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Thoma Khn: Reolion Again Scienific
Realim*
Daid J. Voelke
(21)Progress is a modern notion. Since the European Enlightenment oI the eighteenth century, Westerners
have been Iirm believers in human progress. Only in the twentieth century has the Western attitude oI
optimism been widely challenged. The major Iorce behind the development oI the notion oI progress is
modern natural science. ScientiIic progress has traditionally been viewed as a cumulative process. From the
origins oI modern science in the work oI Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, until the logical empiricists oI the twentieth century, scientiIic progress has been viewed as an
evolutionary process oI uncovering truth in the physical world. Underlying this acceptance oI the evolutionary
progress oI science was scientiIic realism: "the thesis that the objects oI scientiIic knowledge exist and act
independently oI knowledge oI them." |1| They believed that scientiIic concepts correspond to actual physical
"entities and processes. " |2|
However, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn relinquished the notion oI science as
truth-seeking. In place oI scientiIic realism he substituted a non-continuous model oI scientiIic progress that
had as its goal eIIicient puzzle solving. In abandoning the notion that scientists search Ior truth, Kuhn also
abandoned scientiIic realism, thus challenging a deIining characteristic oI modern science since the scientiIic
revolution oI the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Moden Science: Realim, Th, and Eolion
Copernicus, with the 1543 publication oI On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, laid the Ioundation
Ior modern science when he propounded that his sun-centered model oI the universe explained physical
reality. The Aristotelian-Ptolemiac theory dominant at the time, on the other hand, was such a complex
system that nobody believed that it corresponded to the physical reality oI the universe. Although the
Ptolemaic system accounted Ior observations-"saved the appearances"-its epicycles and deIerents were
never intended be anything more than a mathematical model to use in predicting the position oI heavenly
bodies. |3| As historian oI science A. Rupert Hall explains, the medieval scientists, like the ancient Greeks
Irom whom they inherited the notion oI saving appearances, (22)believed that "mathematical science could
not explain things by revealing the structure oI reality and its inner logic, it could only give the possibility oI
predicting Iuture results Irom stated antecedents." |4| Copernicus Iound this practice oI saving appearances to
be "a conIession oI ignorance and conIusion," |5| and instead advocated scientiIic realism Ior his system. |6|
He believed that the earth really moved. Probably Irom Iear oI animosity towards his heliocentric conception
oI the universe, he did not publish his theory until he neared death; however, his idea oI an earth in motion leIt
a legacy oI problems-" about the nature oI matter, the nature oI the planets, the sun, the moon, the stars, and
the nature and actions oI Iorce in relation to motion"-that would be taken up by later astronomers such as
Galileo and Newton. |7|
In 1610, the Italian mathematician Galileo published The Starr Messenger, in which he wrote oI his support
Ior Copernican astronomy and the telescopic observations that had convinced him to accept the heliocentric
model. The reaction to Galileo reveals the strength oI the opposition to realism. Many scientists opposed him
because they believed that the telescope deceived their eyes, or they did not Iind the empirical evidence to be
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eea. [8] I 1616, he Chch added Ceic' De Revolutionibus he Inde of Forbidden Books,
cdeig he eci hee he aed ha he i f he Eah a a hica eai. [9] A ha ie,
Cadia Beaie, eeeig he Iiii, ifed Gaie ha he a fee cie hi ih
Ceica he if he ageed ha he he did decibe hica eai b a ee e f he
a eia aheaica de. [10] Gaie cied , ad hie he "fa (23)caied
e hig," [11] he aed hi aheaica adace ad hi beaia daa Ne, h d
ie a e aheaic b d e he eaiig be ed b Ceic. [12]
Ne, ih hi "Naa Phih," ed a e cieific ehd. Ne' ehd cied f
"geea idci f heea" ad eed i edge ha a "accae e ea e." [13]
Lie Ceic ad Gaie, he a a eai ad "aged aighfad ha iea gai 'ea
ei."' [14] I hi "Re f Reaig i Phih," he hed hi beief ha ciece ceed hica
eaiie he he iied ha ciei hheie ide he bd f eiica eidece: "idci
a be eaded b hhee." [15] Ahgh he d "fae hhee" [16] ab he cae f
gai, becae he cd ae beai f he cae, he iied ha gai a a ea heea
ad ha hi a accae decibed he effec f gai. Th ih eedig ha hi ehd cd
fid he deig cae f hig ch a gai, Ne beieed ha hi ehd dced he, baed
eiica eidece, ha a a ce aiai f hica eai.
The i f cieific eai a eha ccia he deee f de ciece. Mediea ciece
a gided b "gica ciec." [17] I de e bed Aieia ciece, he e ga f
diceig hica eai a eeded. Edad Ga, hiia f ediea ciece, age ha he idea f
a "e f hica eai" a a ecei f a e ciece eace Aieiai. [18] A hiia f
eigheeh-ce ciece A. Re Ha ccde, he idea f "cieific h" fihed he "eahica
bae"-he ieeca fdai-ha dced he cieific ei. [19]
Neia ciece, dig he eigheeh-ce Eighee i heed ceae, ed he eia
i f ge ha eeaed he hgh f he ie ad becae adad hgh he e ce.
The Eighee ie f he iee a a ecie achie geed b abe, abe a ed
a idea f ge ha a ci ad caie, (24)ih each e iece f edge addig he
a; he ce ad cee f he hica d cd be ceed b ea f beai ad
ea. Ahgh cieific edge a hed be ceai, i a aed ha ih each e
dice ciece ed a e ce eeeig accae hica eai. Sciei f he ieeeh
ad eieh ceie iheied bh cieific eai ad he eia deadig f cieific
ge.
The gica eiici f he eieh ce eee he fia ch f f cieific eai ad
he eia deee f ciece. A he ae, "gica eiici" iie, hi ee cbied
idci, baed eiici, ad dedci i he f f gic. Ca Hee, e f he ae adcae
f gica eiici, i Philosoph of Natural Science (1966) aged agai he h "de he
eiece f 'heeica eiie' egad heeica ai ab he a igei cied
fici." [20] Ahgh Hee ecgied ha a heeica eiie ad cee ca be diec
beed (e. g. gai ca be beed; he effec f gai ca be beed), a a cieific eai
he beieed ha a he e-cfied b eeie aaed a high babii ha he eiie ad
cee f he he ea did ei.
Becae f hi beief i cieific eai, Hee a beieed ha ciece eed i a ci ae.
Ne he did cadic a he: "he de i efe he eaie eiica geeaiai
i i fied; ahe, i h ha ihi a ceai iied age defied b aifig cdii, he
geeaiai hd e i fai ce aiai." [21] Ne he i e ceheie; he d
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he ca be deied f he ee e ad i e ecia aifeai" [22] f he e ceheie
e he. The gica eiici d agee, f iace, ha Neia hic i a ecia cae f, ad
ca be deied f, Eieiia hic. The gica eiici' ccei f cieific ge a h a
ci e; e ceheie he eaced caibe, de he. Each cceie he'
eaai a ce he h ha he he befe. I a he h, ad he edici ad c ha
cae ih i, ha a he ga f gica-eiica ciece.
The i f cieific eai hed b Ne ed he eia ie f he ge f ciece. The
eiie ad cee f he ee beieed ei i ae, ad ciece hd dice he eiie
ad cee. The ce f ieeeh- ad eieh-ce ciece eea heaeed he idea f
cieific eai. Paica dibig diceie ee ade i he aea f aic hic. F iace,
Heiebeg' ideeiac (25)icie, accdig hiia f ciece Ceci Schee, ieded he
cci ha "he d f ae i ideeiae. The behai f he aice i ceai ad heefe
he behai f he a i a ceai." [23] Th a he aic ee, "ee he fdaea icie f
caai fai[ed] ." [24] Deie hee be, i a i he ecd haf f he eieh ce ha
he eee f he eia idea f cieific ge, he gica eiici, ee ei chaeged.
Ahgh Tha Kh a he fi ciic f adiia ie f ciece, hi hed he
ia iicai ab he aiai f ciece. [25]
Thoma Khn: Reolion Again Scienific Realim
I 1962 a e hiigah-f-ciece eeged ih Tha Kh' The Sce of Scienific
Reolion, fi bihed a a f he "Fdai f he Ui f Sciece" eie. I hi b, Kh
ied a eia de f cieific chage ad eaied he e f he cieific ci i
eeig ad he acceig chage. Kh' ccei f cieific chage ccig hgh ei
deied he adiia cieific ga, fidig "h" i ae.
Kh' i f cieific ge eed hi cce f a aadig: he c eig ad
baic heie f a cieific ci ad ha ci' fdaea ai ab ehdg
ad ha ei a ciei ca egiiae a. Teb if ciei--be ab hi c
bd f edge ad deadig. Scieific eeach eceai ae ace ihi a aadig, f he
d i hge ad ce be eed ad. Wihi a aadig, a ciei ha fac ae
eea ad ca bid a eeach. The h deiae f he dia aadig ae ciei a
a; he cieific ci cide he be chaig eii.
Dig "a ciece," eeach ha cc ihi a aadig, ciei ae b "e ig," a
acii cdced "add he ce ad ecii ih hich he aadig ca be aied." [26] The
ciei' eeach i ie ig a e becae he ciei, gided b he aadig, a ei ha
ca be aeed ad ha hae a eai ecgiabe i. The aadig h hae bh he ei
ad he ae.
(26)Na ciece, a defied b Kh, i caie. Ne edge fi a ga f igace. B a
ciece de ei f adacee b ea f eia heie. A Kh ied , "e
adad dc f he cieific eeie i iig. Na ciece de ai a eie f fac
he ad, he ccef, fid e." [27] Hee, a ciece de cai a echai ha
ce aa, iciecie ihi he aadig. Becae a ciece ha ecii a i ga, i
fce deai; eea, deai aie ha ae icie ih he ce aadig. I cae,
hee iciecie ae eea eed ae iged. Hee, if he icie deai igifica
heae a aadig, eha becae he cce a ic f cea iace, a cii cc ad a
ciece ce a ha. Sch a cii eie ha he ciei e-eaie he fdai f hei ciece
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ha he had been aking fo ganed.
Ding a cii, alenae paadigm ae popoed, all b cieni ho ae ong o ne o he field and
h moe open-minded. Slol, one of he alenae paadigm imph oe he compeing paadigm fo
eeal poible eaon: i eole he cii bee han he ohe, i offe pomie fo fe eeach, and
i i moe aeheic han i compeio. The eaon fo coneing o a ne paadigm ae nee compleel
aional. Becae diffeen paadigm jif hemele ih hei on em, one m acall ep ino a
paadigm o ndeand i. Khn een ed he od 'faih' o decibe a coneion. A he cienific
commni i coneed o he ne paadigm, nomal cience begin ane nde a ne e of baic
ampion. The coneed cieni, aged Khn, did no meel einepe old daa in ne a, b
ahe "ok[ed] in a diffeen old" [28] afe hei coneion.
Khn depaed fom adiional eoliona ie ih hi agmen ha a ne paadigm ih i ne
fondaion i "incommenable" ih he old paadigm. Unlike eoliona cience, in hich ne knoledge
fill a gap of ignoance, in Khn' model ne knoledge eplace incompaible knoledge. Th cience i
no a conino o cmlaie endeao: hen a paadigm hif occ hee i a eolion imila o a
poliical eolion, ih fndamenal and peaie change in mehod and ndeanding. Each cceie
iion abo he nae of he niee make he pa iion obolee; pedicion, hogh moe pecie,
emain imila o he pedicion of he pa paadigm in hei geneal oienaion, b he ne eplanaion do
no accommodae he old.
Khn aged again cienific ealim. Each ne paadigm inceae pedicie accac, b cieni hae
no eaon o beliee ha he accac of eplanaion i cloe o coeponding o ha i "eall hee." He
a ha he eaon ha one paadigm ie and anohe die i becae one ole ple bee, no
becae i i a moe accae epeenaion of eali:
(27)
A cienific heo i all fel o be bee han i pedeceo no onl in he ene ha i i a
bee inmen fo dicoeing and oling ple b alo becae i i omeho a bee
epeenaion of ha nae i eall like. One ofen hea ha cceie heoie go ee
cloe o, o appoimae moe and moe cloel o, he h. Appaenl genealiaion like
ha efe no o he ple-olion and he concee pedicion deied fom a heo b
ahe o i onolog, o he mach, ha i, beeen he eniie ih hich he heo poplae
nae and ha i "eall hee. " [29]
When he looked a hio, Khn belieed ha he cold "deign a li of cieia ha old enable an
ncommied obee o diingih he ealie fom he moe ecen heo ime afe ime," [30] b hi li
old inclde nohing abo appoaching h.
Jdging fom he hio of cience, Khn belieed ha i a "implaible" o a ha heo i appoaching
h. Thee i no linea adancemen of heo oad h:
Neon' mechanic impoe on Aiole' and ... Einein' impoe on Neon' a
inmen fo ple-oling. B I can ee in hei cceion no coheen diecion of
onological deelopmen. On he cona, in ome impoan epec, hogh b no mean in
all, Einein' geneal heo of elaii i cloe o Aiole' han... o Neon'. [31]
Accoding o Khn, Einein' heo i no meel a moe comple eion of Neon'. Eineinian heo
head in i on diecion; hee i "no coheen diecion of onological deelopmen." Thi aemen
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ebdie, ad ideed f f, he idea f "Rei" f hich Kh aged.
I he cig chae f hi b, Kh ed he eed f a ga gide ciece eace he idea f
geig ad he h:
The deee ce decibed i hi ea ha bee a ce f ei f iiie
begiig-a ce he cceie age ae chaaceied b a iceaig deaied ad
efied deadig f ae. B hig ha ha bee i be aid ae i a ce f
ei ad ahig.... We ae a dee acced eeig ciece a he e
eeie ha da ca eae e ga e b ae i adace. [32]
Kh h aged agai he i f ciece a a acii aiaig e ad e ce he h i
ae. Wih hi ggei ha ha beig ae fee eaae f h, Kh iied ha h de
gide ciece ad h eed f ciece he eegica ga f fidig h. (28)Th ca be
beed ad heefe ca be eadig ciei bee e ig. Kh eaied aa h ig
he aag f Dai' he f ei: "he eie ce a hae cced, a e e
bigica ei did, ih he beefi f a e ga, a eae fied cieific h, f hich each
age i he deee f cieific edge i a bee eea." [33] Sciece i ed fad b
h; ciece i eed fad b he e ed dig a ciece. A McMi eaied
Kh' he, a e e ae ed, ciei ae ed "a e ee f deadig," b "a
illusion f deadig." [34] The "ii f deadig" ha Kh iied heae adiia
cieific aiai, f "ii" i a a ha Ne ad he gica eiici beieed be he
dc f ciece. [35]
Kh ied a chaege cieific eai ad cieific aiai ief. Hi he aied a ei
ab he aiai f ciece ha hae bee feedig a aig ce. The chaege facig cieific
eai-he idea ha gided de ciece f i begiig i he cieific ei i he eieh
ce-ae ch ha i i bab ee be eed. I a ee, e hae ciced bac he acie ad
ediea acice f eaaig cieific he f hica eai; bh ediea ciei ad Kh
d agee ha he ced eai ad heefe a be f heie igh ea e
eai a aa hee. [36] Neihe eieh-ce aic hei ediea ae ae
abe cai ha hei heie accae decibe hica heea. The iabii e cieific
eai gge a iaie diii f he hi f ciece, ih a eid f cieific eai fiig beee
eid i hich hee i iiece ha he ced eai. Ahgh bh cieific eai
ad he eia idea f cieific ge aea c ee, bh eied f a fe hded
ea.
Endnoe
Ede:
*I ha Ta Gaha f he aie aiace i he ediig f hi ae, D. Fa Le f
hi gidace, ad D. Maha D f he e aa ad ici.
1. Dictionar of the Histor of Science, ed. W. F. B e. a. (Pice: Pice UP, 1981),
.. "cieific eai."
2. The hae "eiie ad cee" ed hgh hi ae a ed b hihe f ciece
Ca Hee.
3. Edad Ga, Phsical Science in the Middle Ages (Ne Y: Wie, 1971), 33.
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4. A. Re Ha, The Revolution in Science 1500-1750, 2d ed. (1954; Ld: Lga, 1983),
11.
5. Ga, 88.
6. I. Bead Che, Revolution in Science (Cabidge: Haad UP, 1985), 492-3. Hiia,
icdig Che, Ha, ad Ga, ee hae eached he ce ha Ceic did
beiee ha hi e eeeed hica eai. Afe he bicai f he fi edii f De
Revolutionibus hee a e cfi e hi ie becae he Lhea fe f Ceic
eibe f bihig he bied hi idci f Ceic'. Thi fae
idci decibed he Ceica de a ee aheaica ad hheica. See Daie J.
Bi, The Discoverers, (Biigha: Gh, 1983), 301-2.
7. I. Bead Che, The Birth of a New Phsics (Gade Ci: Dbeda, 1960), 63.
8. Tha Kh, The Copernican Revolution (Cabidge: Haad UP, 1966), 226.
9. Ha, 132, 145.
10. Jac Siege, Western Civiliation, V. B (Ne Y: We Pb. C., 1994), 574.
Lae, i 1633, Gaie eeieced e ei be ih he Iiii. B de f he Pe,
Gaie a fced eca ad a cfied a he fa f Fece, hee he cd hae
ii b eii. Befe he died i 1642, Gaie e ad had gged f he c
a b ha d ae be ia Ne. See Bi, 325-27.
11. Ha, 132.
12. Che, New Phsics, 152 ff.
13. Iaac Ne, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosoph, a. Ade Mae
(Beee: U Caifia P, 1946), 400.
14. Ibid., 492.
15. Ne, 400.
16. Ne, 547.
17. Ibid.
18. Ga, 86. Aieia ciece, i hi cae, efe Pe' eah-ceeed cg.
19. Ha, 359-60.
20. Ca G. Hee, Philosoph of Natural Science, ed. Eiabeh ad Me Beade
(Eged Ciff: Peice ha, 1966), 79.
21. Ibid., 76.
22. Ibid.
23. Ceci J. Schee, The Evolution of Phsical Science (Ne Y: Ge, 1960), 364.
24. Ibid., 358-9.
25. Accdig Sehe Ti, he "fdai f he caica ice dde diiegaed"
beee 1890 ad 1910 he "a he ai f ieeeh-ce hic ad chei [he]
eeaed heee a e ha ig ai, hich ee d if eed
had."" See Sehe Ti ad Je Gdfied, The Architecture of Matter (Chicag: U Chicag
P, 1962), 270 ff. See a Schee' ce ab he eiegica ei aied b hic
i he ea 1900. (293)
26. Tha Kh, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2d ed. (Chicag: U Chicag P, 1970),
36.
27. Ibid., 52.
28. Ibid., 121.
29. Ibid., 206.
30. Ibid., 205.
31. Ibid., 206-7.
32. Ibid., 170-71.
33. Ibid., 173.
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34. Enan McMllin, "The Shaping of Scienific Raionali," Construction and Constraint: The
Shaping of Scientific Rationalit, ed. Enan McMllin (Noe Dame: U Noe Dame P, 1988), 38.
35. Cal Hempel eplained he logical empiici opinion abo he onolog of heoeical conc:
"We can nee eablih ih ceain ha a gien heo i e, ha he eniie i poi ae eal. B
o a ha i no o dicloe a peclia fla in o claim abo heoeical eniie, b o noe a
peaie chaaceiic of all empiical knoledge" (81). Depie he fac ha cieni nee achiee
ceain, hee i ill a high pobabili ha he eniie and pocee of a confimed heo
coepond o phical eali.
36. Gan, 87-8. Gan hee menion hi belief of he medieal comologi.