MODULE In PHYSICS

Physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are used by all physicists. Each of these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of Nature (within a certain domain of validity). For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much

larger than atomsand moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (16421727). These "central theories" are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them.
Contents
[hide]

1 Classical mechanics 2 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics 3 Electromagnetism 4 Relativity 5 Quantum mechanics 6 Interdisciplinary fields 7 Summary 8 References

[edit]Classical

mechanics

Newton's cannonball, an artificial satellite

Branches of classical mechanics

Main article: Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics is a model data of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. It is often referred to as "Newtonian mechanics" after Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. Mechanics is subdivided into statics, which models objects at rest, kinematics, which models objects in motion, and dynamics, which models objects subjected to forces. The classical mechanics of continuous and deformable objects is continuum mechanics, which can itself be broken down into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics according to the state of matter being studied. The latter, the mechanics of liquids and gases, includes hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, pneumatics,aerodynamics, and other fields. An important concept of mechanics is the identification of conserved energy and momentum, which lead to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian reformulations of Newton's laws. Liouville's theoremfor statistical and Hamiltonian mechanics is a classical nineteenth century result which describes the behavior of the phase space distribution function. Liouville's theorem has a suggestive formulation, the Poisson bracket, which encodes Hamilton's equations of classical mechanics, and has analogies with the commutator in quantum mechanics. A relatively recent result of considerations concerning the dynamics of nonlinear systems is chaos theory, the study of systems in which small changes in a variable may have large effects. [edit]Thermodynamics

and statistical mechanics

Main articles: Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics

Typical thermodynamic system - heat moves from hot (boiler) to cold (condenser) and work is extracted

The first chapter of The Feynman Lectures on Physics is about the existence of atoms, which Feynman considered to be the most compact statement of physics, from which science could easily result even if all other knowledge was lost.[1] By modeling matter as collections of hard spheres, it is possible to describe the kinetic theory of gases, upon which classical thermodynamics is based. Thermodynamics studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, andvolume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale, and the transfer of energy asheat.[2][3] Historically, thermodynamics developed out of need to increase theefficiency of early steam engines.[4] The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations are the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work.[5] They also postulate the existence of a quantity namedentropy, which can be defined for any system.[6] In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts of system and surroundings. A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn are related to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to

express internal energyand thermodynamic potentials, which are useful for determining conditions for equilibrium and spontaneous processes. [edit]Electromagnetism

Main article: Electromagnetism See also: Optics Electromagnetism describes the interaction of charged particles with electric and magnetic fields. It can be divided into electrostatics, the study of interactions between charges at rest, and electrodynamics, the study of interactions between moving charges and radiation. The classical theory of electromagnetism is based on the Lorentz force law and Maxwell's equations. Light is an oscillatingelectromagnetic field that is radiated from accelerating charged particles. Thus, all of optics, the study of the nature and propagation of light, can be reduced to electromagnetic interactions. Two major fields of optics are geometric optics or "classical optics", and physical optics which studies the electromagnetic properties of light to achieve greater understanding of phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and polarization. A more recent development is quantum electrodynamics, which incorporates the laws of quantum theory in order to explain the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Relativistic electrodynamics accounts for relativistic corrections to the motions of charged particles when their speeds approach the speed of light. It applies to phenomena involved with particle accelerators and electron tubes carrying highvoltages and currents. [edit]Relativity Main articles: Special relativity and General relativity The special theory of relativity enjoys a relationship with electromagnetism and mechanics; that is, the principle of relativity and the principle of stationary action in mechanics can be used to derive Maxwell's equations,[7][8] and vice versa. The theory of special relativity was proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein in his article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The title of the article refers to the fact that special relativity resolves an inconsistency between Maxwell's equations and classical mechanics. The theory is based on two postulates: (1) that the mathematical forms of the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial systems; and (2) that thespeed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer. Reconciling the two postulates requires a unification ofspace and time into the frame-dependent concept of spacetime. General relativity is the geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915/16.[9][10] It unifies special relativity, Newton's law of universal gravitation, and the insight that gravitation can be described by the curvature of space and time. In general relativity, the curvature of space-time is produced by the energy of matter and radiation. [edit]Quantum
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism

mechanics

Main article: Quantum mechanics

The first few hydrogen atom electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density

Schrdinger equation of quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics treating atomic and subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation. It is based on the observation that all forms of energy are released in discrete units or bundles called "quanta". Remarkably, quantum theory typically permits onlyprobable or statistical calculation of the observed features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of wavefunctions. The Schrdinger equation plays the role in quantum mechanics thatNewton's laws and conservation of energy serve in classical mechanics i.e., it predicts the future behavior of a dynamic system and is a wave equation that is used to solve for wavefunctions. For example, the light, or electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by an atom has only certain frequencies (or wavelengths), as can be seen from the line spectrum associated with the chemical element represented by that atom. The quantum theory shows that those frequencies correspond to definite energies of the light quanta, or photons, and result from the fact that theelectrons of the atom can have only certain allowed energy values, or levels; when an electron changes from one allowed level to another, a quantum of energy is emitted or absorbed whose frequency is directly proportional to the energy difference between the two levels. Thephotoelectric effect further confirmed the quantization of light. In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that not only do light waves sometimes exhibit particle-like properties, but particles may also exhibit wavelike properties. Two different formulations of quantum mechanics were presented following de Broglies suggestion. The wave mechanics ofErwin Schrdinger (1926) involves the use of a mathematical entity, the wave function, which is related to the probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. The matrix mechanics ofWerner Heisenberg (1925) makes no mention of wave functions or similar concepts but was shown to be mathematically equivalent to Schrdingers theory. A particularly important discovery of the quantum theory is the uncertainty principle, enunciated by Heisenberg in 1927, which places an absolute theoretical limit on the accuracy of certain measurements; as a result, the assumption by earlier scientists that the physical state of a system could be measured exactly and used to predict future states had to be abandoned. Quantum mechanics was combined with the theory of relativity in the formulation of Paul Dirac. Other developments includequantum statistics, quantum electrodynamics, concerned with interactions between charged particles and electromagnetic fields; and its generalization, quantum field theory.

[edit]Interdisciplinary

fields

To the interdisciplinary fields, which define partially sciences of their own, belong e.g. the

Chemical Physics, the science of physical relations in chemistry Geophysics, the sciences of physical relations on our planet Econophysics, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of economy Physical Chemistry, dealing with physical processes and their relations in the science of physical Chemistry

[edit]Summary The table below lists the core theories along with many of the concepts they employ. Theory Major subtopics Concepts

Classical mechanics

Newton's laws of motion,Lagrangian mechanics,Hamiltonian mechanics,Kinematics, Statics,Dynamics, Chaos theory,Acoustics, Fluid dynamics, Continuum mechanics

Density, Dimension, Gravity, Space, Time, Motio n, Length, Position, Velocity,Acceleration, Galilean invariance, Mass, Momentum, Impulse, Force, En ergy, Angular velocity, Angular momentum, Moment of inertia, Torque, Conservation law, Harmonic oscillator, Wave, Work, Power, Lagrangian, Ham iltonian, Tait-Bryan angles, Euler angles

Electromagnetism

Capacitance, Electric charge, Current, Electrical conductivity, Electric field, Electric permittivity, Electric potential, Electrical Electrostatics,Electrodynamics,Electricity, Magnetism,Magneto resistance, Electromagnetic statics, Maxwell's equations, Optics field, Electromagnetic induction, Electromagnetic radiation, Gaussian surface, Magnetic field, Magnetic flux,Magnetic monopole, Magnetic permeability

Thermodynamicsand St Heat engine, Kinetic theory atistical mechanics

Boltzmann's constant, Conjugate variables, Enthalpy, Entropy, Equation of state,Equipartition theorem, Thermodynamic free energy, Heat, Ideal gas law, Internal energy,Laws of thermodynamics, Maxwell relations, Irreversible process, Ising model, Mechanical action, Partition function, Pressure, Reversible process, Spontaneous process, State function, Statistical ensemble, Temperature, Thermodynamic equilibrium, Thermodynamic potential, Thermodynamic processes, Thermodynamic state, Thermodynamic system,Viscosity, Volume, Work, Granular material

Quantum mechanics

Path integral formulation,Scattering theory,Schrdinger equation,Quantum field theory,Quantum statistical mechanics

Adiabatic approximation, Blackbody radiation, Correspondence principle, Free particle,Hamiltonian, Hilbert space, Identical

particles, Matrix Mechanics, Planck's constant,Observer effect, Operators, Quanta, Quantization, Quantum entanglement, Quantum harmonic oscillator, Quantum number, Quantum tunneling, Schrdinger's cat, Dirac equation, Spin, Wavefunction, Wave mechanics, Wave-particle duality, Zero-point energy,Pauli Exclusion Principle, Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Relativity

Special relativity, General relativity, Einstein field equations

Covariance, Einstein manifold, Equivalence principle, Four-momentum, Four-vector, General principle of relativity, Geodesic motion, Gravity, Gravitoelectromagnetism, Inerti al frame of reference, Invariance, Length contraction, Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz transformation,Mass-energy equivalence, Metric, Minkowski diagram, Minkowski space, Principle of Relativity, Proper length, Proper time, Reference frame, Rest energy, Rest mass, Relativity of simultaneity, Spacetime, Special principle of relativity, Speed of light, Stress-energy tensor, Time dilation, Twin paradox, World line

Physics Tutorials is an education site that includes general physics topics. Students at high schools and university can find any physics subjects in this site. Since vectors are basic of most of the physics subjects, we choose it to be first topic of this site. You can find general definition and addition of vectors. Moreover, some exercises are given related to multiplying vectors with a scalar. Second topic is mechanics which is divided into two as kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics deals with motion of particles. In this section you can find some definitions related to motion like distance, displacement, speed and velocity, acceleration, graphs of motion, free fall, relative velocity, riverboat problems and projectile motion. On the contrary, dynamics deals with causes of motion such as force, Newtons laws of motions, normal force, and friction force. Energy, work and power are another topic discussed in this site. As you can guess, this section gives information about work, power, energy, potential energy, kinetic energy and conservation of energy law. Impulse momentum gives information about definitions of impulse and momentum, conservation of momentum law and collisions. Rotational motion is also discussed in this site. It deals with rotational or circular motion. You can find tangential speed and velocity, angular velocity, angular acceleration, centripetal force, centrifugal force and torque in this section. Optic is one of the branch of physics which deals with the light and properties of it. In this section, reflection of light, plane and curved mirrors, special rays reflecting from plane and curved mirrors, refraction of lights, laws of refraction, critical angle and total reflection and apparent depth real depth are discussed.

General properties of matter are another topic of this site. Mass, volume, inertia, density and elasticity are defined and explained with examples. Heat and temperature section is another topic of physics tutorials. In this unit, you can find definitions of heat and temperature concepts, heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation. Moreover, there are some calculations with heat transfer and change of phase. Phase transition of water, thermal expansion and contraction are another subjects discussed in this section. Electrostatics is an introduction to electricity. There are some basic concepts like types of charging, grounding, electroscope, electrical forces-Coulombs law, electric field, electric potential and electric potential energy, capacitors and capacitance and connections of capacitors in this part of site. Electric current covers topics; electric current and flow of charges, Ohms Law resistance and resistors, combination of resistors, common electric circuits and combination of batteries, alternating current and direct current and diodes, electric power and energy, finding potential difference between two points in a circuit. Moreover, you can find exercises and many problems and solutions related to these topics under this title. Magnetism is another topic discussed in physics tutorials. You can find magnetic field, magnetic flux and permeability, magnetic field of earth, magnetic effect of current magnetic field around a circular wire and solenoid, force acting on moving particle and current carrying wire and transformers subjects in this site. A wave is the last topic of physics tutorials. It includes subjects; properties of waves, direction of wave propagation, interference of spring waves, reflection of spring waves, water waves and refraction of waves. There are numbers of problems and solutions, exam questions of each topic in this site. Students study and do exercise by solving problems.
Physics, in its beginning was known as, and is still known in some places as 'Natural Philosophy'. Physics then, had not specialized so much, as to be split into hundreds of, even more specialized branches. Philosophy is man's attempt in making sense of all that happens in nature and to find the root cause behind everything. I still choose to call it 'Natural Philosophy', as for me, physics and philosophy are not two different things. This article will give you a summary of all the main branches of physics and their definition. As physicists went on exploring nature at a deeper and deeper level, different branches of physics evolved, as specialized fields, with a coherent theoretical structure. To describe and provide rationale, for all that happens, from scales lesser than size of a nucleus, to scales larger than galaxies, there is a different branch of physics, at every level. That is because, every branch is based on a set of principles or approximations that best describe the phenomena at that level. The division of physics into different branches is artificial and is made for our own convenience of understanding. Nature does not compartmentalize this world, as its dynamics at every level, are all connected. The branches of physics can be broadly divided into two types which are 'Theoretical Physics' and 'Experimental Physics'. The reason for this is best understood in the words of one of the greatest physicist ever, Prof. Richard Feynman. I quote his words from the 'Feynman Lectures on Physics': "The principle of science, the definition almost, is the following: 'The test of all knowledge is experiment'. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific 'truth.'. . . Experiment itself. . Gives us hints. . But also needed is 'imagination' to create from these hints the great generalizations - to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all. . And then to experiment to check again, whether we have made the right guess. This imagination process is so difficult, that there is a division of labor in physics: there are theoretical physicists who imagine, deduce and guess at new laws, but do not experiment; and then there are experimental physicists who experiment, imagine, deduce and guess." I think this completely explains why there is a 'division of labor' in physics into the two branches. The fields are complementary to each other. Every branch of physics has a theoretical discipline and an experimental. Theory cannot be validated without experiment and experiments cannot be performed without theoretical basis and direction. Physics Branches Here is a list of main branches of physics, along with a summary of what is studied in that particular branch. Every branch of physics is further divided into smaller sub-branches. As explained before, every one of these branches except mathematical physics, has an experimental and theoretical sub-division. The classification of these branches of physics is artificial and these branches overlap onto each other to create further specialized fields.

Classical Mechanics This is the oldest branch of physics which analytically describes motion of all objects on the macroscopic scales. It describes everything from, why large objects like balls bounce, why pendulum swings to why planets revolve around the Sun! It describes 'mechanics' of all kinds on the large scale and its classical, because it cannot explain motion at atomic level. Fluid mechanics is one specialized sub-branch of classical mechanics, which describes the physics of all types of fluids. Mathematical Physics This is the branch of physics, which gives theoretical physics its tools of analysis. Mathematics is the language of nature and therefore if one wants to understand nature, one must understand mathematics. Mathematics brings precision to physics. It is the branch which is an overlap of pure mathematics and physics. Mathematical physics techniques form the toolbox of a physicist. Just like a workman must use the right kind of tools to get his job done, so must a physicist use the right mathematical tools to solve a problem! The more and more deeply we explore nature, every new law discovered can only be expressed in a new form of mathematics. Classical Electrodynamics This field is the most broadly applied of all the branches of physics. Classical electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's laws ofelectromagnetism, which describes all kinds of electromagnetic phenomena from atomic to global scales. It is the theoretical basis of optics, telecommunication and many other sub-fields. Its domain extends over all of nature, as the 'Electromagnetic Force' is all pervading and we live in an electromagnetic world. Quantum Mechanics This branch describes a new kind of mechanics, which can explain phenomena at the sub-atomic level, which classical mechanics fails to describe. It provides the clearest picture of nature at the sub-atomic scales. Quantum physics, is based on the principle of uncertainty, and predicts all phenomena in terms of probabilities. It describes a weird sub-atomic world, which is totally different from the world at macroscopic scales. Studying quantum physics requires quite a bit of mathematical expertise and it is the theoretical basis of all branches of physics, that describe phenomena at atomic or subatomic scales. For more on this read, 'Basics of Quantum Mechanics for Dummies'. Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics Thermodynamics and statistical physics is one of the core branches of physics, which gives a theoretical mechanism to describe the motion of and phenomena in multi-particle systems. Even though a single particle motion can be analyzed by quantum mechanics, it cannot describe multi-particle systems analytically, as the variables of calculation there are too many. So, a statistical approach is needed that describes motion of matter in bulk. Thermodynamics is a predecessor of statistical mechanics. Statistical mechanics combined with quantum mechanics, forms quantum statistical mechanics. Condensed Matter Physics Condensed Matter Physics is a sub-branch of quantum physics and statistical mechanics, which describes all phenomena that occur in matter, which is in condensed form. This includes everything from liquids, solid and gases. The physics of semiconductor devices, which make today's age of information technology possible, is a result of research developments in condensed matter physics. It describes all phenomena in bulk matter like ferromagnetism, superfluidity and superconductivity. Nuclear Physics Nuclear physics describes all the phenomena that occur at the level of the atomic nucleus. It deals with and explains phenomena like radioactivity, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Developments in nuclear physics led to the production of nuclear weapons like the atom bomb, the Hydrogen bomb and made nuclear energy source available to mankind. For more on this, read 'List of Radioactive Elements'. Quantum Field theory This is the physics which describes the physics of particles, which are very small and very fast. It is also known as particle physics. It is based on the three theoretical foundations of quantum mechanics, special theory of relativity and the concept of fields. It is based on the unification of all these three foundations and it describes the physics of fundamental particles of matter. It is one of the most difficult branches of physics, which describe the ultimate building blocks of nature. Non-Linear Dynamics This is a sub-field of classical mechanics, which solves the problems on macroscopic scales, which cannot be solved by classical mechanics. It is an advanced branch of mathematics, which attempts to solve non-linear differential equations of motion, which are not amenable to a solution by conventional techniques. A greater part of it is also known as 'Chaos Theory', which delves in to the organized chaos that exists in the macroscopic world. It is the most happening branch of physics currently. For more on this read, 'An Introduction to Chaos Theory'. Astronomy and Astrophysics Astronomy is the observational study of the universe in all its manifestations and astrophysics (a confluence of all branches of physics), is the theoretical basis, which can explain all those phenomena. It is the most all encompassing of all the branches of physics, which has a singular goal of explaining every phenomenon that occurs in the universe. General Theory of Relativity and Cosmology The general theory of relativity is the correct theory, which describes gravitation at all scales. It interprets gravity not as a

force, but as a consequence of the curvature of space-time. Space around massive objects actually gets warped and bent. Gravity is the result of this warping of space time. Special relativity unifies space and time in to 'Spacetime' and general relativity makes 'Spacetime' interact with matter. How much space warps, depends on the content of matter and energy in it. In simple words, general relativity is described by, 'Matter tells space how to bend, space tells matter how to move!' For more read 'Does the Fourth(4th) Dimension of Time Exist'. The power of the principle of general relativity is such, that it gave birth to the new science of cosmology, which provides the framework, that can describe the evolution of the Universe in totality! For the first time, thanks to cosmology, physics can provide an answer to the question, 'How was the Universe Created? '. This was a whirlwind tour of all the main branches of physics. I hope, when somebody asks you, 'What are the branches of physics? ', you will direct them to read my article! There are many more specialized branches of physics like 'Biophysics' (a confluence of biology and physics), which describes the physics involved in biological systems. Hope this article has given you an idea of the vastness of physics and the power it provides at your disposal!

Albert Einstein

Use Encarta to find the information needed to complete this crossword puzzle. Good Luck!
Top of Form
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Across 4. Quantum _______. 6. "God does not _______ _______ with the world." 11 Uncertainty _______. . 13 Einstein supported two social movements, _______ . and _______. 15 Einstein was born in this country. . 21 City where Einstein spent much of his youth. . 22 President _______ receieved a letter concerning the . possible development of an atomic bomb.

Down 1. Einstein won the _______ Prize in Physics in 1921. 2. City of Einstein's birth. 3. Instrument played by Einstein. 5. When _______ came to power, Einstein left Germany for the United States. 7. "On the _______ of Moving Bodies," Einstein's third major paper. 8. Planck's _______. 9. According to Einstein, the only source of knowledge is _______. 10 Location of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute

for Physics.

12 First name of Einstein's first wife. . 14 Einstein's chief early patron was _______ . _______. 16 Einstein received his doctorate from the . University of _______. 17 Brownian _______. . 18 A light particle is called a _______. . 19 Age at which Einstein began to talk. . 20 Unified _______ theory. .

Description of the Field

For the longest time this was the only field of physics. It was the field of the likes of Isaac Newton and concerns the motion of rigid objects. Then came question #6. Once two separate fields they were united by James Clark Maxwell. This theory describes the (classical) interplay of charges and fields.

Name of Field

Famous Contributors Description of the Famous Inventions Field

Often considered a slightly different field than Isaac Newton, Joseph-Louis question #7, this is the Lagrange - Mechanical field which studies the engineering origins of the universe and the Big Bang. A newer field of physics James Clark Maxwell, which seeks to describe Michael Faraday - The things like protein folding, radio, television, light bulb,behaviour of cell electricity, etc. (Notmembranes, the physics of to mention Electricalenzymes, etc. Also things Engineering) like population dynamics. Lord Kelvin, James Watt The largest field of The steam engine, the physics. It concerns the combustion engine, the physics of many, many automobile, the refrigerator, quantum particles and etc. areas such as Superconductivity, BoseEinstein Condensates and Solid Stephan Boltzmann, Willard State Devices.

Name of Field

Famous Contributors Famous Inventions

Stephen Hawking, Roger Penrose - An understanding of life, the universe and everything

Linus Pauling, G. N. Ramachandran - An understanding of the workings of DNA and RNA as well as how proteins are created

The macroscopic behaviour of heat.

The result of applying question #3 to a microscopic system where quantum effects reign supreme and probability theory dominates. The physics of things that flows. Developed by heavy hitters like Bohr, Dirac and Schrodinger this field concerns the physics of the microscopic (provided nothing is moving too fast). Supernova, pulsars, galaxy formation. These are the topics of concern in this area of physics. This field of physics comes from reconciling question #6 with Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity and is considered the most accurate physical theory ever created.

Phil Anderson, Lev Landau - Transistors, the microchip, LCD screens, MRI's, the digital age, etc.

Gibbs - Needed for the This less well known but theory of question #11 extremely well funded branch of physics investigates things like the Daniel Bernoulli, George metals cool, the way way Gabriel Stokes - plastics fracture, the Aerodynamics, the airplane, of metallurgy, etc. physics turbines, pumps, etc. The physics of chemical reactions as well as molecular bonds and other Niels Bohr, Erwin things that cross-over with Schrodinger - See question field of Chemistry. the #11 This field of physics which concerns the behaviour and structure of atomic nuclei became very Galileo Galilei, Edwin popular Hubble - An understanding during 1939-1945.

(None that I can think of) Stronger metals that don't fracture, improved metallurgy,

Linus Pauling, William Bragg (either) - Physical and Quantum chemistry and everything that comes with it Enrico Fermi, J. Robert Oppenheimer - The bomb, nuclear reactors, medical isotopes, etc.

of our place in the universe The very trendy String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity are examples from this field Richard Feynman, P. A. M. of study that attempts to Dirac - Particles physics and all four of the forces unify greatly contributes to the in nature. field of question #11

Ed Witten, Lee Smolin We're still waiting

Bottom of Form