Part II, Lesson Four Fil. 207, PCUPR Prof.

Kathleen Sauder
The Opposition of Propositions The Rules of Truth and Falsity The Square of Opposition Introduction
Opposition between propositions occurs when we relate two propositions to each other. We have already seen how to distinguish the parts of a proposition (subject, predicate, and copula), as well as the use of words within the proposition (supposition and distribution). Now we will consider the ways of relating one proposition to another.

Opposition of Propositions
In general, opposition between two propositions occurs when one affirms and the other denies the same predicate of the same subject. If a different predicate is used (or a different subject), then there is no opposition between the two propositions; they are merely different. Furthermore, in order to have opposition between two propositions, not only must the same subject and same predicate be used in each, but also they must have the same meaning and the same supposition. Nor is it permissible to use equivocal or analogous words.

Kinds of Opposition
There are different ways of affirming and denying the same predicate of the same subject, which gives rise to different kinds of opposition between propositions. The distinction of the kinds of opposition has to do with both the quality (affirmative or negative) and the quantity (universal, particular, indefinite, or singular) of the two propositions.

Contradictory Opposition

Elementary Logic, Part II, L. 4: The Square of Opposition Prof. Kathleen Sauder

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When there is contradictory opposition between two propositions, one denies absolutely everything that the other affirms. They are as opposed as can be. At first glance, we might be tempted to think that the contradictory of All men are honest is No men are honest, as it seems that they are more opposed than the two mentioned previously. Yet this is not so; in order to refute the truth of the proposition All men are honest, it would be enough to show that some men are not honest, or even that one man is not honest. One exception would disprove the truth of the universal affirmative proposition. Thus, in order to contradict the proposition, All apples are red, all we need to show is that Some apples are not red, or even This apple is not red. The contradictory proposition of a universal affirmative proposition is a particular negative proposition (using the same subject and the same predicate, of course.) The same applies in the case of a universal negative proposition, whose contradictory will be a particular (or singular) affirmative proposition that uses the same subject and the same predicate. Contradictory opposition is opposition in truth and falsity. This means that whenever we know that one of the two propositions with this kind of opposition is true, the other must necessarily be false. It is impossible that both be true or that both be false. All men are honest. All apples are red. No exam is difficult.

Contrary Opposition
Contrary opposition exists between two propositions when both have universal quantity but one affirms and the other denies its predicate of the subject. At first glance, it might appear that this is a more radical type of opposition than contradictory opposition because all and none are extremes. However, contrary opposition is in fact not as great as contradictory opposition because the contraries are opposed only in truth. That is, it is impossible for both propositions to be true, but both may be false.

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To say that contrary opposition between propositions is an opposition only in truth is to say that when one of the contrary propositions is true, its contrary must necessarily be false. Sometimes when one contrary is false, the other is true. But other times, the contrary of a false proposition is also false. In other words, when one of the contrary propositions is false, the other may be true or it may be false. In this case its truth is unknown. Contrary propositions do not have as absolute an opposition as is found between contradictory propositions. Contradictory propositions are opposed in truth and in falsity, but contrary propositions are only opposed in truth. Also, contrary propositions are both universal. With contradictory propositions, one is universal and the other is particular or singular. Thus, contradictory propositions differ in quality and quantity, whereas contrary propositions only differ in quality.

Sub-contrary Opposition
Two propositions are in sub-contrary opposition when they differ in quality but are both particular. Propositions in sub-contrary opposition are opposed in falsity only. That is, if one is false, the other is necessarily true. However, it may be that both are true, as in the example just given.

Summary of Opposition
Contradictory Opposition: One proposition denies the other absolutely. Opposition in truth and falsity. The propositions differ in both quality and quantity. Contrary Opposition Opposition in truth only. Both propositions are universal (one is affirmative, the other negative.) Sub-contrary Opposition Opposition in falsity only. Both propositions are particular (one is affirmative, the other is negative).

Elementary Logic, Part II, L. 4: The Square of Opposition Prof. Kathleen Sauder

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The Relation of Sub-alternation

There is another possible relation between two propositions that use the same subject and the same predicate, but this is not a relation of opposition. This relation, called sub-alternation, occurs when the propositions differ in quantity but not in quality (which is why there is no opposition between them.) When the universal proposition is true, its subalternate must also be true. If all we know is that the particular is true, this tells us nothing about the truth of the universal. But if the particular is false, the universal must also be false. Since subalternation is not a kind of opposition, there is no opposition in truth or falsity. Yet we can conclude from the truth of the universal to the truth of the particular, or from the falsity of the particular to the falsity of the universal.

The Square of Opposition

The Square of Opposition is a very useful visual aid to understanding the consequences of the various relations of opposition and sub-alternation of propositions using the same subject and the same predicate. It uses vowels to represent the main types of propositions: A stands for the universal affirmative. E stands for the universal negative. I stands for the particular affirmative. O stands for the particular negative.

The Square of Opposition

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All men are honest. No men are honest.

Some men are honest. men are not honest.

Some

The lines of the Square represent the three types of opposition and the relation of subalternation. AO and EI (the diagonals) represent the propositions in contradictory opposition. AE represents the propositions in contrary opposition. IO represents the propositions in sub-contrary opposition. AI and EO represent the relation of sub-alternation.

The Rules of Truth and Falsity in the Square of Opposition

To use the Square of Opposition, the propositions must use the same subject and the same predicate with the same meaning, the same supposition (personal or simple) and must respect the difference between true universal names and collective names. Two propositions in contradictory opposition cannot simultaneously be true, nor simultaneously false. If one is true, the other will be false, and if one is false, the other will be true. Two propositions in contrary opposition cannot be simultaneously true.

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When one is true, the other will be false, but if one is false, the other will be unknown. Two propositions in sub-contrary opposition cannot be simultaneously false. If one is false, the other must be true, but if one is true, the other is unknown. In the relation of subalternation, when the universal is true, the particular must also be true, and when the particular is false, the universal must also be false. If the particular is known to be true, this tells us nothing about the truth of the universal (its truth is unknown.) Similarly, when the universal is known to be false, the particular is unknown. This is sometimes summarized by saying that we can descend with truth and rise with falsehood. In this entire discussion, we have been examining what can be concluded from the formal relationship between propositions. To have a starting point (to know that a proposition is true or false), we need knowledge from some science outside of Logic. Logic can help us arrive at valuable consequences from the formal relationship between propositions once we have that starting point. We can be quite sure that these consequences follow from the mere fact that propositions are related in this way, no matter what the subject matter being discussed. We are always forced to distinguish between the matter and form of the propositions we use, between the subject matter and the form we use to express our knowledge of it. Elementary Logic is necessarily a consideration of the form of our expressions. Knowledge of the subject matter comes from other branches of knowledge. Whenever we use words we are necessarily considering the subject matter of the proposition, that is, what the proposition means as well as what form it is expressed in. In order to avoid being distracted unnecessarily by the content of propositions, we could merely use letters in place of actual subjects and predicates, to bring out more clearly the formal aspects of the propositions. For example, we could avoid considering the specific subject matter by using expressions such as All S is P or Some S is not P.

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All S is P.

No S is P.

A
T T-F

Some S is P.

Some S is not P.

Elementary Logic, Part II, L. 4: The Square of Opposition Prof. Kathleen Sauder

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