Experiment No.

- 1

AIM: -

(a) Introduction to CRO, Function generator, Multimeter, Bread Board, D.C Power supply (b) Identification of various Components (Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor, Diode, Transistors and ICs)

THEORY:Introduction to CRO

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.

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Electrons leave the heated cathode by thermoionic emission. They are accelerated through a fixed voltage and emerge as a narrow beam focused through a hole in the deflection plate. When the electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen on the face of the tube, it produces a small luminous spot. An external potential difference can be measured by applying it across a pair of parallel deflecting plates, through which the beam passes on the way to the screen. The beam is then deflected by the resultant transverse uniform electric field between the plates. There are two pairs of deflecting plates, one for vertical and the other for horizontal deflection.

CRO Controls The front panel of oscilloscope is shown in figure 2. The inputs and controls with which you will be concerned can be divided into three groups depending on the part of the oscilloscope circuitry with which they are associated. All oscilloscopes include this basic set of controls. The numbers in the diagram refer to the controls described below.

Figure 2 CRO Controls

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(I) FORMATION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM (Number 5) POWER Push in to turn the power on. (Number 7) BEAM INTENSITY The INTEN controls adjust the intensity or brightness of the trace. Clockwise rotation increases the intensity.

IMPORTANT NOTE: WHEN THE SPOT ON THE SCREEN IS STATIONARY, KEEP THE INTENSITY VERY LOW IN ORDER NOT TO DAMAGE THE FLUORESCENT SCREEN AT THAT POINT. IN GENERAL, DO NOT LEAVE THE INTENSITY HIGHER THAN NECESSARY FOR REASONABLE VISIBILITY.

(Number 8) BEAM FOCUS The FOCUS control adjusts the sharpness of the electron spot on the screen.

(II) VERTICAL DEFLECTION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM

(Number 10) VERTICAL AXIS SENSITIVITY: VARIABLE FINE ADJUSTMENT. The vertical axis VARIABLE control is used for fine adjustments of the vertical axis sensitivity. The sensitivity is reduced by turning the vertical axis VARIABL7E knob counterclockwise. Only in the fully clockwise position (with the knob clicked into this position) can the vertical sensitivity be read from the VOLTS/DIV setting.

(Number 11) VERTICAL POSITION This control is used to move the displayed trace up or down. Turning the knob clockwise moves the trace upward.

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(Number 12) AC-DC INPUT SELECTOR With the button in (DC position), the input terminal is directly coupled to the vertical amplifier. With the button out (AC position) the direct current is blocked by a capacitor.

(Number 13) GND GROUND SWITCH With the GND button in, the input to the vertical amplifier is grounded and the vertical INPUT terminal (14) has zero input voltage.

(Number 14) VERTICAL INPUT This is the input terminal for the vertical amplifier. The maximum permissible input voltage is 600 Volts.

(Number 15) VERTICAL AXIS SENSITIVITY RANGE SELECTION IN VOLTS/DIV. The VOLTS/DIV 11-position switch determines the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier. The 11 ranges are indicated in volts per division on the front panel. The indicated sensitivities are only correct if the vertical axis VARIABLE control is in the calibrated position (fully clockwise -- see (10)) and the VERTICAL position control is pushed in.

(III) HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION OF THE ELECTRON BEAM

(Number 16) EXT TRIG INPUT or H IN: EXTERNAL TRIGGER INPUT OR HORIZONTAL INPUT: This input is used for externally triggering the horizontal sweep or for the HORIZONTAL INPUT in a x-y plot. This input is DC coupled (i.e., either a constant or a time varying voltage may be used -- compare with (Number 12) above) and the maximum allowable applied voltage is 100 volts.

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(Number 17-21) HORIZONTAL SWEEP TRIGGER CONTROLS There are four switches and one knob that are used in determining the conditions for triggering the horizontal sweep.

(Number

22)

HORIZONTAL

SWEEP

TIME:

VARIABLE

FINE

ADJUSTMENT: The horizontal axis VARIABLE control is used for fine adjustments of the horizontal sweep time per division. The sweep time per division is increased by turning the horizontal axis VARIABLE knob counter clockwise. Only in the fully clockwise position (with the knob clicked into position) can the sweep time be read from the TIME/DIV setting.

(Number 23) HORIZONTAL SWEEP TIME: RANGE SELECTION IN TIME/DIV or H IN HORIZONTAL INPUT SELECTOR: This control is used to select the horizontal sweep time per division on the scope face. The indicated sweep times per division are only correct if the horizontal axis VARIABLE control is in the calibrated position (fully clockwise -- see (Number 22)) and the HORIZONTAL position control is pushed in (no magnification position -- see (Number 24)). In the fully counter clockwise position the sweep oscillator is disconnected and the signal on the H IN terminal is applied to the horizontal plates.

(Number 24) HORIZONTAL POSITION This control is used to move the trace left or right. Turning the knob clockwise moves the trace to the right.

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Using the CRO for the First Time Step One: Switching the CRO On Step Two: Ensuring the CRO is Calibrated Correctly

Rotate both Gain Variable Controls and the Time Base Variable Control completely clockwise, or until an audible "click" becomes apparent.

Taking the action mentioned above allows us to be sure that the CRO is properly calibrated and any readings taken are accurate.

Step Three: Adjusting the Trace Position and Appearance a. First we set the AC-GND-DC for both Channels A and B to GND. (this should allow us to see a horizontal line across the display) b. The next thing that we do is use the Mode Selector to allow us to view channel A on the display. c. Now that we can see the position of the trace we use both the Intensity and Focus controls to achieve a clear appearing trace. d. Finally we move the trace into the center of the display using both the Horizontal Position Control and the Vertical Position Control corresponding to Channel A. e. Use the Mode Selector to view the trace of Channel B on the display. f. Repeat (d). g. Finally to check that the above steps have been carried out correctly we can set the Mode Selection Switch to DUAL which will allow us to view both traces on the display Step Four: Checking that the CRO is Triggered Correctly

Before any measurements can be made we must ensure that the CRO is correctly triggered. The best way to do this is to follow the steps listed below. a. First check that the Trigger Level Control is set in the AUTO position. This is done by pulling the knob towards you.

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b. Now we put the Slope Control to the Positive selection. c. Ensure that the Sync Selector is in the A.C. position. d. Finally make sure that unless otherwise advised, leave the Source Selector in the INT position. Step Five: Connecting the CRO to the Circuit

It is most important, when connecting the CRO to make a circuit measurement, to remember that the CRO can only take readings of VOLTAGES. This means that the CRO should always be connected in PARALELL to the circuit element over which we are trying to find the voltage.

We now need to select which device we will use to connect the CRO to the circuit. The two devices that we have to choose from are the X10 Probe and the Coaxial Cable. In almost all cases we will use the Coaxial Cable as the X10 Probe is only required when we wish to make extremely accurate readings.

Step Six: Measuring the Input Signal

Now the CRO has been connected to the circuit we can actually adjust the view of the signal on the display to allow us to make an accurate reading

This is done by following the instructions listed below: a. Select the input channel that we wish to view using the Mode Selector. i.e. if Channel A is required the Mode Selector would be in the CH A position, Channel B the CH B position and to see both of the input signals the Mode Selector would be in the DUAL position. b. After selecting the input we wish to the AC-GND-DC Selector is moved from the GND position to the D.C. position. NOTE: It may seem that if an A.C. signal is being measured, the ACGND-DC Selector should be set in the A.C. position. This is not necessary unless there is a large D.C. offset in the A.C. input. So please avoid the temptation to use the A.C. selection.

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c. At this point the Vertical Gain must be adjusted. This is adjusted to allow the signal to be viewed on a scale that is convenient. NOTE: Be sure to adjust the Vertical Gain Control that corresponds to the input channel that we are measuring a signal with. d. The final step involves the adjustment of the Time Base Control. Here the control is rotated to the right or left until the shape and period of the signal viewed on the display can be observed. NOTE: When a D.C. is being measured the Time Base Control does not need to be adjusted.

Now that the signal can be seen at an appropriate size on the display we can actually find the Amplitude and Period of the input signal. This is done in the following manner: D.C. Signal Amplitude Simply count the number of divisions between the Zero Level and the level of the measured signal. Then multiply this number by the setting on the Vertical Gain Control. e.g. A signal covers 4.2 divisions with the Vertical gain setting on 1Volt/div gives us a signal amplitude of 4.2 Volts so the input signal is 4.2V DC. A.C. Signal Amplitude For an A.C. signal the amplitude is usually measured on a Peak to Peak basis. So we count the number of divisions between the positive peak of the signal to the negative peak of the signal and multiply this by the Vertical Gain Control setting. A.C. Signal Period To find the period of the signal count the number of divisions that one cycle of the signal "covers", then multiply this by the setting of the Time Base Control.

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Measurement of Voltage Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak voltage. Voltage = distance in cm volts/cm Example: peak-peak voltage = 4.2cm 2V/cm = 8.4V amplitude (peak voltage) = peak-peak voltage = 4.2V

The trace of an AC signal

Measurement of Time period Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second, frequency = 1/time period Ensure that the variable timebase control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before attempting to take a time reading. The oscilloscope sweeps the electron beam across the screen from left to right at a steady speed set by the TIMEBASE control. The timebase control may be labelled TIME/CM. Time = distance in cm time/cm Example: time period = 4.0cm 5ms/cm = 20ms and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz

Introduction to Function Generator

In the laboratory the device we use to produce A.C. signals of various types is called the Waveform or Function Generator. Figure 3 shows the function generator controls.

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Figure 3 Function Generator

1. Display on its own tells us nothing of the shape or amplitude of the output. It only gives a number which must be multiplied by the range settings to find the signal frequency. 2. To set the frequency output of the Function Generator we use the Frequency Control (Figure 5) and the Range Selection Switches (Figure 4). 3. The process is quite simple, firstly the Frequency is adjusted to the correct value. i.e. if we require 12.5 kHz we Use the Frequency Control (Figure 5) to 12.5 and then depress the Range Selection Switch (Figure 4) corresponding to a 1kHz multiplier and the output will be as required.

Figure 4

Figure 5

4. The Mode Selection Switches (Figure 6) are used to control the shape of the output signal. In this case we only have access to three different types of signal:

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Square Wave, Sine Wave and Triangular wave. 5. The operation of these switches is quite simple just press the switch that corresponds to the particular type of signal that we require.

Figure 6

6. Before we connect the output of the Function Generator to a circuit we must first be able to set the Amplitude of the Output signal.

Figure 7

7. The Output Terminal on the Function Generator is a BNC Connection which can be used directly with a Coaxial Cable. Or if 3mm Plugs are required we will need to use an adaptor.

Introduction to Digital Multimeter (DMM)

The DMM (Figure 8) is used to make measurements of Voltage, Current and Resistance. Both A.C. and D.C. signals can be measured using the DMM.

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Figure 8

1. There is a dial that is used to select the mode which we wish to make measurements in. 2. Below are the Modes listed with their corresponding numbers from the diagram: a. D.C Voltage measurement. b. A.C Voltage measurement. c. D.C Current measurement. d. A.C Current measurement. e. Resistance measurement. 3. Terminals are labeled Terminal 1 through to Terminal 4. a. A: This terminal is used for measuring signals in the range of 2-10 Amps. b. mA: This is used to measure signals from 0 to 2 Amps. c. V ~: This is used when we measure voltage or resistance. d. COM: This is the common terminal and is used in all measurements. 4. DMM is connected in parallel for voltage and in series for current. 5. DMM gives different readings than a CRO for A.C. signals. 6. Always connect the COM terminal when making measurements.

Introduction to Breadboard
A breadboard (Figure 9) is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards.

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Figure 9

Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left. The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown in figure 10. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom.

Figure 10

The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as shown in Figure 10.

Introduction to DC Power Supply

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It is easy to use, low power, four output general purpose laboratory supply. It is suitable for experimental set-ups, circuit development and low voltage applications. The power supply delivers three dc outputs: 0-32V dc output, continuously variable, 2 Amps capacity. This section is provided with panel meters to monitor output voltage and current separately. 5V preset dc output with 5 Amps capacity. A builtin over voltage protection circuit offers protection to the loads against over voltage. 15V preset dc output with 500mA capacity. All the outputs are floating (i.e. neither any of +ve or-ve output terminals nor any point within the regulator circuitry is connected to ground). The power supply is designed to operate satisfactorily in ambient temperature of up to 50oC and full power can be drawn if free air circulation is allowed. The unit works on main supply of 230v ac at 50 Hz.

Error, Accuracy, and Precision

Accuracy refers to the agreement between a measurement and the true or correct value. If a clock strikes twelve when the sun is exactly overhead, the clock is said to be accurate. Accuracy cannot be discussed meaningfully unless the true value is known or is knowable. (Note: The true value of a measurement can never be known. Accuracy refers to the agreement of the measurement and the true value and does not tell you about the quality of the instrument. The instrument may be of high quality and still disagree with the true value. In the example above it was assumed that the purpose of the clock is to measure the location of the sun as it appears to move across the sky. Precision refers to the repeatability of measurement. It does not require us to know the correct or true value. If each day for several years a clock reads exactly 10:17 AM when the sun is at the zenith, this clock is very precise. Error refers to the disagreement between a measurement and the true or accepted value.

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Dept of ECE