ABSTRACT

Modern industry relies heavily on automation for economy and mass production. With the advent of new process and increased automation in industry the precise measurement and control of various parameters is of paramount importance. Hence industrial production goes hand in hand with instrumentation. Instrumentation deals with measurement and control of large number of variables embracing the disciplines of physical sciences like physics and chemistry, and engineering disciplines like electrical, mechanical, electronics, communication, computer, chemical etc. Before the advent of solid state logic circuits, logical control systems were designed and built extensively around electromechanical relays. Relay are far from obsolete in modern design, but have been replaced by logic level control devices, relegated most often to those applications demanding high current and /or high voltage switching. System and process requiring on-off control in modern commerce and industry, but such control system are rarely built from either electro mechanical relays or discreet logic gates, instead digital computers fill the need, which may be programmed to do a variety of logical functions. This report explains about the application of instrumentation in the modern process industries and its features and how it makes things easier using sensor, measuring meters and programmable logic controllers (PLCs) to control the plant functions remotely.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 EVOLUTION OF INSTRUMENTATION:
Initially all measurements were made by sense of eye, feel and instinct of the operator. Then the instruments were used to tell the operator whether the process is running as derides .He observed the conditions of the process from the instruments and adjusted the valves to change the process conditions .In case of big plants the equipment and operators were distributed all over the working area .Measuring and control was local, located the right at the point of measurement. Gradually self regulating control devices were introduced.

1.2 PNEUMATIC INSTRUMENTATION:

In mid 1930s pneumatic instrumentation comes into general use. Direct connected pneumatic automatic controllers and diaphragm type control valves changed the industry. Further continues developments in the field of pneumatic instrumentation gave the concept of the centralized control of process industry. Because of large case type pneumatic instrumentation and the process parameters to be measured or controlled are increased, the central room size has increased. Miniature type instruments were developed in the early 1950s reduced the size of control room

1.3 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTATION:

After the world war through the early 50s electronic controllers were developed starting with the vacuum tube controllers. These are gradually changed to transistors operational amplifiers and printed circuit board type .The circuit is D.C powered, the instruments become smaller, the distances of transmission of signals become greater and the panels become fuller. The controllers are compact housing complete electronics and circuit in it with more developments in electronics Split Architecture is interested in the process variable values, the set point deviation and output values.

2. PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Instrumentation is a brain and nerves of any process industry. The cost of instrumentation when compared to the total project cost is small .any malfunctioning will definitely cause great production Loss. Instrumentation ensures cause great production loss. Instrumentation ensures. Increase of productivity and lower product cost More uniform quality of product Greater safety for operating personnel equipment and machinery Manipulated value Process value Controller
(4-20 mA)

(4-20 mA)

I/P

Primary Transmitter
I/P

(0.2-1.0 kg/cm^2)
(PT)

Reactor

Primary Element (PE) (0-10kg/cm^2)

Stream process line Control value

Fig 2.1.1 Typical Closed Loop Control System

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Hence the instrumentation personnel and indirectly responsible for instrumentation ought to know the working principle and operation of instrumentation The topic process instrumentation and control is divided into Pressure measuring instruments Flow measuring instruments Temperature measuring instruments Level measuring instruments Analyzers Control valves

3. PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

3.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:
Pressure is defined as force/unit area. It can be expressed as kg/cm2, pounds/inch square etc. The pressure may be represented in different ways: Atmospheric Pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by atmosphere on the sea level. Gauge Pressure: Gauge pressure is the pressure indicated by gauge. Absolute Pressure: Absolute pressure is the gauge pressure plus the atmospheric pressure Differential Pressure: It is the difference of two pressures

3.2 METHODS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT:

Manometers: This is the simplest to device measure. This may be a simple U tube; a well type or inclined type; manometers has two pressure inputs Elastic Pressure Element: Basic principle of elastic pressure element is the well known HOOKs law that is with its elastic limits stress is proportional to strain. In other words the deflection is mechanically coupled to a pointer, which will indicate the pressure on a graduated scale. Basically there are three types of elastic elements .Those are diaphragm, bellows and bourdon tubes. Electronic Pressure Transducers: These convert pressure signal in to electrical. The most important types are strain gauge, inductance transducers, and capacitive transducer. Differential Pressure Instruments: Frequently instead of measuring just one pressure it is important to measure the difference between two pressures this is called differential pressure measurements Differential pressure = high pressure low pressure

3.3 PRESSURE SWITCHES:

Pressure switches are used to energize and de-energize electrical circuits as a function of the relationship between process pressure and predetermined set point. They are
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available to detect absolute compound gauge and different pressure, with increases up to +- % of span.

3.4 PRESSURE TRANSMITTER:

Process pressure is transmitted through an isolating valve through an isolation diaphragm and oil filled fluid to a sensing diaphragm located in the center of the cell, the reference pressure is transmitted in like manner to other side of the sensing diaphragm. The sensing diaphragm moves to a position which is proportional to the difference in pressure. The positioning of the sensing diaphragm is detected by the capacitance plates .The sensors are driven by an isolator and is rectified by a demodulator

4. FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

4.1 FLOW MEASUREMENT:

Fluid flow is very valuable process variable for plant operation. This measurement is necessary for material and energy balanced for cost and quality control. Measurement of flow is broadly divided as inferential and discrete. Inferential: Most of the flow rates are determined by this method. Among this method the head type, variable area meter type (or) Rota meter type magnetic flow meter and target flow meter. Discrete method: This flow measurement is done by positive displacement meter and metering pumps. This principle of measurement is that in each cycle of operation a discrete volume is transfer through the meter.

4.2 FLOW SWITCHES

These are used to determine if the flow is above or below the certain volume when this value is reached the response point to activate an electronic or pneumatic circuit. Once the switch is activated in that state until flow moves back by the same amount. This difference between set point and reactivation point is called the switch differential. The differential can be fixed or variable; if it is small the switch is likely to cycle as flow fluctuates. There are different types of flow switches one of the most commonly used is paddle type.

4.3 MAGNETIC FLOW METER:

Introduction:

A magnetic flow meter (mag flow meter) is a volumetric flow meter which does not have any moving parts and is ideal for waste water applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based. Magnet flow meters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-aqueous solutions. Magnetic flow meters are also ideal applications where low pressure drop and low maintenance are required

Principle of operation:

The operation of a magnetic flow meter or mag meter is based upon Faradays Law, which States that the voltage induced across any conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.

Faradays Formula:

E is proportional to V x B x D where: E= voltage generated in a conductor

V= velocity of the conductor B=magnetic field strength D=length of the conductor To apply this principle to flow measurement with a magnetic flow meter, it is necessary first to state that the fluid being measured must be electrically conductive for the Faraday principle to apply. As applied to the design of magnetic flow meters, Faradays Law indicates that signal voltage (E) is dependent on the average liquid velocity (V) the magnetic field strength (B) and the length of the conductor (D) (which in this instance is the distance between the electrodes). In the case of wafer-style magnetic flow meters, a magnetic field is established throughout the entire cross-section of the flow tube. If this magnetic field is considered as the measuring element of the magnetic flow meter, it can be seen that the measuring element is exposed to the hydraulic conditions throughout the entire cross-section of the flow meter. With insertion-style flow meters, the magnetic field radiates outward from the inserted probe.

5. LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

5.1 LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
The liquid level in a tank is measured by Direct method Inferential method
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Direct method: This consists of direct measurement of the distance from the liquid level to

the bottom line, this may be accompanied by gauge glasses, float and tape mechanism contact of electrode probes with a liquid surface. Inferential method: This consists of a measurement of hydro static head developed by the liquid Buoyancy force created by a float immersed in a liquid. Displacer type: This type of level measurement is most widely used method of level measurement. It works on Archimedes principle buoyancy, which defines, as when a body is immersed in a liquid. The liquid will exert an upward force on the body. This type consists of float or displaces when immersed in a liquid. The level which is being measured as a level rises the float is immersed more and the float losses its weight. This apparent loss in weight is proportional to the level. There are two types, which are open tank and closed tank liquid measurement. Level switches: The basic operating principle for magnetic switch action resulting from a change in liquid level, which moves a magnetic attraction sleeve into the field of externally located magnet this principle eliminates problems associated with flexible diaphragm seals, as well as coating problems encountered with probe type devices.

6. TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

6.1 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:
Temperature is the most important variable in the industrial processing primarily because it is a fundamental condition characteristic of the thermal state of a body that determines whether desired chemical reaction will take place or the physical condition of manufactured product is correct. Temperature scale: The Fahrenheit scale abbreviated F, assigns 32 F to ice point and 100^c to steam point.

6.2 RTDS:
Introduction: Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTDs for short, are wire wound and thin film devices that measure temperature because of the physical principle of the positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger or higher the value of their electrical resistance. They , in the case if platinum known variously as PRTs and PRT 100s , are the most popular RTD type , nearly linear over a wide range of temperature and some small enough to have response times of a fraction of a second . There are among the most precise temperature sensors available with resolution and measurement uncertainties or 0.10 C or better possible in special decisions Usually there are provided encapsulated in probes for temperature sensing and measurement with an external indicator, controller or transmitter, or enclosed inside other devices were the measure the temperature as a part of the devices function, such as a temperature controller or precision thermostat

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Fig 6.2.1 General RTD

6.3 ADVANTAGES OF RTDs:

The advantages of RTDs include stable output for long period of time, ease of recalibration and accurate readings over relatively narrow temperature spans. Their disadvantages compared to the thermocouples are smaller overall temperature range, higher initial cost and less rugged in high vibrational environments. They are active devices requiring an electrical current to produce a voltage drop across the sensors that can be then measured by a calibrated read-out device.

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7. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

7.1 INTRODUCTION:
A Programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electro mechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting fixtures

Fig 7.1.1 INDUSTRIAL PLC PLCs are use in many industries and machines, such as packaging and semiconductor machines unlike general purpose computers, the plc is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, extended temperature ranges , immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operations are typically stored in battery-backed or nonvolatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended operation will result. As per NEMA a PLC is A digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting and arithmetic to control machines and processes. The PLC is a specialist type of computer, used extensively but not solely in industry, to control machines and processes. Being a computer, it shares common terms with the typical PC (personal computer). Terms like CPU (central processing unit), RAM (random access memory), also software hardware and communications.
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That's about where similarities end though as unlike a PC, the PLC is designed to be used in harsh and rugged industrial conditions. Also the PLC needs to be and is, very flexible in how it can interface with inputs and outputs and other computers in the real world. The smaller PLCs, also known as a brick type, are typically designed with fixed I/O points as low as 6 but also up to 256. The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) little beastie is basically a computer. Even the smallest PLC has a microprocessor, that qualifies it as a computer, but not in the generally accepted (home PC) form. They don't have a mouse, keyboard or even a screen; they don't even talk the same language as a PC. Their appearance (of the smaller ones at least) is rather nondescript as most look like a smallish box with rows of screws on top and bottom. This is because they are manufactured to withstand harsh environments and be very reliable. A Programmable Logic Controller is a device that a user can program to perform a series or sequence of events. These events are triggered by stimuli (called inputs) received at the programmable logic controller through delayed actions such as time delays or counted occurrences. Once an event triggers, it actuates in the outside world by switching on or off electronic control gear or the physical actuation of devices. A Programmable Logic Controllers will continually loop through its user defined program waiting for inputs and giving outputs at the specific programmed times. Programmable Logic Controllers first came about as a replacement for automatic control systems that used tens and hundreds (maybe even thousands) of hard wired relays, motor driven cam timers and rotary sequencers. More often than not, a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays and timers. These Programmable Logic Controllers were first befriended by the automotive manufacturing industry, this enabled software revision to replace the laborious re-wiring of control panels when a new production model was introduced. Many of the earliest Programmable Logic Controllers expressed all decision making logic in a program format called Ladder Logic, which from its appearance was very similar to electrical schematic diagrams. This of course was perfect for the electricians of the day, whom quite able to follow and trace out circuit problems with electrical schematic diagrams. So using ladder logic became second nature to them allowing the electricians an relatively easy transition from hard wired circuits to software driven circuits. This is the reason this program notation was chosen, to reduce training time for the existing technicians. The basic principle of PLC system is that it gathers data and produce desired result based on the program the electrician has set up. The PLC system works by putting in the
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input and producing output with the help of series of programmable logic. Everything inside the system needs to work together because if the input doesnt go along with the programmable logic, for example, the desired output wont happen. The PLC application has extended to various fields and subjects like industry, health, and factory. 7.2 HISTORY: If we delve back into the history of the PLC, before PLCs came to be, the only (or rather the best) way to a control a production machine, or any other type of machine was to make up a circuit with something called relays. Basically a relay is an electrically powered switch. A relay has two main parts, a coil and switch contacts, normally several separate sets of switch contacts. The coil is like an electrical pushbutton, applying power to the coil, like 24 Volts DC, operates the switch contacts. Removing the power lets the switch contacts fall back to the rest or OFF position. Applying and removing power thus gives an ON/OFF action. Relays that switch motors and solenoids are generally called power relays, basically they control the power and consequentially the motor, heater, valve or solenoid wired through them .Machines with many motors and solenoids (posh word for electromagnet) and valves to control, would take many relays and switch contacts.

But what switches the coils on the power relays?

Control relays switch the coils on the power relays. All these relays had to be hard wired together in the right order in a control panel to make the machine operate in the desired manor. This style of control panel gave rise to several problems, as the relays were electromechanical they failed far too often. Coil failure and contact wear were difficult to diagnose and replace, also if a circuit change was needed that called for an extensive rewire of all the involved relays. Also, a panel with dozens, even hundreds of relays consumed oodles of power. The PLC was invented to overcome the problems faced in conventional relay logic where not only troubleshooting was time taking but also any modification was too cumbersome and was more time taking than designing new circuits. PLC was first discovered by Bedford Associates, U.S.A (Model 084) in the year 1969.Thus Programmable logic controllers are replacement of conventional logic controls with relays, contactors and other physical devices. These logic controllers are highly reliable, because they are not having moving parts like in relays, switches and contactors. PLCs were originally designed for a single company ( G. M . Corp.) in 1968 to eliminate costly scrapping of relays. The automotive industry went for the development
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of PLC because of massive rewiring , which had to be done every time when a change in process was desired . Solid state Logic is much easier to change than relay panels , and this advantage was reflected in the cost of installing and operating the PLC instead of traditional relay system . This measurable cost reduction is not the only reason , why PLC became a replacement of traditional relay system . The other important additional advantages are like very easy programming and reprogramming , a set programming language , small appearance size , low maintenance , high reliability , easy interfacing with computer. These all basic and important features were not available with the conventional relay system. In 1970s and 1980s were the years , when PLC of 1st and 2nd generation were developed. The PLCs of old time did not use to have functions like counting, timing and other complex mathematical operations, but replacement of conventional relay system . Now a days the definition has been changed. Now the PLC performs all the relays replacement functions expected from it but also many other complex functions like counting , timing and other typical mathematical operations . Most of the advance Programmable Logic Controllers can perform PID , Feed forward and other special control functions. these were just the

7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLC:

It is field programmable. That is user can write or change the programs in the field without rewiring. It contains preprogrammed functions. PLCs contain at least logic, counting and memory functions that can be accessed. It scans memory and inputs and outputs in a deterministic manner. This critical feature allows the control engineer to determine precisely how the process will behave.

A PLC carries out periodic internal tests of its memory, processor, I/O systems to ensure correct program takes place. It can be monitored, either through indicating lights that show the status of I/O or by an external monitor. PLCs are designed to withstand temperature, humidity, vibration and noise. It is general purpose.

7.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A PLC:

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A programmable logic controller (irrespective of common parts as functional architecture of

its manufacturer) has many

parts. The figure given below shows the basic

PLC very clearly. The main functional parts of PLC can be

described as Power Supply , Memory Unit , CPU, Input / Output Modules etc. Other optional devices are Programmer, Printer etc.

Power supply:
The power supply unit can be integral (Inbuilt) or can be separately mounted. This is very important to isolate the solid state components from high voltage line spikes. Improper protection of these components may lead to damage of electronic components and consequently improper behavior of PLC The Power Supply converts Power line voltage to the voltage required for the operation of solid state circuitry . All PLCs are designed to work at a range of input voltage . That range can be as wide as 90 - 240 Vac. The Power Supply is rated for heat dissipation requirement to meet the mounting environment conditions . The dissipation capability allow PLCs to have high ambient temperature specifications and represents an important difference between Programmable logic controller and personal computer.

The Power Supply

drives the Input / Output logic signals , the central , some peripheral devices . If the Input / output

processor unit , the memory unit sufficient voltage level.

modules are expanded , additional power supply may be required to maintain the

PROGRAMMING DEVICE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

POWER SUPPLY

MEMORY UNIT

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INPUT / OUTPUT MODULE

INPUT CARD

Push button

OUTPUT CARD

Push button Indications

Solenoid Valve Selector switch, Contactors

Feed back of Open/Close

Starters

Fig 7.4.1 Block diagram of PLC

Input system:
In all PLCs , to execute any desired operation or function , there must be some operands, on whom , the program could work. These operands may be self generated flags , or external inputs or even the outputs generated by PLC itself. Inputs are defined as real signals giving the controller the real time status of process variables. These can be analog or digital , low or high frequency , maintained or momentary . Typically they are presented to the programmable controller as a varying voltage , current or resistance value. Thermocouple or RTD are the most common examples of the analog signals. Some flow meters and strain gauges provide variable frequency signals , While push button , limit switches or relays are the examples of digital signals. One additional input of a different type is a register input , which reflects the computer nature of the programmable controller. The register input is particularly helpful when the process condition is represented by a collection of input signals delivered to the PLC at the same time . A binary coded thumbwheel is a good example of an input device which is compatible with a register input port.

Output system:

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Output is a signal from PLC to perform the required task , which is generated by PLC after satisfying all the given conditions as per the requirement of the user . There are three common categories of outputs. Discrete, analog and register. Discrete outputs can be lights , annunciation lamps , solenoid valves etc. Analog signals can be variable speed drives , I/P converters etc. Register outputs can drive panel meters and displays etc. All signals irrespective of input or output are isolated from external circuitry . This is accomplished by making use of optical isolators , which trigger a process switch to transfer data in ( Input Module ) or out ( Output Module ). Typical specification of input / output signals are as follows. Discrete I / O : 10 Vac , 220 Vac , 0 to 5 Vdc , 0 - 24 Vdc Analog I / O : 4 to 20 mA, 1 to 5 Vdc, 0 to 10 Vdc, -2.5 to +2.5 Vdc Special I / O: Thermocouple, RTD, Stepper motor, High Speed Counters.

Central processer unit:

This can be identified as the heart of PLC. The CPU or Central processor unit performs the tasks necessary to fulfill the PLC function . Among these tasks are scanning , I/O bus traffic control, program execution , peripheral and external devices communications , special function or data handling execution , and self diagnostics. CPU is also known as CCU i.e. Central Control Unit. CPU can use TTL i.e. transistor transistor logic CORE (ferrite core ) , CMOS technology or can be microprocessor based ( VLSI ) . All among these their special feature for which they can be used. TTL is faster in respect of scanning time , CORE requires no battery backup , CMOS is more compact and require lower power levels , and now a days being used microprocessor based systems are both more powerful and more flexible. How PLC performs its task given in the scan time. Scan time is roughly defined as the time it takes for the programmable controller to interrogate the input devices , execute the application program , and provide updated signals to the output devices. Scan time can vary from 0.1 milli second per 1 K words of logic to 50 0.1 milli second per 1 K words of logic . Scan time are often treated as the performance measure of the PLCs , but When selecting a programmable controller other performance factors must also be considered . The user should
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take into account the application as well as the speed of the controller . Generally speaking , Process applications need to take advantage of microprocessor power , whereas the machine control applications are usually more concerned program execution speed . How PLCs work is down to the CPU The CPU is the PLC part which is the brain of the whole PLC. This module typically lives in the slot beside the power supply or is incorporated with a power supply. PLC Manufacturers do offer different types of CPUs and CPU/PSU combinations based on the complexity needs for the system. The CPU is made up of several components, a microprocessor, memory chip or chips, I/O interfacing and other integrated circuits (ICs) to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU itself has a few different operating modes. Programming Mode. Run Mode. Stop Mode. Reset Mode. In Programming mode it accepts the downloaded program logic from the laptop or PC you would use to write the controlling program. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the desired process. In Run mode the PLC is in full operation, doing all its self checks and operating governed by the program held in it. Reading the inputs and setting the outputs accordingly. Even conversing with other units via the RS232, Provirus, Scads or CC-Link. In Stop mode it's as it says stopped. Now you might not think this is a mode as such but since some programming can be done while running, while some PLC Programming functions require it to be stopped. Putting a PLC into Stop mode also turns off all the outputs. Handy for checking inputs with causing anything to happen out of sequence. In Reset mode is also as it says, it resets the PLC from operating conditions back to switch on position. When this is done without resetting any data memory registers, this is called a warm reset. If the reset performed is full, for example resetting all I/O and data registers; it's called a cold reset.

Memory unit: This part of the PLC keeps data in record on temporary and permanent basis.

The memory unit of PLC serves several functions. It is the library where the PLCs executive
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program is stored. An executive program functions as the operating system of the PLC. It is the program which interprets , manages and executes the users application program . Finally the memory unit is the part of programmable controller where the process data from the input modules and control data from the output modules are temporarily stored as data tables . Typically an image of these data tables is used by the CPU end , and when it is appropriate , sent to the output modules. The memory of the PLC can be volatile or nonvolatile . Because , volatile memory units loses their storage if power is removed , a battery backup is required for this to ensure that there will be no loss of program in the event of power outage . The nonvolatile memory is used where extended power outage or long transportation time are anticipated . The basic element of memory of PLC is word. A word is a collection of 4 , 8 , 16 or 32 bits that is used to transfer the data about the programmable controller. As word length increases more information can be stored in a memory location .

Programmer unit:
This is an equipment necessary to communicate with PLC for user . The programmer unit provides an interface between user and PLC during program development , startup , and troubleshooting . The instructions to be performed during each scan are coded and inserted into memory with the programmer. Programmers vary from small hand held units desktop stand alone CRT based Nowadays many of the units . These programmer units are complete with documentation , reproduction , I/O status and on line / off line programming ability. manufacturers offer controller module that can use a personal computer as the programming tool . For this a program for personal computer is also given by the manufacturer to make computer ready to communicate with PLC . These programming units are the liaison between what PLC understand and what engineer wants PLC to do . Some of the Programmers have the ability to store the program on other media like floppy disks and cassette tapes. Another desirable feature of PLC is documentation of the program. This is accomplished by connecting a printer to the programmer. A print can be taken of existing program. Programmer also allows off line programming, by this a program is modified or developed in programmer and uploaded to PLC without removing the PLC from its place . In on line programming the programmer shows continuous change coming in the process and online modification is possible.
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Peripheral devices: These devices are the devices connected to PLC or programmer externally

to serve the required service. These can be categorized as Programming aids , Operational aids , I/O enhancements and computer interface devices . Programming aids provide documentation and program recording capabilities. The definite trend on programming aids is PC compatible software that allows PLCs to be emulated by computer . Operational aids include a variety of resources that range from color CRT to equipment or support program that gives operator a direct access to process parameters . In this situation the operator is allowed to read and modify the timer , counter and loop parameters but not have access to the program . The Input / Output enhancement group is a large category of PLC peripherals . It includes all types of modules. Some I/O simulators used to debug and develop the program can be categorized in the I/O enhancement group . These specific devices are basically the hardware modules that can be plugged into PLC. The computer interface device group is a rapidly expanding section of programmable controller peripheral devices . These devices allow peer to peer communications ( one PLC to another ) , as well as network interaction with various computer systems . In fact , This group of devices will certainly expand in number as communication standards become commonly accepted and more products are provided to facilitate such network interactions .

7.5 PLC Vs PC:

One of the most crucial decisions in the initial design phase of a machine is the selection of the control system. Since programmable logic controllers (PLCs) were first introduced in the 1970s, they have dominated the process and automation markets. For years, the PLC has led the way for advances in machine automation control. From small controls used in the automotive industry to large-scale controllers running entire factories, the PLC was the primary controller of choice. However, starting from the early 1990s, the PC has been successfully working its way into those markets as processor speed and range increases, and the cost of those components decreases. The number of applications using a PC is on the rise, causing an accelerated development that blurs the line between the two technologies. Ten years ago, deciding what type of controller to use might have been a clear choice; today, that is no longer the case.

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The PLC was developed as a more streamlined, flexible, and reliable alternative to switch boxes and relay panels. It was dedicated only to specific tasks in the factory, and its language and structure were modeled around the switches and relay panel circuits it was replacing. Furthermore, it had to maintain its robustness and consistent performance in challenging environments that contained relatively high levels of electromagnetic

Fig 7.5.1 PLC Vs PC Interference (EMI), contamination, and vibration. As time passed, the PLC evolved to include the capabilities of motion control, advanced proportional-integral-derivative PID process Control, and integrated safety, while also adopting some PC features, such as a web server and networking utilities. The PC, on the other hand, served a higher level role in the scope of the machine. It was used primarily for complex calculations, monitoring, measuring, and factory networking as well as a user-interface to the PLC. It was usually housed in a more environmentally controlled location because it couldnt operate as reliably as a PLC in harsh factory conditions. The PC eventually evolved to include PLC functionality, while still containing its core capabilities. Also, the PC has become a more robust controller, allowing it to operate in the harsh environments where once only PLCs could operate. Further convergence of the technologies is evident in an analysis of their control architectures. With the addition of a PCI card, hardware drivers, and software, a PC can serve as a PLC. Furthermore, the addition of a real-time kernel can enable the PC to support more critical tasking and control algorithms. On the other hand, there are PLCs with a built-in PC that only require a keyboard and mouse to get started. So, how does one choose between PLC or PC-based architecture? To simplify the decision-making process, it is important to first analyze and compare differentiating characteristics. Seven major areas to consider are:
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Operation Robustness Serviceability Hardware integration Security Safety Programming

7.6 FACTS ABOUT PLC:

Real time operation /orientation: PLCs have internal clocks and watchdog timers built into their operations to ensure

that some functional operations do not send the central processing into the weeds. The first priority of the CPU is to scan the I/O for status, to make sequential control decisions (as defined by the program) and to implement those decisions and repeat this procedure all within the allotted scan time.

Environmental conditions: PLCs are designed to function in Hot, humid, dirty and noisy environment.

Ambient: 0 deg centigrade to 60 degree centigrade. RH: 0 to 95% non condensing Electrical noise immunities comparative with military specifications.

Programming Language &Technologies: PLC languages are designed to emulate the popular relay ladder diagram format is read and understood worldwide by all concerned

format . This

professionals . Unlike computer programming , PLC programming does not require extensive special training . Applications know-how is much more important. Although certain special techniques are important to programming efficiency , They are easily learned . The major target is the control program performance. The another difference between computer and PLC is the sequential operation of PLC . Program operations in PLC are executed in the same order they are written in the program . This is extremely useful feature that allows easy programming of shift register , ring counters , timers and other real time control application.

Maintenance and troubleshooting: The PLCs are maintained by instrument technicians. The troubleshooting of PLC

and computer are different. It would be highly impractical to require computer type maintenance service for the PLC. Unlike computers , most PLC components are
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modular and simple to isolate . Remove and replace diagnostic techniques are generally used in PLCs.

7.7 HOW PLCS WORK.??

A programmable logic controller is a specialized computer used to control machines and processes. It therefore shares common terms with typical PCs like central processing unit, memory, software and communications. Unlike a personal computer though the PLC is designed to survive in a rugged industrial atmosphere and to be very flexible in how it interfaces with inputs and outputs to the real world. The components that make a PLC work can be divided into three core areas.

The power supply and rack The central processing unit (CPU) The input/output (I/O) section PLCs come in many shapes and sizes. They can be so small as to fit in your shirt

pocket while more involved controls systems require large PLC racks. Smaller PLCs (a.k.a. bricks) are typically designed with fixed I/O points. For our consideration, well look at the more modular rack based systems.

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Fig 7.7.1 PLC Rack Its called modular because the rack can accept many different types of I/O modules that simply slide into the rack and plug in
The Power Supply and Rack

So lets start off by removing all our modules which leaves us with a naked PLC with only the power supply and the rack. The rack is the component that holds everything together. Depending on the needs of the control system it can be ordered in different sizes to hold more modules. Like a human spine the rack has a backplane at the rear which allows the cards to communicate with the CPU . The power supply plugs into the rack as well and supplies a regulated DC power to other modules that plug into the rack. The most popular power supplies work with 120 VA or 24 VDC sources.

Fig 7.7.2 PLC -Back plane

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The CPU The brain of the whole PLC is the CPU module. This module typically lives in the slot

beside the power supply. Manufacturers offer different types of CPUs based on the complexity needed for the system. The CPU consists of a microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring and communications. The CPU has different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts the downloaded logic from a PC. The CPU is then placed in run mode so that it can execute the program and operate the process. Since a PLC is a dedicated controller it will only process this one program over and over again. One cycle through the program is called a scan time and involves reading the inputs from the other modules, executing the logic based on these inputs and then updated the outputs accordingly. The scan time happens very quickly (in the range of 1/1000th of a

Fig 7.7.3 CPU

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second). The memory in the CPU stores the program while also holding the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values. I/O System The I/O system provides the physical connection between the equipment and the PLC. Opening the doors on an I/O card reveals a terminal strip where the devices connect. There are many different kinds of I/O cards which serve to condition the type of input or output so the CPU can use it for its logic. It's simply a matter of determining what inputs and outputs are needed, filling the rack with the appropriate cards and then addressing them correctly in the CPUs program.

Fig 7.7.4 CPU Operating cycle

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Fig 7.7.5 PLC- face doors open

Fig 7.7.6 PLC inserting card

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Inputs Input devices can consist of digital or analog devices. A digital input card handles

discrete devices which give a signal that is either on or off such as a pushbutton, limit switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card converts a voltage or current (e.g. a signal that can be anywhere from 0 to 20mA) into a digitally equivalent number that can be understood by the CPU. Examples of analog devices are pressure transducers, flow meters and thermocouples for temperature readings Outputs Output devices can also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card either turns a device on or off such as lights, LEDs, small motors, and relays. An analog output card will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to its real world voltage or current. Typical outputs signals can range from 0-10 VDC or 4-20mA and are used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure regulators and position controls.

7.8 SCANNING PROCESS IN A PLC:

SERVICE COMMUNICA-TION

HOUSE KEEPING

OUTPUT SCAN INPUT SCAN

LOGIC SCAN 29

Fig 7.8.1 PLC-Scanning process Above is the basic flow chart of how PLCs work through and process the I/O, their program operation and error checks, known as the Scan process. The Scan-time is how long it takes the PLC to loop around the whole process back to the start, and can change depending on how much the Scan process has to do. The scan-time speed is very quick, and has to be as they're dealing with real time situations. The scan-time of a PLC happens in the order of 1/1000th's of a second. Sometimes it can even vary on a scan by scan basis depending on program loops being switched in and out by inputs and/or program equations. Most of the PLCs operational processes is similar to any CPU, a PLC program scan would first perform self-checks. Such as error check its own memory and integrated circuits to verify the CPU and associated circuitry is actually operating correctly. The next step is to error check any I/O modules fitted into the rack(s). This would include inputs, outputs, RS232 modules and in fact any and all modules fitted. Once it has a green light for all these will it then start on the control program sequence. Before it executes the user program, the PLC will scan the input modules, after that's complete it will execute the user program. But since a PLC is a dedicated controller, it will only process this one program, it will go through the whole program once per scan. The memory in the CPU stores the program in non-volatile RAM, which means it won't lose the program if the power is lost. It uses volatile and non-volatile RAM for holding the status of the I/O and providing a means to store values. Some are kept at power down some are not. Then the PLC will update the outputs according to the condition of the inputs and the program logic instructions. Then the PLC repeats this process over and over again.
Housekeeping: Internal checksums & diagnostics Input Scan: Current State of each input Logic Scan: User program stored in the memory Output Scan: Adjusting the outputs based on the inputs and the user program. Service Communication: Time taken by the processor to communicate to other devices.

PLCS used in COROMANDEL INTERNATIONAL LIMITED: GE Fanuc Series 90-30 PLC ( DAP plant )
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GE Fanuc Series 90-30 PLC ( Ammonia Handling plant ) GE Fanuc Series 90-30 PLC ( New Bagging plant ) Allen Bradley micro logic 1200 ( Combustion Chambers ,DAP ) Allen Bradley micro logic 1200 ( Boiler ) Siemens S7 300 ( Auto Bagging ) Siemens S7 300 ( Reclaimed )

About GE Fanuc Series 90-30 PLCs:

CPU Type Single slot CPU module Total base plates per system : 8 ( CPU + 7 expansion ) Power Supply requirements:+ 5vdc , 670 ma Processor speed 25 Mega Hertz Processor type 80386EX Scan rate 0.22ms for 1 k of logic ( Boolean contacts ) Program memory firmware release 9.0 version 240 k bytes (actual size Discrete Inputs 2048 Discrete Outputs 2048 Flags or Internal Coils 4096 Timers/ Counters > 2000 Analog Inputs 128 Analog Outputs 128 Register Memory 128 Communication: LAN, Ethernet, Profibus etc.

depends on the amount configured for %R,%AI,%AQ)

PLC Systems Software

Logic Master 90 - DOS based program Versapro -Windows based Human Machine Interface Software Simplicity (Latest Version is 6.1)

7.9 INSTALLATION OF PLC:

Installation of PLC is not a difficult or mysterious procedure. Few cares must be taken. The basic principal of PLC installation are the same as those for installation of relays or other control systems . The PLC project must take into account the
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important considerations of schedule and service . Here we will proceed with following steps. First Hardware Installation then Software Development. Hardware Installation: The PLC project must take into account the important consideration of schedule and service . There is a variety of PLC modules available in the worldwide market . so system sizing is relatively simple now a days . Before going into the market we must analyze the following characteristics . I/O quantity and type I/O remoting requirements Memory quantity and type Programming requirements Programmers Peripheral requirements

There is always good to procure a PLC of higher range and specification in respect of I/Os and memory units as there can be a further need to modify the program by adding more inputs / outputs etc in future.

Input/output modules:
In most of the PLCs plug-in modules are used to convert the I/O signal level to one that is compatible with the bus architecture . These modules can be composed of 1 , 4 , 8 , 16 points, depending upon the manufacturers standard design . For small projects , there can be 20 to 256 inputs / outputs . For medium size projects this can be from 256 to 1024 and large system may contain more than 1024 inputs / outputs to work on . The I/O base ( rack or housing ) is used to hold the I/O modules in place and to provide a termination point for the wiring . The bases may be mounted anywhere in control enclosure .The majority of bases are mounted horizontally to allow proper cooling of I/O module . A terminal strip is built in to the mounting base for field connections so that no wiring need be disturbed in order to remove or replace the module . These bases hold generally various quantity of I/Os ( anywhere from 1 to 128 ) . A unique feature of PLC is the multiplexed nature of the I/O bus . This can be used to great advantage to reduce overall wiring cost . If I/O racks are centralized in logical clusters , plant wiring requirements can be reduced in quantity . Wiring between racks and CPU can be reduced to a few twisted pairs
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of wires or a single cable . The tremendous cost saving that result can be realized without a compromise of control accuracy. Remote I/O can be classified in two types - integral type , which allows a limited distance transmission ( 4500 Mt ) ; and the transmitter / receiver type , which allows virtually unlimited distance transmission capability . Technology is advancing greatly in this area as systems change from fiber optics to microwave and radio transmission . Memory unit: This part of the PLC keeps data in record on temporary and permanent basis. The memory unit of PLC serves several functions. It is the library where the PLCs executive program is stored . An executive program functions as the operating system of the PLC. It is the program which interprets , manages and executes the users application program . Finally the memory unit is the part of programmable controller where the process data from the input modules and control data from the output modules are temporarily stored as data tables . Typically an image of these data tables is used by the CPU end , and when it is appropriate , sent to the output modules. The memory of the PLC can be volatile or nonvolatile . Because , volatile memory units loses their storage if power is removed , a battery backup is required for this to ensure that there will be no loss of program in the event of power outage . The nonvolatile memory is used where extended power outage or long transportation time are anticipated . The basic element of memory of PLC is word. A word is a collection of 4 , 8 , 16 or 32 bits that is used to transfer the data about the programmable controller. As word length increases more information can be stored in a memory location . Programmers: There are three basic types of programmer tools provided by the manufacturers of midsize PLCs. These are Hand held programmers, CRT programmers and CRT programmer simulator that runs on personal computers . The hand held programmer enables the user to enter a program one contact at a time. These units are widely used because of they are rugged , portable and easy to operate . They are very cost effective and give an engineer the capability to enter a program and to diagnose the troubles in logics and field devices . The CRT programmers provide the user with a visual picture of the program in the PLC . Ladder diagrams are drawn on the screen, just as they would be drawn
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on the paper . Design and troubleshooting time is reduced with the use of CRT . With menu driven software the programming and programmer training time is reduced. Some CRT programmers provide complete documentation capability including ladder diagram , cross reference lists , I/O lists . The CRT shows 8 rungs of ladder logic by 11 contacts across . The ladder diagram can be placed into real time mode to monitor the online changes in the status of PLC I/Os even at every 40 m sec. The CRT programmer simulator that operates on a personal computer is popular option as programming tool , there are some factors need to be noted . Cost is certainly a factor. A CRT simulator might be restricted to use on only one personal computer or on one PLC . Security keys are one way to obtain this isolation. Security keys are devices which are plugged into back of personal computer or PLC or both .

Software development:
The control system should be analyzed as a whole to determine the control requirement . Once the appropriate PLC is selected following two activities should begin : Engineering design and Software development . The first step is development of I/O list. This detailed document will be used extensively and should be developed with a great care .The I/O list is followed by the configuration drawing . The configuration drawing shows the arrangements of inputs / outputs and support hardware . The point to point wiring diagram will be used by panel and to make its I/O devices interconnect. The ready I/O list will be used to begin the software development . Basic control philosophy decisions need to be made at this point like valves should be fail opened or fail closed , or what fail-safe provisions are necessary for analog control . These decisions should be documented and included with the process operational descriptions . This serves many functions.

It records the thought process of the system designer to be used in the event
of a personnel ensure change .

It provides a review document for personnel working in other Capacities to that they understand the operation of the Control It communicates the functional requirements of the control system to those writing
PLC code.

It provides a guide for developing the operational Description for the

operators manual .
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After the functional specification has been reviewed and approved , a detailed operational sequence chart , timing diagram , logic diagram , flow chart , electrical schematic diagram are developed from it . The schematic is translated or coded into the appropriate PLC language by cross referencing I/O list . The help from P & I D cannot be ignored. As the code is entered , a memory map or register index is kept by the programmer . This map is useful for organizing program data in logical arrangements and will prove invaluable during start-up , when the programmer may need to locate available blocks of memory quickly for program revision . Once the program is entered , a simulation is recommended and the program checkout process is begun on the bench . This process uses the functional specification to prove that the software is acceptable . A large percentage of the program can be proved in this manner . Program debugging can be completed before field installation. There is no substitute for a bench simulated program check. program should be reproduced and documented after it has been checked . The

Software / hardware integration:

The panel wiring can be checked point by point in through the PLC . Each I/O should be activated separately to the terminal block or from the panel controls ( buttons . lights , switches ). By this way , the electrical integrity of the panel from the terminal blocks inward is ensured . If any continuity problem exists hereafter , they will be solved in the field wiring . This is a highly useful approach and can be implemented , to perform a simulated operation checkout at this time. After electrical interconnections are made and point to point wiring is completed , the system is ready useful at this stage . Unanticipated circumstances always are a factor during start-up. For this reason it is not uncommon , the need of change in the program at any time . point of for start-up . The ability of the PLC to operate step by step through the start-up becomes very

7.10 PROGRAMMING:
While talking about PLC, the Programming is an very important activity . As good will be the programming, equally good will be the results of the program. This is an skill based operation. Programmer should know each and every function and feature of
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the PLC. The use of timers, ring counters and like other functions makes the programming a bit simple. The use and understanding of PLC programming depends on knowledge of the process to be controlled , an understanding of electrical schematics, and an appreciation of logic operations and for various types of logic and relay devices . Device functionality is only as good as the program running on it. Therefore, the programming environment and language are crucial to optimal machine performance. One main difference between PLC- and PC-based solutions is how the code is executed. A PLC mixes scan-based and event-driven program execution, whereas PC software is typically event-driven. The scan-based execution of a PLC program might take longer because the system needs to complete the higher priority actions in the cycle first. The difference in execution style requires a different programming philosophy, and often users are committed to either one or the other. The same holds for the programming language: PLCs are programmed using languages specified in IEC 61131-3 (ladder logic, instruction list, etc.), or proprietary vendor languages. PC-based controls can use programming languages such as C/C++/.NET. Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation were very minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory. PLC programs are typically written in a special application on a personal computer, and then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single PLC can be programmed to replace 1000s of relays. Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standard-based programming languages. A graphical programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers. Recently , the International standard IEC 61131-3 has become popular .IEC 61131-3 currently defines 5 programming languages for programmable control systems: FBD (Function block diagram), LD(Ladder diagram ), ST (Structured text ,similar to the Pascal programming language ), IL (Instruction list ,similar to assembly language ) and SFC (Sequential function chat) . These techniques emphasize logical organization of operations. While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all manufactures, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and instruction sets mean
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that PLC programs are never perfectly interchangeable between different makers. Even with in the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models compatible may not be directly. Languages used in programming PLCs Ladder logics Statement list Control System Flow chart

Ladder logic: Ladder logic is a programming language that represents a program by a graphical

diagram based on the circuit diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop software for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) used in industrial control applications. The name is based on the observation that programs in this language resemble ladders, with two vertical rails and series of horizontal rungs between them

Ladder diagram:
Ladder diagrams are the most commonly used PLC software language . There are few basic symbols , in ladder diagram , that are used to serve the specific purpose . Few of the symbols are shown as in figure given below

(a)

(b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

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Fig 7.10.1 Basic symbols used in Ladder Logic By making use of these common symbols user makes PLC enable to interpret the signals ( inputs or outputs ) . the field , that device . may be of a limit switch , a relay switch or any other

represents a normally open contact . This symbol shows any contact from

represents a normally closed contact . This symbol also shows any contact
from the field , that may be of a limit switch , a relay switch or any other device . represents a coil that may be a starter coil or relay coil or solenoid coil .

represents heating element of an overload device .

represents normally closed state of a push button manually operated .

(represents normally closed version of a push button manually operated .

Although there are other ladder diagram symbols , these described are enough to enable us to acquire an introduction to ladder diagrams and to understand the drawings. Ladder logic is based on the following logic functions: AND, OR, sometimes called inclusive OR, Exclusive OR.

Anatomy of a Ladder program:

Input instructions are entered on the left Output instructions are entered on the right
The power rails simulate the power supply lines L1 and L2 for AC circuits and +24 v

and ground for DC circuits Most PLCs allow more than one output per rung
The processor (or controller) scans ladder rungs from top-to-bottom and from left-

to-right. The basic sequence is altered whenever jump or subroutine instructions are executed.

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Fig 7.10.2 Detailed analysis of ladder logic

Data Types: Bit Strings-groups of on/off values BOOL-1 bit BYTE-8 bit WORD-16 bit DWORD-32 bit LWORD-64bit SINT - signed short(1 byte) INT - signed integer (2 byte) DINT -double integer (4 byte) LINT - long integer(8 byte)
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INTEGER whole numbers

- Unsigned-add a U to the type to make it unsigned integer.

REAL floating point IEC 559(IEEE)

REAL (4 byte) LREAL (8 byte)

Time duration for timers processes. Date and Time of day:

DATE calendar date TIME_OF_DAY clock time DATE_AND_TIME: time and date character strings surrounded by single quotes. Escaped characters are

STRING -

preceded by a dollar sign. ($$ $ $L $N $P $R $T $xx) => ($ quote linefeed newline page (FF) return tab hex value) WSTRING holds multi byte strings. Arrays multiple values stored in the same variable. Sub ranges puts limits on value i.e., (4-20) for current Derived type derived from one of the above types. TYPE single type STRUCT composite of several variables and types ANY ANY_DERIVED ANY_ELEMENTARY ANY_MAGNITUDE ANY_NUM-LREAL, REAL ANY_INT-LINT, DINT, INT,SINT, ULINT,UDINT, UINT,USINT ANY_BIT-LWORD, DWORD, WORD,BYTE,BOOL ANY_STRING-STRING,WSTRING ANY_DATE-DATE,TOD,DT

Generic group of the above types:

Variables: Variable attributes: RETAIN, CONSTANT, AT Global Direct(local) I/O Mapping-input, output, I/O External Temporary
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Configuration: Resource- Like a CPU Tasks can be multiple per CPU. Programs- can be executed once, on a timer, on an event. Functions Standard: ADD, SQRT, SIN, COS, GT, MIN, MAX, AND, OR, etc. Custom Function Blocks Standard: Custom-Libraries of functions can be supplied by a vendor or third party. Programs Configuration-Processing resources, memory for IO, execution rates, numbers

Program Organization Units:

Configuration, Resources, Tasks:

of tasks.

7.11 MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING:

The maintenance and troubleshooting of the PLC is not a very hard task to deal with. As far as troubleshooting is concerned , there are so many PLC come in the market who have build in self diagnostics to allow for easy troubleshooting and repair of problems. Most PLC components are modular and simple to isolate. In the modern PLCs simple remove and replace diagnostic techniques are implemented . This makes easy and less time consuming troubleshooting and so is another one of the reasons why PLCs are preferred . There are few points which should be in mind always while working on PLC . Safety: The most important safety feature , which is often neglected in PLC system is emergency stop . This feature must be included whenever a hardwired device is used in order to ensure operator protection against the unwanted application of power . Enclosure: Enclosures should nearly always be provided for the PLCs themselves. This protects electronics from moisture , oil and dust particles and unwanted tampering .
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Most of the PLC manufacturers recommend a NEMA 12 enclosure for the standard industrial environment. PLCs are designed to be located close to machine or the process under control . This keeps the wiring runs short and so aids into the troubleshooting procedure . Sometimes the mounting of the PLC directly to the machine or very near to the machine is not advisable such as problems . In these situations the PLCs must be moved away. Temperature conditions: Installing the solid state device requires paying attention to ambient temperatures , heat radiation and the heat generated by device itself . PLCs are typically designed for operation over a broad range of temperatures , usually from 0 to 60 degree cent. Most PLCs use convection over fins to take heat away from particular areas within the hardware . Care must be taken to ensure that no obstruction to air flow over these fins is introduced by the placement of PLC in the enclosure . Further to this to get rid of the temperature problem , the panel can be vented , air conditioned , or moved to another location in case of excessive ambient temperature . state Noise: Noise or unwanted electrical signal can generate problems for all the solid circuits , particularly for microprocessors . Every manufacturer suggests methods for designing a noise immune system . These guideline should be strictly followed in the design and installation phase because the noise problem can be very difficult to isolate once the system is up and running. A well grounded enclosure can provide a barrier to noise interference from outside of the system . Metal to metal contact between the PLC and the panel is a must as is a good connection from the panel to ground . Wiring within the panel should also be diverted around noise procedure so as not to pick up any stray signal . Line voltage variation can cause hard to trace problem for ant microprocessor based system . PLC is one of them , even though the PLCs are designed to operate within a large range of supply voltage . Large spikes can create errors in the program execution. These must be reduced for the smooth operation of the PLC . Cost discussions: in case of vibrations inherent in the machine , electrical noise interference , or excessive heat

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After analyzing the technical requirements and comparing the design options for your machine, one more topic needs to be considered: cost. Many applications can be solved by either a PC-based or PLC-based solution, but for some applications, the cost of those solutions can differ widely. A comparison of the relative cost of PC- and PLC-based architectures centers on four areas: performance, expandability, environment, and development effort. Performance: When a control system must fulfill demanding calculations, handle complex network loads, and process a lot of data, a PC-based solution may be more cost-effective. The initial cost of a PC might be higher, but it provides a very powerful system and the cost only increases incrementally when more performance is required. PLCs, however, typically start at a lower price point and can get more expensive than a PC when high performance is needed. Expandability: Expandability is the capability of your control system to add peripherals, increase calculation power, or add data storage. When no additional functions are needed and expandability is low, PCs tend to have a higher cost than PLCs, but PC cost does not increase much when increasing expandability. The cost of a PLC is typically lower for applications where these items are not important because of the optimized nature of PLCs, but the cost ramps up steeply when a lot of additional devices are needed. Operating environment: The standard PLC was designed to withstand the harsh operating environment in an industrial factory setting. It is no surprise that the standard PLC costs much less to operate in rough environments compared to the PC. Adding components to make a PC more robust significantly increases the cost. Development time: Software development time can add significant cost to a machine design project, but it often remains hidden when initially selecting the control system. If this is the first time the particular control system is applied, one can either take the time to learn the new product or hire a third party with knowledge of the product to help integrate the new system.

7.12 ADVANTAGES OF PLCs:

PLCs have so many advantages over the other logic circuitrys used for various controls . Applications of PLCs cannot be confined in a chapter or so. There are so many uses of the PLCs in modern industries and that is because of the
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precious advantages of PLCs. The only consideration of importance in any control system is to get the process variables under control effectively and reliably . When control options are available several factors can be taken into consideration in making a decision as follows : Cost This is usually the first issue which user considers when selecting a control technology . To solve the problem there are two things initially known , result desired and the budget available . If the budget assigned to solve a problem is based only on the initial investment required for the PLC hardware this will under estimate the total cost by neglecting the costs associated with labor , maintenance and downtime . The effect of this results in the selection the job done . might in some than solid state of a technology that initially costs less but does not quite get situations be more effective . So a cost competitive alternative . Versatility The multifunction capability of a PLC allows control logic decision making , a versatility rarely possible with other types of control systems. The ability to combine discrete and analog logic is a power tool from instrumentation point of view . Control of critical startup parameters such as temperature, pressure etc. can be precisely programmed for each start up program . Flexibility As a process goes online and is refined , the control equipment should be easily configured to accommodate the modifications . These type of modifications user are easily possible in the PLCs . The programming language of PLC is equipment . In addition , the digital nature strong additional advantages of the PLCs. Expandability As a process matures , it is desirable that enhancement will be added . This usually requires more inputs and outputs. For other types of logic control systems , it is very difficult to make so complex panel changes which generally are so problematic . A PLC easily accommodates the additional inputs

Purchasing a larger and therefore more expansive PLC PLCs are more expansive

control units , but if the indirect costs are also considered then the PLC becomes

friendly so that everyone with a short span training can handle this control and self diagnostic capabilities are

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and outputs without requiring changes in the existing wiring . Very less wiring is required to expand the PLC as compare to other control systems. Correcting Errors In old days, with wired relay-type panels, any program alterations required time for rewiring of panels and devices. With PLC control any change in circuit design or sequence is as simple as retyping the logic. Correcting errors in PLC is extremely short and cost effective. Space Efficient Today's Programmable Logic Control memory is getting bigger and bigger this means that we can generate more and more contacts, coils, timers, sequencers, counters and so on. We can have thousands of contact timers and counters in a single PLC. Imagine what it would be like to have so many things in one panel. Testing A Programmable Logic Control program can be tested and evaluated in a lab. The program can be tested, validated and corrected saving very valuable time. Visual observation When running a PLC program a visual operation can be seen on the screen. Hence troubleshooting a circuit is really quick, easy and simple. Security Security mainly deals with protecting the file system and application. This has two aspects: preventing unauthorized access from the outside world (such as virus attacks, malware, etc.) and limiting user access (such as restricting user rights, hiding files, etc.). Traditionally, a PLC is less exposed to unauthorized access from the outside world. Because of its dedicated OS, there are very few known instances of virus attacks on PLCs. However, this does not mean that PLCs are immune to viruses. Since PLCs have enjoyed a virus-free status for years, there are no standard ways of detecting and eliminating a virus if it were to occur. Although the PC is far more susceptible to virus attacks than a PLC, strict security measures can be invoked to significantly reduce potential threats, and standard software is available to detect and remove viruses. PLCs and PCs offer different levels of user access to keep the contents as secure or as open as desired. Safety Depending on the operating environment, safety can be a major concern for the user. It is vital in cases where human interaction with the machine could be potentially dangerous and when safety standards in a semiconductor fabrication facility or other factory are crucial to machine acceptance.

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The PLC has a long history in machine automation, designated communication channels to slave devices to tightly monitor operation, and optional integrated circuits for redundancies. Integrated safety has only recently become available on some PC-based platforms. Robustness Robustness of the controller refers to its durability in various environments. The standard off-the-shelf PLC has no moving parts, so it can withstand harsh environments for millions of cycles. A standard PC contains moving parts, such as fans or hard disk drives, and is less suitable for environments with high vibration levels. However, industrial PCs (IPCs) offer options such as solid-state drives, fan-less cooling, and in-cabinet mounting. These options make a PC just as durable as a PLC, able to withstand the toughest industrial or environmental conditions. PLCs and PCs have converged in this area, but the PC requires additional options to equal a standard PLC. Serviceability Another factor to consider is the ease and cost of serviceability, which can be measured by the repair and replacement costs over the life of the controller. For a PLC, external devices can be replaced with ease while the system is in operation. Moreover, the PLCs compact modular design makes replacing the actual controller an easy job. This saves cost because it reduces machine downtime. Its also possible to perform a hot swap with a PC, but only for USB or other external peripheral devices. If the PC has a more modular design, such as a rack or panel-mount system, replacement time is closer to that of a PLC. It is helpful to be able to effortlessly change out a system or its components and have a resource pool of replacement parts with long-term availability. In some industries, copy exact policies require this long-term availability. It is easier to implement copy-exact with a PLC since the hardware and firmware dont change as rapidly as for a PC. Trying to find parts for a PC (even after a year or two) can be more challenging than for a PLC. (Ask the vendor about such policies, availabilities, and costs.)

7.13 APPLICATIONS OF PLC

Manufacturing Industry Lead acid battery plant, complete manufacturing system Extruder factory, silo feeding control system Escalator operation, monitored safety control system Lift operation, monitored safety control system
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Travel Industry

Aerospace Water tank quenching system Offset web press print register control system Multi stage screen washing system Filling machine control system Main factory feed water pump duty changeover system Industrial batch washing machine control system Closed loop textile shrinkage system Printing Industry

Food Industry

Textile Industry

Hospitals Coal fired boiler fan change-over system Film Industry

Servo axis controlled camera positioning system Main corrugators machine control system BOBST platen press drive and control system Extruder factory, silo feeding control system Injection molding control system

Corrugating

Plastics Industry

Agriculture
Glasshouse heating, ventilation & watering sys

Foundry
Overhead transportation system from casting process to shot blasting machine

Leisure Roller coaster ride and effects control system Greyhound track 'Rabbit' drive system

These are just a few examples of plc programming applications, there are many more in use today. In point of fact, there are far too many to list here, the PLC is today's unseen hero controlling a massive range of equipment. Manufacturers such as Mitsubishi, Allen Bradley, Omron and Siemens have been around for a long time and produce very high quality equipment through years of development

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CONCLUSION
The modern process industries like COROMANDEL INTERNATIONAL LIMITED, Kakinada have the latest instrumentation. Modern techniques are employed to measure flow, temperature, level and pressure. For the automation at the process PLCs are used. PLCs have now established themselves not as just devices but as a part of process control systems. We had carried out our project in COROMANDEL INTERNATIONAL LIMITED, Kakinada where the PLC systems of GE Fanuc are installed.

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BIBILIOGRAPHY

Coromandel International Limited, Kakinada, Library http://program-plc.blogspot.com http://entrance-exam.net/forum/general-discussion/what-instrumentation-what-itsapplications-79423.html#ixzz1SQobV0AR www.plcs.net/ - Cached www.plcdev.com/ - Cached en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmablelogiccontroller - Cached

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