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Part (A)
Interval timer: The length of time between two related events. Resource utilization: Quantity of resources consumed during a specified period.
2. It was stated that the inclusion of the salt in the UNIX password scheme increases the difficulty of guessing by a factor of 4096. But the salt is stored in plaintext in the same entry as the corresponding ciphertext password. Therefore, those two characters are known to the attacker and need not be guessed. Why is it asserted that the salt increases security? Ans-:It was asserted that the salt increases security because of the following reason-:
Without the salt, the attacker can guess a password and encrypt it. If ANY of the users on a system use that password, then there will be a match. With the salt, the attacker must guess a password and then encrypt it oncefor each user, using the particular salt for each user. Increases password length. Thwarts brute force attack hardware implementation.
Most viruses carry out their work in a manner that is specific to a particular operating system and, in some cases, specific to a particular hardware platform. Thus, they are designed to take advantage of the details and weaknesses of particular systems.
5. The necessity of the "no read up" rule for a multilevel secure system is fairly obvious. What is the importance of the "no write down" rule?
Ans: Multilevel security has a long tradition in military environments and is an important requirement in the TCSEC (Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria) for the A and B security classes. Subjects and objects of a system are assigned security classes (e.g. high and low) with a specific order (high_ low). A well known MLS model is the Bell-LaPadula model . The two most prominent rules are No-read-up and No-writedown which state that a low-level subject is not allowed to read high-level objects, and high-level objects can only be written by lowlevel subjects. These two rules result in an information flow from low to high. For more comprehensive information .
6. In an IPv4 packet, the size of the payload in the first fragment, in octets, is equal to Total Length (4 x IHL). If this value is less than the required minimum (8 octets for TCP), then this fragment and the entire packet are rejected. Suggest an alternative method of achieving the same result using only the Fragment Offset field.
Ans:- The IP packet (Layer 3 in the OSI model) is created by taking the layer 4 TCP or UDP datagram and adding IP headers to it. The IP packet is then sent to Layer 2 where more headers are added to it, creating a frame or cell (Ethernet, Frame Relay, ATM, etc), which is then transmitted along the physical Layer 1.. The packet length is a very important consideration, since all network administrators need to minimize SAR (Segmentation And Reassembly), or fragmentation. Therefore, they need to know the MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit), which is the largest IP packet that can travel through from sender to receiver, self-contained, with no fragmentation. The MTU applies to the entire path, and includes all devices that a packet passes through. You can discover this value using pings (see However, the MTU value may change, depending on the route taken, so it is best to run the ping test repeatedly, several times a week, for about one month. Here we detail only v4 packets. The packet length differs for IPv4 and IPv6 (IPnG - IP next Generation). IPv4 is still by far, the predominant protocol, with IPv6 a long way off:
IPv4 - The IPv4 packet length field is 16 bits, for a maximum size of 65535 bytes. IPv6 - The extended length option provides for a 32 bit length field, supporting packet length's up to 4294967295 bytes. IP fragmentation is the process of breaking up a single Internet Protocol (IP) datagram into multiple packets of smaller size. Every network link has a characteristic size of messages that may be transmitted, called the maximum transmission unit (MTU).