25

THE PARTS OF CINEMA: A Definition By Robert Gessner of Cinema Professor New York University When a teacher circular a cellulose picture. called under 1940, called can into In 1950, a kine. tin brought into silver the tin a classroom nitrate in 1930 a fixed on

can containing nitrate base, the

salts

contents

were called Hays Office

a motion it was tin By

If he got a motion the

can from the

picture

classic.

In 1935 this an audio-visual

circular aid.

teacher's to the

arm was called British

thanks a film. their

documentaries, Sociologists and calling it

our tin began

can was the

By 1945 the classrooms,

bringing

a frame tin

of reference.

when television By 1955,

began

to boom,

the

can was called called to the

educators,

repackaging

curricula,

can a communication. distinguish media, thanks country it the

To the more imaginative slightly obscene art.

who wished phrase,

can from the

mass in 1960,

was called to the

a communication existence cinema, "is not

Finally, the points

in part is being

of The Society which, the Fowler

can in this out (to

called

compound the but a curtailed

confusion),

Greek word kinema

.

at all,

form of cinematograph in Britain,

. "

And cinematofour-letter

graph word,

originated film.

from whence

came the

When the people not agree

who teach it,

and practice what, we wonder,

the is

subject being

do taught

on what to call

26 and practiced? as part tion ting well of In Florida, science. under the college Harvard label students is study the subject instrucdemonstraCharles in the their teledescribe cinematic taught No as

library subject

contemplating and thus along the

in the that

Light,

the powers of

of darkness Siwash, to teach to

can dwell

as the banks

The Speech the subject

departments so that film", tail

Midwest vision the dog. apart such music, Cinema,

are beginning majors will

be able between

"work with

as they and the are history.

relationship Similar

the broadcasting exist wherever

confusions

techniques and art of the arts

from genesis confusion painting, curiously, exists

of craft in the

development teaching poetry only art

of antiquity, and architecture.

sculpture, is the

(literature), in which

technique

has matured how-

in advance ever,

of theory.

Practice

can not make for

perfection,

without Here,

comprehension6 ironically, greatest in the confusion field of technical accomplishment as concept, at the of

we find There terms film is

the

in terminology nomenclature. Pudovkin area called we find

as well

no commonly employed in editing, In this which

Let us look "the

used art,"

foundation

fundamental insipid choir.

so many contradictory, Tower of

duplicating, Babel sound

meaningless, like an Easter the

phrases

as to make the

Here are to a close-up; or the match faces insert the

most common:

cut-in,

such to long

as from a long shot;

shot

cut-out, cut cut,

from close-up cutS of cut

cut-on-action, to

or action a close-up

on reaction, or prop; the

or from face cut-away

a face called

to new or inter-

material;

crosscut,

sometimes

intercut,

27 cutting; montage cut cuts. ithe linkage in which omits there action. for transition, confused with the up

symbolical

may be no subject These

relationship; considered

which

are generally

motivated

Other phrases
cuts cut with action, are: with cut

commonly employed and considered

of frame, cut cut with with

unmotivated
direction, cut

from out time

wronq screen

improper

lapse, jump cut

mismatched

elements, cut after

repeated

action,

when not motivated, or has

cut before Karel Reisz

action has

is

completed,

settled. of Film additional or of

a glossary 1953,

of terms

in The Technique three

Editing, definitions: other subject shot of

Focal

Press,

in which he contributes shot, used to cover shot,

"the bridging in continuity;" is

a jump in ti in which shot, part

breaks

"the cheat

or action an entire the the

excluded;"

and "the master action taken closer

a single to

piece

of dramatic of the will

in order shots

facilitate from which

assembly sequence

component

of details

finally betrays

be covered," a non-cinematic to see the generic attitude, dynamics shot" is sounds

"Covering typical in the like

a sequence"

of an inability art form. Cheat

or refusal shot indeed'

"The bridging the master this type shot

a transplantation from the theatre.

from radio; I submit,

a scene is

concept

of terminology tace over

what happens ture in the

when the name of

plumbers

and carpenters housing.

architec-

low-cost

What is most painfully

terms is the most elementary art; as such it

lacking

in the use of these

of cinema to convey as a feeling

editing

comprehension has the power

humanistic

and

28 thought. Consequently, there is no appreciation emotional excuse of technique and intellectual. a lack of

as a means toward This is aesthetic about

subjective ignorance

concepts, which cannot

curiosity

the

unique

characteristics goals

of cinema. produces of the chaos and the a terminology inter-locking is perfectly by

The absence devoid roles

of conceptual

of any significant of content and form.

understanding The resultant textbook, gone Film

illustrated Don Livingston, Macmillan as 1. moves 5, the

in an alleged which 1953. 2. 4. (both has

Director, by

through lists

four

printings Basic

since

Livingston

"Twelve 3,

Movements" (subject walk-in); Following

truck-in; camera); shot

The truck-out; The walk-away subject

The walk-in of the 6.

toward

(opposite

The follow

and camera move); on another one subject

one subject original

to reveal exits; 8.

and concentrate 7. Following

subject; to include

subject

more subjects; 9. Following

Transition leaving the exact

from a group a group; description or truck

to an individual; Correcting of that for "The to main-

a subject Here is

10.

composition.

puzzle:

camera must either tain composition

pan,

tilt,

slightly subjects.

in order

on one or more moving

For example, He rises, frame, back this Subjects and

we have

a medium close-up to hold either tilts

of a man seated

in a chair. and keep

and in order the camera

him in the picture up with

a balanced or trucks if 11.

him as he rises

to include tyranny reversing; another

more area."

What would happen frame dictated which

to painting

of the balanced and 12. subject

composition? is "One subject

Countering,

moves

'counters'

or moves

into

a predetermined

position

29

which

will Is it

maintain not of

picture

composition." to students that immediately away their upon textbooks? to of

a compliment

completion

a course

so many sell regrettably chaos, the

or give

There has been chart order out

only

one notable

attempt diagram

of the

all-inclusive youthful, of terms

Raymond Spottiswoode, of the Film, but by the has alas' lack

when audaciousley the of confusion any artistic to a colleague's trees."

in A Grammar

and definitions, or aesthetic "You can't

compounded ambitions, see

delimitation quip:

given for

rise the

Spottiswoode Not until

cinema

becomes

a humanistic the

discipline authority

can the now vested Even a in his pre-

artisan by default

and the

academician

recapture

in the hands methodologist of no less not distinguish

of plumbers like 77 items

and carpenters. fails

well-intended sentation he does factors,

Spottiswoode in his chart

than

simply

because

between qualities,

objective

elements,

coordinative

and subjective In the absence

of a discipline a typical a film?

in cinema, teacher Apparently contentual (which

the omits

embarrassing usT) so, if go about an such of forma-

question analyzing attempt

is:

how does

or discussing is made,

he does

in terms sociology, applied

of either

disciplines, or in terms

as anthropology, listic fine the patterns arts. exception

and literature, out of the sister

arts, for

such what is for

as drama and unique, the is

The cinematologist, on any campus. teaching entirely

searching Without then this

search

exclusive

language literature

of cinema, conducted

resembles

a course

in French or a study

in English

translations,

30 of operas in terms of synopsized today the librettos. statement in on the nature

What remains of cinematic Style

truest

aesthetics

was published Motion later unique Pictures

1934 in an essay, by Erwin Panofsky, Vol, 1, No. 3.

and Medium in the twelve is: years

and revised The statement

in Critique, and specific of space and,

"nTese

possibilities accordingly, goes on to

can be defined spatialization say but "This it

as dynamization of time." is

Although self-evident kind

Dr. Panofsky to the point

statement

of triviality because

belongs

to that

of truths forgotten self-evidence

which,

just

of their

triviality, years

are easily later the

or neglected." is still being

Twenty-seven neglected.

Gyorgy Kepes has space" another is step

taken

Panofsky's

"dynamization

of

by his

emphasis Kepes says first

upon "sensory in his as Vol.

pattern." to of the

"Structure yne Visual Proceedings "An artistic senses but

specific," Toda,

introduction 89, No. 1,

Arts

issued

of the

American

Academy of Arts form grasped

and Sciences. directly all

*

form is reaching world

a symbolic beyond

by the the . * strata his

them and connecting feeling, sense

of our inner essential evaluation and therefore with breadth

of

sense,

and thoughrt

unity

of primary artistic

experience

and intellectual in human experience for idioms

makes the

form unique
..

in human culture and power I turned

in my search film

toward

as the most social form of

advanced, visual

dynamic,

and accordingly

potent

communication," In a parallel way, what needs to be done to Panofsky's

31 "spatialization powers inherent of time" in the is a similar rhythms appreciation which project of the time, rhythm, be an

various

Movement is on the art other

action, hand,

and by itself is measured

may be a craft motion,

terms

and as such

should

termAccordingly, I should rhythms, like to define cinema as the

forms narrate,

of visual inform, of their

supplemented

by sound,

to describe, forms a-

and symbolize. visual rhythms,

In order which is

to perceive to perceive

in terms fresh, the

we need

to reorganize so that

our habits we shall

of vision, see in terms

or teach of time image in visual with the of

young

new habits, and in the

and space, and inner experience parts this

inter-relations To achieve

between this

surface

associations. we need that octave speech.

revolution above all

to become

acquainted

of cinema art as the of

are as elemental in music,

to an understanding colors

the basic

in painting,

or the parts

HIere follows Grundbegriffe considered hensive unique not are

what Panofsky

most This

generously enumeration enabling Since

calls should

"the be

of cinematology," primarily

as a convenience of craft and art.

a more compreparts they are can nor or creator, conflict or

evaluation and derivative,

these

unequal

and idiosyncratic,

comprise they

a pattern

to be arbitrarily to be manipulated presence

superimposed, by critic

magical

numbers it is

On the fusion, arrived possible

contrary, which

their

or omission, art.

make cinema

an independent the past

These

iderntlties, are always

at empirically as units

over

twenty-five never separate

years, but

or corbinations,

32 multiple, live in every shot. should The shot, or so-called "take" unit of of the expository, in cinema in

television,

aim to be an indivisible aiming

cinematic four

expression,

at one or a combination descriptive, narrative, methodology

subjective

qualities: It shots; is

and symbolical. be in terms can there belabor is of

obligatory only

that

by a shot-by-shot or cinematology. is stroke to cinema

interpretation If I may sentence to

by any serious the obvious, the

study shot

what the

to literature, the beat item

the brush to the

to painting, The shot, finally,

the bar

music, the

theatre.

becomes

natural

of reference, of other

eliminating disciplines. the

generalizations,

or references Every still seven, seven

in terms shot

in cinema, is measured

including

reproduction out

of

photograph, rhythms faces

by one or more, They are, overlap

of a possible the

unique

to cinema. some of which all

in a way, in composite with

of time,

countenances. tive has qualities, its varying

They are

means to be edited goals, in mind. listed

subjec-

or conceptual power,

Each of these to their

and are not

according

cinematic 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

strength. Subject motion that is normal, trucks, action, action, action, action, fast, tilts, slow, or reverse.

Frame movement The cut The cut The cut The cut The cut seven for for for for

as pans,

or zooms.

continuous parallel accelerated decelerated

to previous varieties of

action, time, shape forms, in the way

These

33 a magic animate time wand awakens, and inanimate. composition Panofsky moves, and ends the life seven of objects, varieties The substance paper, in is space the of

Similarly, and audio in his

these elements.

affect

of cinema, "held (except,

observed

pioneering flow

together

by an uninterrupted for value such checks as a rest flow" the flow the the

of movement

of course,

and pauses in music) the

.

as have . ."

same compositional This control thereby general are: of

"uninterrupted an artist if

requires is

conceptual and the

to become measured rhythms the under flow

significant. heading objects.

Listing of editingr

seven

three

areas

affects the

composition. the Grundbegiffe

and auditory. now reads:

Continuing

enumeration,

OBJECTS: 8. 9* 10. 11. 12, Animate Makeup Costumes Inanimate Locale objects (props, furnishings) life (actors, persons, animals)

COMPOSITION: 13. 14. 15. Light Color Size (a) (b) 16. Camera: Projection: (line, (lenses) close-up, screen, point, medium, glass mass, depth) long shots

Perspective Linear (a) (b) Optical

AUDITORY

34 17. 18. 19* Voice Music Sound enumeration Direction is 19 Plus, is factor subjective the intangible control part of

Beyond this of talent the whole, is and taste. not

a humanistic in itself. qualities, elements. being where to convey

an indivisible of

Similarly, rhythms, I can considered space is

acting

a combination factors, the

as coordinative well appreciate

and objective of actors

resentment whereas

an animated static,

object, a king.

in a theater,

he is

"But any attempt or even "leaves or both." 19 parts

thought

and feeling Panofsky

exclusively, observed early,

primarily, us with

by speech," a feeling of

embarrassment,

boredom, the

To summarize, areas

of cinema

fall

into

the

four

of EDITING, OBJECTS, COMPOSITION, and AUDITORYwith the primary rhythm1s that that describe, control narrate, the whole, in and

EDITING being accordance symbolize,

with singly

concepts

inform,

or in combinations. who might that wish for a more ethereal any art, Reality discipline, manipulates may be the

For those let us appreciate objects

cinema,

more than machinery.

physical most

and utilizes cinema,

natural

medium for

and fantasy arranged for,

and symbolism more than it is

the most difficult. accommodated. (1908), and slow, In Malle's the

Reality

is

For example, subject the motion resultant (1959)

in Melies's is,

The Doctor's shots, anything shots

Secret normal, but fast,

in different fantasy the being

with

real. the

The Lovers

traveling

under

35 moonlight through the trees, that over for the the fields, first along time blended the river

were so exquisitely in the with romance; reality

fluid fantasy of the

we believed perfectly

of pictorial lovers. sees

beauty

the

"The problem," and shoot style." described it the to his director unstylized The artist by Picasso will so that

as Panofsky reality in cinema,

it,

"is

to manipulate the result has

in such then,

a way that is

not unlike reality children.

any artist, and bends Actually, to the

as a man who captures he might is the closest conductor feed his

in cinema rather than

in creative of

kinship

architect Who calls blends the the

a symphonic mutes

orchestra elements, of

upon sections whole into

at certain an instrument conductor.

times,

other the does

projecting The architect

concepts all this and

composer

and the

in terms purpose conductor (and this and ability (audiences), values). -

of plot

and landscape,

form and feeling, stage

design the -

at least, does is present real

in the planning a continuity reality) with the

(although

in performance) architect's (actors),

plus of codes

the

knowledge building

to deal unions

contractors

(craftsmen),

and new materials

(production

To see most rewarding Kane.

how this study If

works

out

well

and badly

in cinema, analysis

the of of

I know of is every

a shot-by-shot shot

Citizen its

we approach and beat)

in Kane in terms textbook is mainly in the

rhythm

(length

we have

the best which

possible

in cinema. theatrical singing

For example, inheritance,

subject is

motion,

dramatically is saying

illustrated to Susan

lesson.

The maestro

"Some people

36 can sing . . * some cannot*" movement. with cut light There is no close-up, itself. becomes when the most nurse enters of no

camera-frame Painting effective the the

The drama carries for plasticity shot

in the

of the just

long died,

room where Kane has glass lips ball of snow.

following from the to the

a close-up extreme close-up

The cut contrasted

on the nurse

of Kane is

long

walk of the the How the

in white, with

who at the a white

end of the over the

take

covers

silhouette death-like compositional or style, scene, the gives light. scene himself review light dark,. since follows

sheet

dark face. through This

becomes cuts, is

the black unique

and the white to this art.

technique, room while

employed the

in the

following

projection are in shadow, at his

where

anonymous

reporters (we are

editor, out

front-lighted assignmnents, satire: Kane goes

shooting

back) off in the

and as though Another to Susan's

he were throwing example is

Perfect wherein

typical

apartment

to cleanse to

of the mud, splashed his sled "Rosebud" in

on him while storage. of the nest

en route

Only the frame; is all

door has else is clear, which

in the

left-ihand

corner of a love

The suggestion it is the

sensuously

Kane in the long,

foreground shots application

compos-ition,

in a medium shot on the street. seven

impersonal every objects,

To illustrate rhythms would upon the necessitate

of the

factorial elements available. the

and auditory (sick) than

more time

and space further (rhythm)

One more example determinative

from Kane might of editing

illustrate over

power

interpretation.

37 In the his over cut. very the newspaper who is office grinning shoulder. an outraged with Thatcher It is is upbraiding a medium shot is no

ward,

pleasure. sits

Thatcher's

Thatcher slowly into

down; there shot

The camera moves angry, Kane begins

a profile in his

of Thatcher, Then

to be firm fast, is giving

intentions. to what

camera moves saying. objective the it

in very All this is

conviction

Kane is emotional office

one shot. in the the

The same intellectualscene in Bernstein's There is only

achieved with

during but

interview goes

reporter.

one shot, all been three

from a long so fluid

to a medium to a close-up, no attention has

compositions

and meaningful form. 500 shots

drawn from the In all, there

content are

to the

approximately

in two hours,

or

one every

fifteen the

seconds. time to apply the grundbegriffe to the and popular

I lack terms possibly material, with

in editing I lack

or to Don Livingston's the inclination. interpreted

terminology,

To approach in terms

uninterpreted disciplines, if those

or material

of other values

a cinematic student

yardstick

can have

salutatory look

concerned, as a divining provided the field have

and teacher, capable is

would

upon the measurement water in the in this desert, art in this now is

rod,

of discovering thirsty, artisans

the

searcher that the

What we seek

discipline to explore been the

enables

and academicians which until

adventurous property

highways, of the

exclusive

older

arts,

38-39 The paper, above Annual the as read "The Parts of Cinema", 1961 by the has been author reproduced at the held Second at The

on March 27th, Society

M1eeting of the Eastman

of Cinematologists,

George

House,

Rochester, known that the

New Yorlk, U. S. A. he has concepts in subsequent contained

author writings above

wishes

to make it

modified paper.

and enlarged

in the