Foundry Technology

Metal Casting Processes

Metal forming:casting, forging welding, electro-forming powder metallurgy, rolling

gure 0.3 Cast iron gate assembly (courtesy of G. Bell & Sons Ltd., reprinted m Decorative Cast Iron Work, by Raymond Lister)

Casting: It is a process of forming metallic objects by melting and pouring into a mold. Foundry: It is a commercial establishment for founding or producing castings AFS: American Foundrymens Society

Casting an arrow head

require a mold

Classification of the molding processes

1. Sand molding (or sand casting)
a) green-sand molding b) dry-sand molding c) core-sand casting d) shell molding e) Miscellaneous sand molding (pitfloor molding, cement bonded sand, air-set sand, loam molding, CO2 processes, hot box)

2. Investment molding 3. Ceramic molding 4. Plaster molding 5. Graphite molding

Classification of the casting processes

1. Sand casting 2. Permanent - mold casting (metal mold) 3. Die casting 4. Centrifugal casting 5. Injection casting 6. Suction casting 7. Cold crucible casting

Molding mixtures/aggregates
molding aggregate = sand + clay + water + special additives Mulling is a process of mixing mold aggregates
Sand-(50-95%); SiO2 ; property depends on - Avg. grain size, size distribution and shape - Chemical composition (SiO2, Al2O3...) - Refractoriness and thermal stability Clay- (2-50%); source of plasticity and strength, act as a binding agent / types - Sodium or Calcium bentonite (montmorillonite) - Fire clays (Kaolinite) - Special clays (halloysite, illite, attapulgite) Water- (1.5-8%); develop plasticity and strength, engage in ion exchange Special additives- develop specific property - cereals (corn flour) collapsibility , Hexagonal Trigonal - dextrin, molasses - increases green strength, - wood flour, saw dust - decreases sand expansion - coal dust - surface finish

Bonding action of clays

Electrostatic bonding:
bond developed when clay particles are hydrated H2O = H+ + OHHydroxyl ions of clay micelle attracts hydrogen counter-ions of quartz micelle

Surface tension forces:

surface tension of water surrounding the clay and quartz particles capillary interstices water acts as a stretch membrane forcing particles together
hydrated clay micelle

Inter-particle friction:
During packing particles are jammed against their neighbors opposing further deformation Bridging action between long rows of favorably oriented particles with proper shape and size causes mechanical interlocking and frictional forces

clay and quartz micellar dipoles

Basic steps in making sand casting

1. Pattern making A pattern is an approximate replica of the exterior of the casting 2. Core making Cores (usually made of sand) are placed in to mold to form the interior surfaces of the casting 3. Molding involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern, held within a supporting frame, withdrawing the pattern, setting the core, and closing the mold 4. Melting and pouring Lip, teapot, bottom pouring 5. Cleaning refers to removal of sand, scale and excess metal from the casting. Excess metal: fins, wires, parting line fins, gates Defective casting: salvaged by welding etc. Further processing: heat treatment, surface treatment, or machining

Pattern allowances
A pattern is made of wood, metal, plaster, plastics, wax etc. 1. Shrinkage allowance Solidification shrinkage (during solidification) Thermal contraction (liquidus - room temperature) (1/8)-(1/4) in./ ft for cast iron 2. Machine finish allowance depends on metal, casting design, method of casting and cleaning 1/8 in./ ft for cast iron 3. Pattern draft draft is the taper allowed on vertical faces of a pattern to permit its removal from the molding medium without tearing the mold cavity. 1/16 in./ft 4. Size tolerance The variation which may be permitted on a given casting dimension is called tolerance; difference between min & max dimension 1/16 in./ ft for cast iron 5. Distortion allowance To prevent distortion of large flat plate, dome or U-shape casting from a perfect/straight pattern, the patterns are intensionally distorted (faked) to produce castings with desired shape and size.

Making a mold
green sand molding pattern core molding aggregate (sand+clay+water) flask (drag-cheeks-cope) rammer (pin and butt end) chaplet/core prints downgate (sprue) pouring cup/ basin riser facing sand (fine & clean) backing sand parting powder ingate

Cores
Cores sand mixture: consist of sand grains and organic binders (linseed oil) mixture is rammed in a core box. Green cores are baked at 150-200oC; binder molecule polymerize in presence of O2 and harden Cores making machine: Jolt machine (used for ramming) Shell core machine (used for ramming and baking) Cores setting: Location of the core chaplets (radiator, double head, sheet metal, perforated) unsupported load = core buoyancy - core print support Core sand disposal: core sand should be separated from the molding sand Core knockout: burning, hammering, hydro-blasting

Required properties of sand

1.Green strength: adequate strength and plasticity after mixing water and sand 2.Dry strength: strength, erosion resistance against metallostatic pressure after pouring the metal 3.Hot strength: After moisture evaporation, sand should resist erosion, breakage during metal flow 4.Permeability: should permit the steam/gases to pass off 5.Thermal stability: Heat from the casting causes rapid expansion of silica 6. Refractoriness 7. Flowability 8. Produces good casting finish 9. Reusable 10.Collapsibility: The mold should collapse easily after the liquid metal/ alloy has solidified. Hard/rocklike sand mold cause tear/crack of the casting upon contraction during solidification. 11. Remove heat from the casting during solidification 12.Offer ease of sand preparation and control

Shape and size of sand grains

Size

AFS grain fineness number/ sieve analysis

15 min

If the clay content in the pan is estimated to be 0.4 g, calculate the AFS grain fineness number.

Molding materials other than silica

steel

no PT, rapid heat extr.

Features of molding processes

1. Use of pattern 2. Mixtures/aggregate comprising of granular refractory and binders 3. A method of forming the aggregate around the pattern 4. Hardening of the aggregate-development of bonds in mold 5. Withdrawal of the pattern 6. Liquid metal/alloy is poured into the mold (assemble of mold+ core pieces+ etc) Parameters Method of forming molds<-> granular refractory<-> method of bonding

Forming of molds
1. Compaction of the aggregate around the pattern 2. Free flow of the dry aggregate around the pattern (shell molding) 3. Free flow of a slurry / fluid aggregate (investment/plaster molding) 4. Variants of mold forming methods

Sand molding methods

Flask molding:
hand ramming/ machine ramming-molding jolt ramming squeezing sand slinger

Loam molding:
large savings of the patter making cost

All-core molding: Shell molding:

Flask Molding

Classification of the molding processes

1. Sand molding (or sand casting)
a) green-sand molding b) dry-sand molding c) core-sand molding d) shell molding e) Miscellaneous sand molding (pitfloor molding, cement bonded sand, air-set sand, loam molding, CO2 processes, hot box)

2. Investment molding 3. Ceramic molding 4. Plaster molding 5. Graphite molding

Classification of the casting processes

1. Sand casting 2. Permanent - mold casting (metal mold) 3. Die casting 4. Rapid solidification processing 5. Centrifugal casting 6. Injection casting 7. Suction casting 8. Cold crucible casting

Shell Molding
- fine grained sand - thermosetting resin binder (phenol formaldehyde) - catalyst hexa-methylene tetramine (CH2)6N4 -> NH3 - stearic acid (reduce friction)
h_1

formaldehyde

phenol

Loam Molding

Plaster casting
Au, Ag, Cu, Al-alloys Plaster: slurry of plaster of paris (gypsum)+ water Antioch process: slurry of plaster of paris (gypsum)+ water + talc + sodium silicate + asbestos + sand Advantage: permeability Setting of plaster: hydration CaSO4.1/2 H2O + H2O = CaSO4.2H2O+ heat

Calcium sulfate

drying: 160-230oC CaSO4.2H2O--> CaSO4.1/2 H2O--> CaSO4 (anhydrous calcium sulfate)

Investment casting
alloys for medical application, sculptors, jewelry Pattern and gating systems: Wax, plastic, tin Refractory slurry: binder + alumina+silica+Zr-silicate steps: - preparation of pattern and gating system - welding / assembling - precoating and sand blasting - investing - dewaxing & preheating - firing binders: ethylsilicate, Mg-phosphate, gypsum Si(OC2H5)4+4H2O=H4SiO4+4C2H5OH drying in air for 8 h H4SiO4 (orthosilicate)= 2H2O+SiO2

Graphite mold casting

features - Ti-alloys, brass, bronze can be cast - expendable mold: 30% binder (pitch+Carbonaceous cement+starch+water) + 70% graphite grains is molded by squeezing around the pattern. dried and fired in reducing atmosphere - permanent mold: solid block of graphite is machined - coating: ethyl silicate deposits silica- to prevent oxidation

Permanent mold casting

mold material: grey CI, steel, bronze features - permanent metal mold (5-100,000 cycles) - Al, Mg, Zn, Pb, cast iron, Cu-alloys can be cast - coating (refractory, C-shoot by acetylene flame) mold life and casting ejection become easier good surface finish castings carburetor, hydraulic brake cylinders, gears, vacuum pump cylinders

Die casting or pressure die casting

- similar features as permanent mold casting - molten alloy is forced to fill the mold cavity under high pressure (1000-100,000 psi) - option: hot chamber- or- cold chamber steps:
- cleaning the mold by brushing/ air blasting and maintain proper operating temperature - painting refractory wash/ blacking by C-deposition from oil or gas-flame on mold wall - insertion of core (if any), closing of mold, - pouring of metal and solidification - ejection of casting from the mold

Centrifugal casting
- economical for tubular casting - centrifugal pressure applied to force the liquid metal - chill molds types: - true centrifugal - semi centrifugal - centrifuged Methods: - Watertown method - Sand spun method - DeLavaud Method Benefit: - slag-metal separation -

Rapid solidification processing

Synthesis of Bulk Metallic Glasses

cooling rate 106 K/s Methods

gas atomization/ spray atomization melt spinning splat quenching
Ar atmosphere after evacuation Ar gas pressure

melt spinning

Induction coil Quartz nozzle

Benefit
- metastable alloys/ non-equilibrium phases - the extension of solid solubility - reduction in the grain size - reduction of number and size of segregation - formation of amorphous structure (metallicFIGURE 4.1 glasses)
Melt-spun ribbon Direction Cu roll

Schematic illustration of the melt-spinning process.

Products powder, foil, ribbon

Melt spinners are available commercially from Marco Materials in States, and Nisshin Giken Corporation and Makabe Corporation in In the melt-spinning method, a small quantity of the alloy is m a crucible or by levitation methods, and then ejected by pre through a ne nozzle onto a fast-rotating copper wheel. Every o parameters can be carefully controlled to obtain the desired size, thickness of the ribbon. The crucible material is chosen based on its chemical compat the melt, its temperature handling capability, its resistance to ther its low thermal conductivity, and its low porosity. Dense alumina

dium Silicate Gloss man Inuryunic Binder in Foundry Industry

Binders and binding action

organic / inorganic binder
Table 1 .

errous metals and iron . Important advantages of ese moulds are the high rates of cooling and the Clay-water system ean casting surfaces . Temporary moulds consist of he - Electrochemical binder system and some basic materials, a bonding, interlayer penetration- concept of rigid water dditives. - Surface tension, mechanical interlocking The basic materials are granular substances of ashed, classified and dried different silica sands. Ethyl-silicate - investment may be hese basic materials (moulding sands)molding/ assified into four different types as follows: casting Natural moulding sand High silica sand linsed oil - core making Special sand such as zircon, olivine, chamotte, chromite, chrome-magnesite, corundum, magnesite, Sodium mullite. sillimanite andsilicate Bonding clays (bentonite) - composition - stability - Binder systems may be organic or inorganic, humidity atural Hardener: (as in Table 1). - or synthetic Special sand moulding processes have been CO2, dicalcium silicate, Fe-Si, cement eveloped to enable moulding with less effort and kill, saving time and expenses, produce better quality moulds and cores and effectively help in improving roductivity [1].

Sand binders. Natural Clays Bentonites Synthetic Sodium silicate Cement Plaster Phosphate binders Sulphite lye _

Source Inorganic

Organic

Oil

binders

Aminoplast resins(UF) Phenoplast resins(PF) Furan resins Epoxy resins Polyester resins Polyurethane resins

Core oils Sugar

Ferro-silicon process Carbon dioxide process Differences between these various processes lie in the quality of hardener used, the type of catalysts or other additives, and in the nature of the chemical

Sodium silicate binder

aqueous solution of sodium silicate glass SiO2 + Na2CO3 -> xNa2O.ySiO2 + CO2 at 700-1200oC
- SiO2 - network former - Na2O (Li2O, K2O) - network modifier - Na2O and SiO2 - form a series of compounds, which dissolve in water orthosilicate (2Na2O.SiO2) metasilicate (Na2O.SiO2) disilicate (Na2O.2SiO2) water glass (Na2O.3.3SiO2) Mass ratio= Na2O:SiO2 = 1 : 2.1 to-1 : 2.5 Processes based on sodium silicate binder - cement molding - dicalcium silicate process - ferro-silicon process - carbon dioxide process

Na2O

SiO2

This reaction involves depolymerization of2 O)Si(OH)5 ]2H2 0 ions may be 6] -2 + H2O (6) OH [(H silica -+ [Si(OH) through hydration and dissolution to Si(OH) 4, polysilicateto a pH belowin equilibrium w neutralized by acid and disilicate anions, silica 10 .5, the and [(H20)Si(OH)5 ] of a(5) 4, metasilicate Si(OH)4 + H 2Oother -hand, when a solution Si(OH) + OH On hydration and dissolution to soluble through by addition of hydroxide ion to form silicate 2[S 2H2 0 i(OH)6]-2 followed the acid, which followed by addition alwayssilicate ionalkaline, the other hand, when a solution of a expressthe silicate silicate,conversionis of hydroxide ion to form ions decompose to silicic weight aggregatesby ion . The which of silica to highly in terms of ispolymerization process can be soluble [7 On High molecular + + H2O (6) polymerizes to silica. The neutralization of a solutio [(H 2 . The conversion of a pH [Si(OH) 6] .5, may be following way: OH ion O)Si(OH)5 ] - acid to of 6, below 10 ; silicate, neutralized bynumbersilica to silicate-2ion in terms ofwhich formed whenhighlyweight aggregates High molecular alkaline, silicate coordination for silicon the silicate are is always the pH of OH an alkali is of be as Dissolution follows: of 6, foracid, whichsolubleby is lowered may beabout.5,of.9. Thisfollow glass in acidformed below 10 101 an .OHcorres coordination of Sodium-silicate neutralized metasilicate below represented alkali are OH, represented as number ions decompose to silicic silicon ; maythen waterto a pHwhen the pH the silicatesilic i(OH)6]-2 - Na-ionOn the as follows:The neutralizationa of a solution 2[SSiO2/Na2O ratio acid, which then]corr diffuses out leaving a silica rich soluble represented other hand, when a solution of layer decompose to silicic of aboutnamely highly is lowered below 4 .0, 10.9. This 2 + polymerizes to silica. ions silicate, which is always highlyfresh surface alkaline, is - leached2H2 O flakes SiO2 .2H 20represented polymerizes to sodium silicate (Na2 0 :4SiO2) . These H2O [(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ SiO 2 + layer - off exposing -- Si(OH)4 as[Si(OH)6] -2 +SiO2/Na2O ratio of 4 .0, namely highl (4) of soluble metasilicate may be 10 follows: silica. The neutralization of a solution " OH neutralized by acid to a pH below .5, the silicate OH OH - aqueous solution of sodium silicate is highly alkaline polysilicate ions may 2be:4SiO2) . The SiO 2 + 2H2 O - SiO2 .2H 20 -- Si(OH)4of soluble metasilicate may be represented0 in equilibri (4) sodium silicate (Na as follows: OH 1 .OH OH ions2+2H2O -->SiO2. 2H2O acid, which then 2 SiO decompose to silicic -> Si(OH)4 ] OH-(5) = OH, [(H20)Si(OH)5 Si(OH)4 +-2 + H+ O H 2O 2 OH (pH 13 .6) metasilicate''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_ +H2 0 polysilicate and disilicate anions, ( ions may be in equilib [Si(OH)6] to silica. The neutralization of a solution [(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ polymerizes ] 2 + 20H[(H20)Si(OH)5 ] Si(OH)4 + H 2O + OH (5)-2 + Hpolymerizationand disilicate anions metasilicate + [Si(OH)6]-2 --sp.process can be expres [Si(OH)6] 2 O [ Si2(OH)to]-2 [(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ of soluble metasilicate may be represented as follows: " OH 2 [(H- 2 O)Si(OH)5 ] - + [Si(OH) 6] -2 + H2O (6) (7) following way: polymerization process can be expr OH (pH = 13 .6) [(H ~ ''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_ +H2 0 2 0)Si(OH) 5 ] - OH Si(OH)4 + OH - + + H2O (6) [(H 2 O)Si(OH)52 ]O + [Si(OH) 6] -2OH- (pH = 13 .6) following''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_2 +H2 0 way: OH [Si(OH)6] -2 + H [(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ (7) On the other hand, when a solution of a soluble 2[S [ 10.9)i(OH)6]-2 0H [(H 2 0)Si(OH) 5 ] - ~ Si(OH)42 + OH - + H 2O (pHSi2(OH)to]-2 + [Si(OH)6]-2 --sp.1 /x(S iO2)x +OH H2O O silicate,13 .6)otheris always highly alkaline, is which hand, when a solution of a soluble On the OH- (pH = ''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_ +H2 0 [(H 2(7) 0)Si(OH) 5 ] -2[S i(OH)6]-2 ~ OH, Si(OH)4 + OH - +l OH, OH OHis neutralized by acid to a pH below 10 .5, the silicate OH OH silicate, which is always highly alkaline, OH iO2)x + H2O OH H 2O (pH 10.9) 1 /x(S above th [ ions decompose to a pH below 10which silicate(8) theOH,0H and next formulations, for ;S silicic acid,- + the then In + OH .5, neutralized 5 ] - acid to OH [(H 2 0)Si(OH)by ~ Si(OH)4 OH 1 OH OH iO2)x + .OHOH Si H explanation (pH 1 /x(S "OWphenomena in t (8) Si 2O OH 10.9) of polymerizationH2O OH' polymerizes to silica. to silicic acid, which then The OH neutralization of a solution OH, OH, l OH, .OH'OH` ] 2 +OH 20Hions decompose 1 O the + H2system, the coordination number O In metasilicate maynext formulations, (8) for of soluble10.9) be follows: H 2O (pH theto silicaSi 1 /x(S iO2)x + H2O ofSi solution [ OH OH ] 2 + ] -2 ,O polymerizes above .and OH represented as a silica-water ;Si, The neutralization " OH for the 20H In OH OH the above and next explanation of polymerization phenomena in the proposed to "OW formulations, silicon is OH' be of soluble metasilicate may be represented as follows: 'OH` OH 6. OH " OH OH OH of of polymerization phenomena in 'OH silica-water H 2 O and next coordinationfor the Further studies [6], show that abovethe 13 number 20W In the above formulations, explanation [Si(OH)6] -2 + system, the[(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ OH OH OH OH OH ,OH pH OH Liquid sodium of polymerization phenomena silica-water system, the coordination number of explanation +silicate in the silicon is proposed to be 6. [(H20)Si(OH)5]-+ the metasilicate ion, corresponding to monomer, [ Si2(OH)to]-2 + [Si(OH)6]-2 --sp.[Si(OH)6] -2 toH 2 O 2 - losses water .6)atmosphere depending on SiO2/Na2O ratio; be 6. silicon 13 silica-water system, the ''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_ +H2 0 pH is proposed to coordination above OH- (pH = 13 studies [6], show that number of(7) .6 20W Further So + .6 and 10 .9, the disilica stable; and between)to]-2 13[Si(OH)6]-2 --sp.[ Si2(OH pH higher molecular weight ambientproposed to be 6. relative humidity show that silicon is temperature & theform at 13 .6)6-8 thermo-chemical 2reaction Further studies [6], according to theprincipal anio formed dimmer isabove pH 13 .6 rea OHmetasilicate ion, corresponding to monomer, is (pH = pH 0 corresponding to the following - gels - Further studies [6], ''Ys[Si2(OH)5 ]_ +H2theion, (7) to So correspondingOH monomer, is [(H 2 0)Si(OH) 5 ] - ~ Si(OH)4 +above+the disilicate 0H OH stable; andpolymerization of below pHpH 13 .6 between pH show that 10 .9, 10 metasilicate ion, higher molecular weight polymer ca 13 .6 and OH - progressive the metasilicate ion, corresponding to monomer, is and between pH 13 .6 and following reaction: formed according to the 10l.9, the disilicate O stable; OH, ion,2 0)Si(OH) 5 ] - ~ Si(OH)4 + OH - + [(H2 corresponding to dimmer is the principal anion 0H OH OH, [Si(OH)5.[Si(OH)4 ],,.Si(OH)5] -2 + [Si( OH SiO tetrahedron-> colloid and 10 .9, the disilicate stable; and 10.9) between pH 131.6 --> Gel H2O ion, corresponding to dimmer is the principal anion H 2O (pH /x(S iO2)x + (8) [ OH, Iranian Polymer Journal / Volume 10 Number 4OH, ;Si, (200!) ion, corresponding to dimmer is the principal anion .Si(OH) ] l +

silicate, which is always highly alkaline,

Sodium silicate binder

"ii"
-

"ii"

"ii" "ii"

CO2 process
film
sand

core making or core molding

Na2O.mSiO2 + nH2O + CO2 = Na2CO3 + mSiO2.nH2O + Q (heat)

silica hydrogel
sand

CO2

excess CO2 moisture

Over gassing: Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2 = 2Na2HCO3 loss of strength

Benefit
- reaction alters pH --> gelation - it does not require baking - no breakage, sagging of unhardened core - no need of expensive drier - higher SiO2:Na2O(2:1 or 3:1) faster gassing less CO2 usage - collapsibility is poor, can be increased by adding wood flour, spl. additives

Refractory coatings
graphite, talc, silica, zircon, silicates, olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 Benefit: - reduce or eliminate metal penetration - reduce or prevent burn on - prevent erosion of sand by molten metal - provide smoother surface of the castings - improve overall casting quality - reduce scrap - reduces clearing costs