the forced convection and radiation experiment, with the differing factor this time being air speed, 1, 3, 5, and 7 m/s for the four tests. The input heat was calculated to be 66 W, which remained constant through the tests as the voltage and current was not changed. The corrected air velocity for the tests was calculated to be 1.22, 3.66, 6.10, and 8.54 m/s, respectively. The forced convection coefficient was 37.07, 65.66, 85.60, and 103.88 W/m2K. The radiation heat transfer coefficient was 25.64, 17.16, 19.65, and 14.37 W/m2K. The heat transferred by convection was 28.53, 35.39, 52.90, and 46.60 W, and by radiation, 19.74, 9.25, 12.14, and 6.45 W. The total heat transferred was then found to be 48.27, 44.64, 65.04, and 53.05 W, respectively.

6.0 Discussion
The following is a discussion for the conduction heat transfer experiment. Observing Figure 3, we notice a clear decreasing linear trend for all three sets of brass data. This is consistent with Fouriers Law of Conduction, as it requires the temperature to decrease linearly over increasing length. The average thermal conductivity for the three brass tests was 119 W/m-K. Observing Table 3, we see that the accepted range for values is 110-128, therefore the results of this test can be considered accurate. Figure 2 shows a three-step decreasing linear trend for steel. We notice that the sudden change in temperature gradient in consistent with the locations where the medium changes (from brass to steel, then back to brass). The steeper slope for the steel medium tells us that steel is a much less conductive material than brass, and it is confirmed when checking Table 3. The thermal conductivity of brass is in the 110-128 range, while steel is 25. One common application you might expect the thermal resistance to be advertised is fiber-glass insulation, since it would be costeffective to use an insulator with the highest possible thermal resistance. After analyzing the data for the three specimens for the conduction heat transfer experiment, it is apparent that aluminium is the most conductive material, as it has the highest thermal conductivity, and steel is the most insulative material, as it has the lowest thermal conductivity. In the event that conductive paste was applied only to the top face of the specimen, we would expect to see a gap between the specimen and the bottom brass piece on the thermal resistance chart. This is because the seal between the two mediums would not be a cohesive one, and heat energy would dissipate into the spaces between them. There is a small difference in the calculated values of thermal conductivity for steel, and a noticeably large one for aluminium. Some likely sources of error would be that the insulation around the specimens was not perfect, meaning some heat escaped through the insulation. We could also consider that the conductive paste was not applied properly, and thus a loss of heat upon changing mediums. A third source of error could be that the temperatures were not given enough time to stabilize, skewing the results.

Now we will look at the convection and radiation heat transfer experiment. Comparing the values of input heat with total heat transferred for the natural convection and radiation test, we notice that there is a loss of heat energy that becomes increasingly apparent with increasing voltage. Sources of error could again include imperfect insulation, and unstable temperatures. For the first two voltage tests, the natural convection coefficient is more dominant than the radiation heat transfer coefficient, but we notice by Figure 5, that the radiation coefficient increases exponentially, while the natural coefficient begins to plateau, so very quickly, the heat transfer by radiation becomes the most dominant mode of heat transfer. Comparing the heat transferred by convection with the heat transferred by radiation, we notice that convective heat transfer arcs in the 30-60 W range, while the radiation heat transfer stagnates in the 5-20 W range. It is therefore quite apparent that the heat transferred by convection is, and remains the dominant heat transfer mode. Since we noticed that the heat transferred by convection is the dominant mode of heat transfer, and the heat transferred by radiation remains in a lower range, we can see that all the major losses from the input heat to the total heat transferred are most likely due to losses in the heat transferred by convection. Therefore we can conclude that the efficiency of the apparatus in transferring heat by convection accounts for the largest sum of error. We might also consider the type of insulation used, and the possibility of unstable temperatures. If the apparatus was modified so that the diameter increased, we would expect the natural and forced convection coefficients to decrease. Equations 2.2.3 and 2.2.4 confirm this. We would expect this intuitively because the same amount of heat is being transferred, however it is being done so over a larger area. A notable source of error is that the cylinder was mostly covered, except for the top, which was exposed. We might also consider that the temperatures were not given enough time to stabilize before being recorded, and we might as well consider the accuracy of the given data (dimensions, constants).

7.0 Conclusions
The conductive heat transfer tests provided accurate data for brass and steel, and relatively accurate data for aluminium, because the calculated values of thermal conductivity were consistent with the accepted values. Aluminium is the most conductive material analyzed, and steel is the least conductive material. The natural convection and radiation test showed that radiation is the dominant mode of heat transfer, while the forced convection and radiation test showed that forced convection is the dominant mode of heat transfer.

8.0 References
MAAE 2400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer Lab Manual Carleton University December 2009 Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics Moran and Shapiro 6th edition

Tables
Table 1 Data Table for Brass Conduction Position (mm) Brass 9V Brass 15V Brass 24V 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 24.7 22.2 19.9 16.9 14.8 11.5 9.1 6.5 52 46 40 33.5 28.2 21.1 15.9 10.2 101 88.4 76.5 62.9 52.3 38.7 28.6 17.2

V Brass 9V Brass 15V Brass 24V 9 15 24

A 0.91 1.51 2.4

dT/dx K 8.19 -174.8 95.45 22.65 -400.9 115.1 57.6 -801.3 146.44 K avg 119

Table 2 Data Table for Steel and Aluminium Conduction Position (mm) Steel Aluminium 0 15 30 37.5 67.5 75 90 105 36.5 35.2 34.1 33.47 9.79 9.4 8.7 7.9 24 21.9 19.7 18.64 15.54 14.4 12.2 9.9

Steel Aluminium

V A Q dT/dx K U R 583.4 0.001714 9 0.91 8.19 -789.3 21.14 9 9.95 8.55 -103.3 168.56

Table 3 Accepted values for thermal conductivity Metal Brass Steel Aluminium k 110-128 25 180

Table 4 Data Sheet for Natural Convection and Radiation Voltage Current T9 T10 Ta Ts Q in h nat h rad Q conv Q rad Q tot 5 0.83 21.3 92 294.45 365.15 4.15 12.10 7.82 1.88 1.22 3.10 10 1.62 21.6 215 294.75 488.15 16.2 15.57 13.71 6.62 5.83 12.45 15 2.4 21.3 345 294 618 36 17.71 23.01 12.62 16.39 29.01 24 3.3 21.9 496 295 769 79.2 19.48 38.88 20.30 40.53 60.83

Table 5 Data Sheet for Forced Convection and Radiation Air Speed T9 T10 Ta Ts Voltage Current Q in T film v (x10-5) k Pr Uc Re Nu h forced h rad Q conv Q rad Q tot 1 23 373 296.15 646.15 20 3.3 66 471.15 3.43 0.03847 0.6817 1.22 355.39 9.64 37.07 25.64 28.53 19.74 48.27 3 22.9 304 296.05 541.15 5 22.5 257 295 576 7 22.6 226 295 499

418.6 2.81 0.03492 0.6868 3.66 1304.29 18.80 65.66 17.16 35.39 9.25 44.64

435.5 3.00 0.03609 0.6847 6.10 2031.63 23.73 85.60 19.65 52.90 12.14 65.04

397 2.56 0.03343 0.6895 8.54 3337.03 31.07 103.88 14.37 46.60 6.45 53.05

Table 6 Physical Properties for Air at Atmospheric Pressure T film v (x10-5) k Pr 300 1.684 0.02624 0.708 350 2.076 0.03003 0.697 400 2.59 0.03365 0.689 450 3.171 0.03707 0.683 500 3.79 0.04038 0.68 550 4.434 0.0436 0.68 600 5.134 0.04659 0.68

Figures
Figure 1 Convection Heat Transfer Apparatus

Figure 2 Combined Convection and Radiation Apparatus

Figure 3 Temperature Gradient Chart for Brass

Temperature Gradient Chart for Brass

110 100 90 80 Temperature (C) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Brass 9V Brass 15V Brass 20V

Position (mm)

Figure 4 Temperature Gradient Chart for Steel and Aluminium

Temperature Gradient for Steel and Aluminium

40 35 30 Temperature (C) 25 20 Steel 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Aluminium

Position (mm)

Figure 5 Convection Coefficient vs. Surface Temperature

Convection Coefficient vs. Surface Temperature

45 40 35 h (W/m-m-K) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 Natural Radiation

Surface Temperature (K)

Figure 6 Surface Temperature vs. Corrected Air Speed Graph

Surface Temperature vs. Corrected Air Speed

700

650 Surface Temperature (C)

600

550

500

450 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Corrected Air Speed (m/s)