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CHNG I.

MT S L THUYT THNG K C BN Cc tham s thng k o lng tp trung hay hi t ca d liu (central tendency measurement) - Gi tr trung bnh (Mean): L gi tr trung bnh s hc ca mt bin, c tnh bng tng cc gi tr quan st chia cho s quan st. y l dng cng c thng c dng cho dng o khong cch v t l. Gi tr trung bnh c c im l chu s tc ng ca cc gi tr mi quan st, do y l thang o nhy cm nht i vi s thay i ca cc gi tr quan st. Gi tr trung bnh c tnh bng cng thc sau:

- Trung v (Median): L s nm gia (nu lng quan st l s l) hoc l gi tr trung bnh ca hai quan st nm gia (nu s lng quan st l s chn) ca mt dy quan st c xp xp theo th t t nh n ln. y l dng cng c thng k thng c dng o lng mc tp trung ca dng d liu thang o th t, n c c im l khng b nh hng ca cc gi tr u mt ca dy phn phi, do rt thch hp phn tch i vi d liu c s chnh lch ln v gi tr hay u mt ca dy phn phi. - Mode: L gi tr c tn sut xut hin ln nht ca mt tp hp cc s o, dng ny thng c dng i vi dng d liu thang biu danh. Ging nh trung v, mode khng b nh hng bi gi tr u mt ca dy phn phi. Cc tham s thng k o lng mc phn tn ca d liu (Dispersion) Kho st hai nhm cc con s sau:: Nhm 1: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 Nhm 2: 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8 Ta thy s kch thc mu ca hai nhm ny bng nhau, cc gi tr o lng mc tp trung ca d liu nh mean, media, mode u bng nhau v bng 6. Tuy nhin hai d liu ny hon ton khc nhau. Nhm 1 cc d liu bin i nhiu hn nhm 2, iu ny c ngha cc gi tr trong

nhm 1 phn tn hn, cc gi tr quan st nm xa gi tr trung bnh ca mu hn l nhm 2. o lng phn tn cho bit c nhng khc bit gia hai nhm d liu. C mt s cng c o lng phn tn ca d liu nh: - Phng sai (Variance): Dng o lng mc phn tn ca mt tp cc gi tr quan st xung quanh gi tr trung bnh ca tp quan st . Phng sai bng trung bnh cc bnh phng sai lch gia cc gi tr quan st i vi gi tr trung bnh ca cc quan st . Ngi ta dng phng sai o lng tnh i din ca gi tr trung bnh tng ng, cc tham s trung bnh c phng sai tng ng cng ln th gi tr thng tin hay tnh i din ca gi tr trung bnh cng nh. Phng sai ca mu c tnh bng cng thc sau:

- lch chun (Standard deviation): Mt cng c khc dng o lng phn tn ca d liu xung quanh gi tr trung bnh ca n. lch chun chnh bng cn bc hai ca phng sai. V phng sai l trung bnh ca cc bnh phng sai lch ca cc gi tr quan st t gi tr trung bnh, vic kho st phng sai thng cho cc gi tr rt ln, do s dng phng sai s gp kh khn trong vic din gii kt qu. S dng lch chun s gip d dng cho vic din gii do cc kt qu sai bit a ra st vi d liu gc hn. - Khong bin thin (Range): L khong cch gia gi tr quan st nh nht n gi tr quan st ln nht. - Sai s trung bnh mu (Standard Error of Mean): c dng o lng s khc bit v gi tr trung bnh ca mu nghin cu ny so vi mu nghin cu khc trong iu kin c cng phn phi. N c th c dng so snh gi tr trung bnh quan st vi mt gi tr ban u no (gi thuyt). V ta c th kt lun hai gi tr ny l khc nhau nu t s v s khc bit i vi standard error of mean nm ngoi khong (-2,+2). Cng thc tnh sai s trung bnh mu:

Khong c lng (Confident interval) L mt c lng xc nh khong gi tr c trng ca tng th c th ri vo. Da vo d liu mu, vi mt tin cy cho trc ta c th xc nh c gi tr i din cho m ng c th nm trong mt khong c lng no . V d gi x l mc thu nhp trung bnh ca m ng cn c lng. Vi tin cy ca khong st nghin cu l 95% (ngha l cc c lng s lun c mt lng sai s chp nhn l 5%). Da vo mu quan st ta c th xc nh c hai gi tr v thu nhp l a v b sao cho xc sut thu nhp trung bnh m ng x ri vo khong a v b (a, b) l 95%. Lc ny ta c th din gii rng vi chnh xc l 95% (hay chp nhn 5% sai s) ta bit c thu nhp trung bnh ca m ng nghin cu nm trong khong (a, b). Cng thc tnh khong c lng:

Hoc:

E= p t,n-1 Sp

Vi p l t l % tn sut xut hin ca mt gi tr quan st Kim nghim gi thuyt (Hypothesis testing) Bn cnh vic c lng cc c trng ca tng th, cc d liu mu thu thp c cn c dng nh gi xem mt gi thuyt no v tng th l ng hay sai. Ta gi l kim nghim gi thuyt. Ni cch khc kim nghim gi thuyt l da vo cc thng tin mu a ra kt lun bc b hay chp nhn v gi thuyt ca tng th V d: Sau mt thi gian thc hin cc chng trnh, bin php marketing (qung co, khuyn mi,) cng ty mun nh gi xem th phn, doanh

s c g thay i so vi trc khng, hay c t c mc tiu ra khng. Hoc cng ty mun tm hiu xem s thch ca ngi tiu dng v kiu dng, mu sc, mi v khc nhau v sn phm cu cng ty. H thch c bit mt kiu dng no , mt mu sc no , hay cc kiu dng, mu sc khc nhau u c a thch nh nhau. Phng php kim nghim gi thuyt s gip gii quyt nhng yu cu ny kim nghim gi thuyt ta phi xy dng gi thuyt. Gi thuyt hnh thnh c gi l gi thuyt H0 c xem nh ng cho n khi ta c cn c kt lun khc hn. Nu gi thuyt H0 khng ng th phi c mt gi thuyt no khc H0 gi l H1 l ng. Mt s gi thuyt thng gp trong phn tch:
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CHNG 2: GII THIU V PHN MM SPSS L phn mm chuyn dng x l thng tin s cp (thng tin c thu thp trc tip t i tng nghin cu (ngi tr li bng cu hi) thng qua mt bng cu hi c thit k sn. Thng tin c x l l thng tin nh lng (c ngha v mt thng k) Phn mm SPSS c tt c 4 dng mn hnh: 1. Mn hnh qun l d liu (data view): L ni lu tr d liu nghin cu vi mt cu trc c s d liu bao gm ct, hng v cc giao nhau gia ct v hng - Ct (Column): i din cho bin quan st. Mi ct s cha ng tt c cc cu tr li trong mt cu hi c thit k trong bng cu hi - Hng (Row): i din cho mt trng hp quan st (ngi tr li), Ta phng vn bao nhiu ngi (ty thuc vo kch thc mu) th ta s c by nhiu hng. Mi hng cha ng tt c nhng cu tr li (thng tin) ca mt i tng nghin cu

- giao nhau gia ct v hng (cell): Cha ng mt kt qu tr li tng ng vi cu hi cn kho st (bin) v mt i tng tr li c th (trng hp quan st) 2. Mn hnh qun l bin (variables view): L ni qun l cc bin cng vi cc thng s lin quan n bin. Trong mn hnh ny mi hng trn mn hnh qun l mt bin, v mi ct th hin cc thng s lin quan n bin - Tn bin (name): L tn i din cho bin, tn bin ny s c hin th trn u mi ct trong mn hnh d liu - Loi bin (type): Th hin dng d liu th hin trong bin. Dng s, v dng chui - S lng con s hin th cho gi tr (Width): Gi tr dng s c php hin th bao nhiu con s. S lng con s sau du phy c hin th (Decimals) - Nhn ca bin (label): Tn bin ch c th hin tm tc bng k hiu, nhn ca bin cho php nu r hn v ngha ca bin. - Gi tr trong bin (Values): Cho php khai bo cc gi tr trong bin vi ngha c th (nhn gi tr) - Gi tr khuyt (Missing): Do thit k bng cu hi c mt s gi tr ch mang tnh cht qun l, khng c ngha phn tch, loi b cc bin ny ta cn khai bo n nh l gi tr khuyt (user missing). SPSS mc nh gi tr khuyn (system missing) l mt du chm v t ng loi b cc gi tr ny ra khi cc phn tch thng k. Kch tht ct (columns): Cho php khai bo rng ca ct V tr (align): V tr hin th cc gi tr trong ct (phi, tri, gia)

- Dng thang o (measures): Hin th dng thang o ca gi tr trong bin 3. Mn hnh hin th kt qu (output): Cc php phn tch thng k s cho ra cc kt qu nh bng biu, i th v cc kt qu kim nghim, cc kt qu ny s c truy xut ra mt mn hnh, v c lu gi di mt tp tin khc (c ui l .SPO). Mn hnh ny cho php ta xem v lu gi cc kt qu phn tch. 4. Mn hnh c php (syntax):

Mn hnh ny cho php ta xem v lu tr nhng c php ca mt lnh phn tch. Cc c php c lu tr s c s dng li m khng cn thao tc cc lnh phn tch li. 5. Khi qut v phn tch d liu 5.1. Kim tra d liu (Data Screening) Mt thc t lun lun gp phi i vi nhng ngi lm cng tc phn tch v x l s liu l hu nh khng lc no m khng gp nhng vn i vi d liu trong tay h, mt s xut hin do li nhp my, li m ha, hoc do cc li v chn mu v cht lng phng vn, tt c nhng li ny thng dn n nhng khc thng hoc tnh i din km ca d liu thu thp. Trong nhng cuc nghin cu qui m ln, cng vic kim tra d liu i khi cn tn nhiu cng sc v thi gian hn c vic phn tch v tm tc d liu. Do gn nh l nhim v u tin ca ngi phn tch d liu l phi tin hnh kim tra d liu nhm xc nh ra cc li trong d liu ng thi kim tra xem tnh tng thch ca d liu nh th no so vi nhng gi thuyt c yu cu cho cc phn tch thng k sau ny. Xc nh nhng gi tr vt tri (Outliers) v cc gi tr li (Roque values) C nhiu cch xc nh ra cc gi tr vt tri v gi tr li. Tuy nhin iu quan trng l xc nh xem cc gi tr vt tri c phi l gi tr li hay khng hay do s bt thng trong mu nghin cu: - S dng cng c bng phn b tn xut ngoi vic m s ln xut hin ca tng gi tr ring bit, n cn gip ta tm ra cc gi tr li hoc cc gi tr m ha sai st hoc khng mong i (v d nh bin gii tnh ch c hai gi tr m ha 1 v 2 tng ng vi gii tnh nam v n do khi kho st ta s pht hin ra cc gi tr khc vi gi tr m ha 1 v 2). Ngoi ra cng c ny cn cho php ta nhn ra c cc gi tr khuyt (Missing values) nhng li xut hin nh l mt gi tr hp l (Valid value) - i khi vic xc nh cc gi tr vt tri c th c xc nh mt cch tt hn khi ta kho st hai hay nhiu bin cng mt lc. i vi cc bin dng biu danh (nominal) hoc th t (ordinal) s dng cng c bng cho ta c th xc nh c nhng s kt hp phi l gia hai hoc nhiu bin, v d nh mt ngi cha bao gi

tiu dng sn phm A nhng li tham gia a ra nhng kin mc tha mn trong tiu dng sn phm A. 5.2. Thng k m t (Descriptive Statistics) y c th c xem l phn ct li v thng gp nht trong vic phn tch v x l s liu. Tuy nhin trc khi bt tay vo vic m t d liu (o lng tp trung hay phn tn, t l %, mi quan h gia cc bin ), cn thit phi nm c loi bin ang kho st (loi thang o ca bin) hay ni cch khc ta phi nm c ngha ca cc gi tr trong bin i vi bin nh danh hoc th t (nominal v ordinal) cc php tnh ton s hc nh gi tr trung bnh khng c ngha thng k, c bit i vi bin nh danh mi s so snh hn km gia cc gi tr trong bin u v ngha. Ngc li cc bin nh lng nh thang o khong cch v thang o t l (Interval v Ratio) th mi s so snh hay tnh ton s hc c ngha phn tch thng k 5.3. Kim nghim cc so snh trung bnh mu (Tests for Comparing Means) Trong phn tch thng k ngi ta thng s dng cc php kim nghim kim nghim cc gi thuyt v gi tr trung bnh ca cc bin nh lng, v thng k cung cp cho ta cc cng c nh kim nghim t (T-Test) hay kim nghim Z (Z-test) Kim nghim t cho mt mu, cp mu v hai mu ngu nhin c lp Ta c ba dng kim nghim t cho vic so snh cc gi tr trung bnh ca mu. Vic s dng dng no ty thuc vo vn ta ang tin hnh so snh ci g - S dng kim nghim t cho hai mu ngu nhin c lp (Independent Samples T Test) l phng php nhm mc ch kim nghim so snh gi tr trung bnh ca mt bin ring bit theo mt nhm c khc bit hay khng i vi gi tr trung bnh ca bin ring bit theo mt nhm khc. Vi gi thuyt ban u H0 cho rng gi tr trung bnh ca hai nhm ny l bng nhau. V d ta kim nghim thu nhp trung bnh (bin thu nhp) theo hai nhm gii tinh l nam v gii tnh l n (bin gii tnh s dng chia cc gi tr quan st trong bin thu nhp thnh hai nhm)

- Cng c kim nghim t cho cp mu (Paired-Samples T Test) c s dng kim nghim c hay khng gi tr trung bnh ca cc khc bit gia cc cp quan st l khc gi tr 0. Vi gi thuyt ban u H0 cho rng gi tr trung bnh cc khc bit ny l bng 0. V d nh kim nghim s khc bit v im thi mn hc ca hai nhm sinh vin c tham gia v khng c tham gia chng trnh ph o ngoi gi. - Cng c kim nghim t mt mu (One-Sample T Test) kim nghim c hay khng gi tr trung bnh ca mt bin l khc bit vi mt gi tr gi nh t trc. Vi gi thuyt ban u H 0 cho rng gi tr trung bnh kim nghim l bng vi gi tr gi thuyt a ra Phn tch phng sai mt chiu (One-Way ANOVA) Phn tch phng sai l mt dng m rng ca phng php kim nghim t hai mu ngu nhin c lp (Independent-Samples T Test), v c s dng kim nghim cho nhiu hn hai nhm. Phng php phn tch ny kho st s bin thin gia cc trung bnh mu trong mi lin h vi s phn tng ca cc quan st trong tng mi nhm. Vi gi thuyt ban u H0 cho rng cc gi tr trung bnh ny l bng nhau. 5.4. Kim nghim cc mi quan h (Testing Relationships) Kim nghim mi quan h gia hai bin v kim nghim mi tng quan vi cng tng quan v chiu ca tng quan gia cc bin trong c s d liu - Trong kim nghim mi quan h gia hai bin, ta s dng kim nghim Chi-bnh phng kim nghim gi thuyt ban u cho rng hai bin th hin trong bng cho (bin ct v bin hng) l khng c mi quan h vi nhau (c lp vi nhau). - Trong kim nghim tng quan gia cc bin ta s dng kim nghim F kim nghim gi thuyt ban u cho rng gia cc bin ang kho st khng c tng quan vi nhau (h s tng quan R = 0)
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CHNG 3: CHUN B D LIU 1. Kim tra v hiu nh d liu y l bc kim tra cht lng thng tin trong bng cu hi nhm bo m khng c bng cu hi no thiu hoc cha ng nhng thng tin sai

st theo yu cu thit k ban u, bc ny cn thit c thc hin trc khi tin hnh m ha v nhp d liu vo my tnh. Ngi kim tra phi bo m tnh ton vn v tnh chnh xc ca tng bng cu hi & tng cu tr li trong bng cu hi. Thng thng bc ny nhn nghin cu s tin hnh kim tra nhng c tnh sau ca bng cu hi: - Tnh logic ca cc cu tr li: i khi trong bng cu hi, do yu cu nghin cu s c nhng ng dn, nhng iu kin ngi tr li hoc c th tr li tt c cc cu hi hoc c th b qua mt vi cu hi no . Kim tra tnh logic ca bng cu hi cho php nh nghin cu loi b nhng cu tr li tha, cng nh kp thi b xung nhng phn thiu trong bng cu hi. Tnh logic ca cu tr li cn ph thuc vo s kt dnh v lin h ln nhau gia cc cu hi trong mt bng cu hi (i khi mt cu tr li l c ngha nu ng ring mt mnh n nhng li v ngha nu kt hp so snh vi cc cu tr li trc hoc sau n). - Tnh y ca mt cu tr li v ca mt bng cu hi: Mt bng cu hi ch c gi tr nu nh tt c nhng cu hi theo yu cu u c tr li y . Mi cu hi trong bng cu hi u c mt ngha, mt gi tr nghin cu nht nh, do thiu mt cu tr li no cho mt cu hi c th no s lm mt i gi tr ca bng cu hi . - Tnh hp l v xc thc ca cc cu tr li: Mt cu tr li y cha hn l cu tr li c gi tr, do tnh chn thc v hp l ca cu tr li cng quyt nh n gi tr ca cu tr li v ca bng cu hi, c bit l cc cu hi chm im, cu hi m v cc cu hi mang tnh logic. Qu trnh kim tra, r sot li bn cu hi l nhm mc ch kim tra, pht hin, sa cha v thng bo kp thi cho ngi thu thp d liu trnh nhng sai st tip theo. x l cc li trong kim tra v hiu nh, ta c th la chn cch x l nh sau ty thuc vo mc sai st c th: - Tr v cho b phn thu thp d liu lm sng t vn - Suy lun t cc cu tr li khc - Loi b ton b bn cu hi 2. M ho d liu

L qu trnh chuyn dch cu tr li thc ca ngi tr li vo tng nhm, tng mu i din vi cc gi tr i din tng ng nhm lm cho qu trnh tm tc, phn tch v nhp liu c d dng v hiu qu hn. C hai dng m ha: - Tin m ha: L vic m ha cho cc cu hi ng. Do c im ca cc loi cu hi ny l nh nghin cu c sn cc cu tr li t trc, ngi tr li ch vic la chn cu tr li no ph hp nht vi kin ca mnh, do vic m ha cho cc cu hi ny thng c tin hnh t trc, giai on thit k bng cu hi. - M ho: Trong bng cu hi ngoi nhng cu hi ng nu trn, cn nhng cu hi m, l nhng cu hi m ngi tr li t do a ra cu tr li theo suy ngh v din gii ca chnh h. Cc bng cu hi nhn v thng c nhng cu tr li rt khc nhau v rt a dng. Do cng vic m ha nhng cu tr li ny th cn thit cho qu trnh kim tra, nhp liu, tm tc v phn tch sau ny. Mc ch ca m ha l to nhn cho cc cu tr li, thng l bng cc con s. M ha cn gip gim thiu s lng cc cu tr li bng cch nhm cc cu tr li vo nhng nhm c cng ngha. Tin trnh m ha c th c tin hnh nh sau: - u tin, xc nh loi cu tr li cho nhng cu hi tng ng. Nhng cu tr li ny c th thu thp t mt mu cc bng cu hi hon tt, thng l 25% trn tng s bng cu hi - Bc tip theo l xy dng mt danh sch lit k cc cu tr li, cc cu tr li c lit k v tin hnh nhm cc cu tr li theo nhng nhm c trng (c cng ngha) - Cui cng, nhng nhm cu tr li ny c gn cho mt nhn hiu, mt gi tr, thng l mt con s c th
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CHNG 4: NH BIN V NHP D LIU 1. Khi nim v bin v cc gi tr trong bin Bin l tp hp nhng tr li cho mt cu hi. C hai loi bin nh sau: Phn loi bin theo s lng cu tr li: Bin mt tr li: Bin dnh cho cu hi c mt tr li

- Bin nhiu tr li: Cc bin dnh cho nhiu cu tr li c th c trong mt cu hi nhiu tr li V d nh trong bng cu hi c hai cu hi sau: - Cu hi 1: Hy cho bit bn nhm tui no trong s nhng nhm tui sau: Nhm tui Di 18 19 n 30 31 n 40 41 n 50 Trn 50 2 3 4 5 code 1

- Cu hi 2: Ni n in thoi di ng, bn bit c nhng nhn hiu no trong danh sch lit k di y Nhn hiu Ericson Motorola Nokia Siemens Panasonic .V.V C th thy i vi cu hi 1, ngi tr li ch c th a ra mt cu tr li duy nht v tui ca mnh, do bin cha ng cu tr li ca cu hi 1 l bin mt tr li. Trong khi xem xt cu hi 2, ngi tr li c th nu ra nhiu nhn hiu m h c bit qua, do phi c nhiu bin cha ng cc tr li c th c, ta gi bin l bin nhiu tr li. Phn loi bin theo kiu d liu: code 1 2 3 4 5

C hai loi bin chnh l bin nh tnh v bin nh lng, i vi bin nh tnh ta khng th s dng cc php ton (cng, tr, nhn, chia) tnh ton cc gi tr trn bin , ngc li bin nh lng cho php ta thao tc cc php ton trn cc gi tr m n i din. Vic xc nh dng bin theo cch ny cho php ta la chn c tham s thng k tng thch phn tch. xc nh c bin l nh lng hay nh tnh i hi phi xc nh cc gi tr trong bin thuc dng thang o no trong bn dng thang sau: - Thang o nh danh (Nominal Scale): Trong dng thang o ny cc con s c s dng n thun nh mt gi tr xc nh s khc bit cho cc cu tr li, cc gi tr quan st c ngha khc bit nhau. i vi loi thang biu danh cc gi tr s c s dng nh l k s nhn dng v khng c gi tr v mt th t cao thp v v ln gia cc con s - Thang o th t (Ordinal Scale): Trong dng thang o ny d liu c xp xp cc gi tr quan st theo mt th t cao thp nht nh, nhng khng din t c ln gia v tr cao thp gia cc con s. Tm li thang th t bao gm c thng tin v biu danh ng thi cung cp lun mi quan h theo th t gia cc gi tr nhng khng o c khong cch gia cc gi tr . - Thang khong cch (Internal Scale): Ging nh c tnh ca thang o th t, tuy nhin i vi thang khong cch cho php ta o c khong cch gia cc gi tr. Tuy nhin do thang o khong cch khng xc nh c im 0 chung (ging nh thang o nhit ) do ta ch c th ni gi tr ny ln hn gi tr kia bao nhiu n v nhng khng th kt lun gi tr ny ln hn gi tr kia bao nhiu ln. - Thang o t l (ratio): y l thang o c cc c tnh th t v khong cch. Ngoi ra vic xc nh ra t s chnh lch gia cc gi tr l c th thc hin do thang o ny im 0 c xc nh mt cch c ngha. T bn dng thang o trn ta phn ra hai loi bin. Bin nh tnh l bin cha cc gi tr quan st dng thang o biu danh v th t. Cn bin nh lng l bin cha cc gi tr c dng thang o khong cch v t l.

2. Phng php nh bin trn SPSS (Define Variable) nh bin trong mn hnh qun l bin (variables view). Cng vic nh bin ny c th c thc hin trc khi tin hnh nhp d liu vo trong my Mc ch ca vic nh bin l gn nhn v cc thng s cho cc bin v gn ngha cho cc gi tr trong bin. Sau khi c m ha cc d liu s c i din bng nhng con s v cc con s ny c ngha khc nhau ty theo cu tr li thu thp c. cc con s ny c th nhp vo my tnh v c th qun l cng nh c ngha trong SPSS, ta phi tin hnh nh bin cho d liu. Qui trnh nh bin ny bao gm cc bc sau: - Gn tn cho bin (Name): Ta g tn bin cn khai bo vo ct u tin trong mn hnh Variables view (Nu ta khng g tn bin vo th SPSS s mc nh tn bin ny l Var000001). Tn bin c khai bo ny s hin th trn u cc ct trong mn hnh Data view. Tn bin b hn ch v s k t hin th, do cn thit phi khai bo ngn gn v d gi nh, thng thng nn t theo th t cu hi trong bng cu hi nh q1, q3, q4a, C mt s qui c sau y phi tun theo khi khai bo tn bin: Bt u bng mt ch ci v khng bt u bng du chm(.). Tn bin khng c qua 8 k t Khng c cha khong trng v cc k t c bit nh (!), (?), (*). Cc t kha sau y khng c dng lm tn bin: ALL, NE, EQ, TO, LE, LT, BY OR, GT, AND, NOT, GE, WITH -

Hnh 4-1 nh ra kiu bin (Type): C cc dng bin sau c th nh dng. Dng con s (numeric); Dng tin t; dng ngy (Date) hoc dng

chui (String). Ngoi ra phn ny cng cho php ta nh dng cc dng s c hin th khc nhau (Xem hnh 4-1) Ty thuc vo yu cu ca d liu, m ta s nh loi bin cho bin, SPSS mc nh loi bin l kiu s (numeric); ngoi ra cn c th khai bo cc kiu hin th s khc nhau nh kiu s c du phy (Comma) hay du chm (Dot) ngn cch gia cc khong cch hng ngn ca con s; cch hin th theo cc k hiu khoa hc (Scientific notation); Hin th ngy, dollar v cc kiu tin t khc; cui cng l cch hin th dng chui. Xc nh s lng con s hin th cho gi tr (Width) v s lng con s sau du phy hin th (Decimals): Khai bo b rng ca con s (hng n v, hng trm, hng triu, ) trong Width, V khai bo s con s thp phn sau du phy trong Decimal.
-

- Gn nhn cho bin (Variable Label): t tn nhn cho bin mt cch y hn, tn bin ny s hin th ngha ca bin trn cc kt qu phn tch trong mn hnh kt qu (output), cng c ny gip ta hiu c ngha ca bin ang kho st d dng hn trong qu trnh phn tch. -

Hnh 4-2 nh tn cho cc gi tr trong bin (Value lables): Trong qu trnh m ha d liu ta gn cc gi tr trong bin thnh cc con s i din, Nhng cho qu trnh c v phn tch cc kt qu nghin cu d dng hn ta phi gn cc con s ny cc ngha nh n m n ang i din, cng c nh li nhn cho gi tr cho php ta thc hin iu ny (Xem hnh 4-2): Gn nhn ca gi tr (value lables) c ba thao tc: o Gn mt nhn mi: Nhp gi tr vo hp thoi Value

Nhp nhn ca gi tr vo hp thoi Value Label An nt Add xc nh nhn Di vt sng n nhn cn sa i Nhp tn nhn mi, n nt Change thay i Di vt sng n nhn cn loi b An nt Remove loi b

o Sa i mt nhn:

o Loi b mt nhn:

Hnh 4-3 nh ngha cc gi tr khuyt (Missing Values): c dng nh ra cc gi tr c th cho cc gi tr m ta mun loi b ra khi cc phn tch v x l thng k sau ny hay cn gi l cc gi tr khuyt. V d trong cu hi v thu nhp, s c mt s trng hp t chi tr li tng ng vi gi tr m ha l 99. Trong qu trnh phn tch loi b tt c cc trng hp ny ra khi cc x l thng ke, ta phi tin hnh khai bo gi tr 99 l gi tr khuyt trong phn gi tr khuyt (Missing values). (Xem hnh 4-3) SPSS mc nh l khng c khai bo gi tr khuyt. C ba cch khai bo cc gi tr khuyt (1) hai bo bng 3 gi tr ri rc (Discrete missing values) (2) Khai bo mt chui lin tc cc gi tr (Range of missing values)

(3) Khai bo mt chui cc gi tr khuyt v mt gi tr khuyt ring bit (Rang plus one discrete missing value) i vi d liu dng chui. Ton b cc gi tr v dng hoc trng u c xem l c ngha. nh ngha cc gi tr v ngha v cc gi tr trng l gi tr khuyt ta phi nhp vo mt khong trng vo trng nh ra cc gi tr khuyt ring bit - nh kch c cho ct (Colum format): nh ra chiu rng ca ct ang khai bo bin - nh ra v tr hin th cc gi tr (align): V tr hin th cc gi tr trong ct (phi, tri, gia) - nh ra dng thang o m bin th hin (measurement): Ty thuc vo dng thang o c s dng trong bin m ta khai bo trong cng c measurement, ch khai bo scale c dng chung cho dng thang o khong cch v thang o t l. Vic khi bo ny ch mang tnh cht qun l khng nh hng n kt qu phn tch 3. Nhp d liu D liu cn nhp s c nhp vo trong mn hnh Data views. Mn hnh ny th hin ra mt ma trn thng tin bao gm: ct v hng, v giao nhau gia ct v hng. (Xem hnh 2-1) D liu c nhp theo trnh t sau: - Khai bo tn bin cha ng thng tin cn nhp vo thanh bn trn mi ct (tn mc nh ca cc ct ny trong SPSS l var00001, , var0000x). Phn ny c cp chi tit trong phn nh bin. - Chn cn nhp d liu, l phn giao nhau gia ct v hng. cn nhp s c khung vin chung quanh bo cho ngi nhp bit l ang hot ng, tn bin v s hiu hng c hin gc tri ca ca s. - G gi tr cn nhp vo khung chn, gi tr ny c hin trong thanh sa i (cell editor) nm trn ca s. Ch khi nhp d liu phi bo m ng vi kiu bin c nh ngha. Thng thng cc kiu bin c khai bo l dng chui (ngn ti a 8 k t) hoc dng s, nhm bo m tnh tng thch cho vic phn tch sau ny. Ta cng c th nhp liu t cc phn mm khc nh Excel, Fox, v sau chuyn vo trong SPSS.
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CHNG 5: CC PHP BIN I V THAO TC TRN TP D LIU

1. M ha li (Recode) Recode l cng c dng m ha li cc gi tr trong mt bin thnh cc gi tr m ha mi ph hp vi i hi ca qu trnh phn tch d liu. V d i vi cu hi ngun gc nhn bit qung co ca sn phm X, ngi tr li c th tr li c th trn bo Si Gn, Tui Tr, Tp ch Sc Khe v i sng, Trn i HTV7, Trn i VTV3, C th ban u cc ngun qung co c m ha mt cch ring bit. Tuy nhin do nhu cu x l sau ny, ngi nghin cu mun nhm cc gi tr c m ha ring bit ny thnh ba loi ngun qung co chnh l Bo, Tp Ch v Tivi. Cng c Recode cho php ta nh li cc gi tr ring bit v ngun qung co ban u thnh ba ngun qung co chung l Bo, Tivi v tp ch. SPSS cung cp cho ta hai loi Recode l Recode trn cng mt bin (Recode into same variables) v recode vo bin khc (Recode into different variable). 1.1. M ha li trn cng mt bin (Recode into same variables) Recode trn cng mt bin l m ha li nhng gi tr trong mt bin hin hu thnh nhng gi tr mi v cc gi tr mi ny s nm ngay trong bin hin hu v thay th cc gi tr c trn bin . Khi s dng cng c ny ta s mt i cc gi tr khai bo ban u trong bin m ta thc hin lnh Recode. Ch cc gi tr va c to ra cha c nhn, do sau khi thc hin lnh ta phi tin hnh khai bo nhn cho gi tr ( cp trong phn khai bo bin). Phng php ny c thc hin qua cc bc sau:

Hnh 5-1 Chn transform/recode t thanh menu chnh. y ta la chn Recode into same variable tin hnh nh li gi tr ca bin trn cng mt bin. Ta c hp thoi nh hnh 5-1:

Hnh 5-2 Chuyn cc bin cn m ha li sang hp thoi variables, nhn thanh Old and New Values chuyn cc gi tr c cn thay i thnh cc gi tr mi. Ta c hp thoi Old and New values nh hnh 5-2: Old value dng khai bo gi tr c cn chuyn i. Gi tr c ny c th l mt gi tr n l(Value), mt gi tr khuyt mc nh hay gi tr khuyt khai bo (System-missing or User-missing), mt dy cc gi tr(Range), hoc ton b cc gi tr no trong bin (All other values). New value dng khai bo gi tr mi s thay th cho gi tr c tng ng. Nhn thanh Add lu s chuyn i ny. Cc gi tr chuyn i c th sa cha hoc loi b bng cch di chuyn vt ti n biu thc th hin s chuyn i trong hp

thoi Old->New v nhn thanh Change cho s thay i hoc Remove loi b.

Hnh 5-3 Nu vic nh li gi tr ca cc gi tr ca bin c mt s iu kin km theo, ta c th dng cng c if nh ra cc iu kin cho lnh recode. Hp thoi If Cases nh hnh 5-3: - Trong hp thoi If Cases, mc nh l khng c iu kin no c, php nh li gi tr ca bin c thc hin cho tt c cc quan st, y hin th l Include all cases. Chn lnh include if case satisfies condition xc nh cc iu kin trong vic nh li gi tr ca bin. Chuyn tn bin cn nh li cc gi tr vo hp thoi bn phi. Lc ny php nh li gi tr ca bin ni trn ch c thc hin i vi cc quan st no tha mn c biu thc iu kin c th hin trong hp thoi iu kin ny. V d ch thc hin lnh recode i vi nhng trng hp quan st khu vc (bin kvuc) TP.HCM (c gi tr m ha l 2) ta khai bo biu thc iu kin nh sau kvuc = 2. 1.2. M ha li vo mt bin khc (Recode into different variables)

Hnh 5-4 Trong trng hp nh li cc gi tr hin ti ca mt bin thnh cc gi tr mi trong mt bin mi ta s la chntransform/recode/into different variable v ta c hp thoi nh hnh 5-4: S dng phng php recode vo mt bin mi my tnh s t ng to ra mt bin mi trn c s d liu cha cc gi tr mi va c to ra, ng thi ta cng vn lu gi c bin c vi cc gi tr m ha c trn c s d liu. Ch cc gi tr va c to ra cha c nhn, do sau khi thc hin lnh ta phi tin hnh khai bo nhn cho gi tr ( cp trong phn khai bo bin). Vic m ha li cc gi tr vo trong mt bin mi c thc hin qua cc bc sau: - Chuyn tn bin cn nh li gi tr vo trong hp thoi variables. Khai bo tn bin mi v nhn bin mi s cha cc gi tr va c m ha li trong hp thoi Output variable. Nhn thanh change xc nhn s khi bo ny. - Cc cng c If v Old and New Values cng c ngha v thao tc tng t nh trng hp nh li gi tr cho cng mt bin, c cp phn trn. Cng c ny c a im l ta va to ra c mt bin mi vi cc gi tr c m ha theo cch mi nhng ng thi vn gia c bin gc vi cc gi tr m ha ban u. Trong khi vi phng php m ha li d liu trn cng mt bin, cc gi tr m ha mi s chng ln cc gi tr c v ta mt i cc gi tr m ha ban u trn bin . 2. Cng c t ng m ha li (Automatic Recode)

L phng php m ha t ng cc gi tr dng chui sang dng s vo trong mt bin mi. Bin mi ny s cha cc con s nguyn lin tc, mi con s nguyn trong bin mi s i din cho cc gi tr dng chui ging nhau . V d khi ban u ta nhp d liu a bn nghin cu (qun) nh Bnh Thnh, Qun 1, Qun 2, Tn Bnh, dng chui. Ta c th recode cc gi tr ny thnh cc gi tr s nh 1, 2, 3 mt cc t ng bng cng c Automatic Recode. V mi con s nguyn ny s i din cho tng a bn nghin cu, nh Qun 1 c chuyn thnh 1, qun 2 l 2, , Qun Tn Bnh l 19. i vi cch Recode ny cc gi tr nguyn thy (qun 1, qun 2, ) s c s dng nh l nhn ca gi tr c recode trong bin mi c to ra t lnh Automatic Recode. Cc gi tr dng chui c m ha theo th t alphabe. 3. La chn cc quan st (Select Cases) Cng c Select Cases a ra mt vi phng php cho php ta la chn ra nhng nhm nh cc trng hp quan st da trn tiu chun hay iu kin c th. Ta cng c th dng phng php ny la chn mt mu ngu nhin cc trng hp quan st t tng th d liu. thc hin lnh la chn cc quan st ny ta chn Data/select casest menu ta s c hp thoi nh hnh 5-5: Trong hp thoi Select Cases cc bin c lit k bn tri hp thoi, Bn phi hp thoi lit k cc dng la chn. La chn All Cases l trng thi la chn mc nh v trng thi ny c ngha l ton b cc trng hp quan st ang c la chn. Ch sau khi thc hin vic chn la cc trng hp. Cc thao tc thng k trong SPSS lc ny ch thc hin trn cc trng hp c la chn. Do sau khi thc hin vic phn tch trn cc trng hp c la chn, ta cn tr d liu li trng thi ban u (kh6ng c la chn cc trng hp) bng cch chn All Cases trong phn Select ca hp thoi Select Cases. Trong phn Unselected Cases cho bit trng thi ca cc trng hp khng c la chn. Filtered ch ra cc trng hp khng c chn vn c gi li trong tp tin nhng s b loi tr ra mi phn tch thng k. Select Cases to ra mt bin lc (FILTER_$), vi cc trng hp c chn c gi tr 1 v cc trng hp khng c chn c gi tr 0. Deleted cho php loi b ton b cc trng hp khng c chn ra khi d liu.

Hnh 5-5 nhn bit c cc trng hp no c chn hoc khng c chn ta c th nhn vo cc gi tr trong binFILTER_$, cc trng hp c chn c gi tr 1 v nhng trng hp khng c chn c gi tr 0. Hoc ta c th nhn vo mn hnh Data phn bit cc trng hp. Vi cc trng hp khng c la chn s c mt gch cho trong thanh s th t hng bn tri mn hnh (Xem hnh 20). C th dng cng c Sort Cases xp xp theo th t cc trng hp c chn hay khng c chn (Sort cases theo bin FILTER_$). tin hnh chn la cc trng hp ta c th dng cc cch sau: - La chn cng c If conditions are satisfied (xem hnh 5-6) cho php ta la chn cc trng hp da trn cc biu thc iu kin. Mt biu thc iu kin cho ta cc gi tr ng hoc sai ca cc trng hp. Nu kt qu ca biu thc iu kin l ng, trng hp c la chn. Nu kt qu ny l sai hoc thiu th cc trng hp khng c chn. V d i vi bin gii tnh (GTinh)c hai gi tr l Nam: 1 v N: 2. Ta tin hnh chn cc trng hp l Nam bng cch chn bin gii tnh trong hp bn tri v chuyn sang hp bn phi. Hin th biu thc iu kin nh sau Gtinh=1. Lc cc trng hp no tha mn iu kin Gtinh=1 s c la chn. Cc biu thc iu kin c th bao gm tn bin, cc hng s, cc ton t, cc con s, cc hm s,

Hnh 5-6 - Cng c random sample of cases (hnh 5-7) cho php chng ta la chn mt mu ngu nhin da trn mt t l phn trm hoc mt s chnh xc cc trng hp s la chn. - Cng c Base range (hnh 5-8) cho php la chn cc trng hp theo s th t hng hin th bn tri mn hnh d liu ca SPSS

Hnh 5-7

Hnh 5-8

4. Tch tp d liu (Split File) Cng c Split File cho php tch d liu trong tp d liu ang quan st thnh nhng nhm nh ring bit v sau khi thc hin lnh Split file ny cc phn tch x l thng k s cho ta cc kt qu thng k c thc hin ring bit theo tng nhm nh d liu ny.

Hnh 5-9 thc hin lnh ny ta chn Data/Split File t menu ta c hp thoi nh hnh 5-9. Vic phn tch ny da trn vic phn d liu thnh nhng nhm tng ng vi cc gi tr trong bin c la chn tin hnh phn nhm. c s dng cho vic phn tch da trn nhng gi tr ca mt hay nhiu bin c phn nhm. Nu ta la chn vic phn tch da trn nhiu bin, d liu s c nhm theo th t bin c khai bo trong hp thoi Groups Based On list. - Chn Compare groups: Cc d liu phn tch s c tch theo cc gi tr ca bin c la chn tch d liu (hin th trong hp Groups Based On list), v vic tch ny mang tnh cht so snh do khi tin hnh phn tch d liu cc phn tch da trn s phn tch ny nhng vn c th hin trn cng mt bng. - Chn Organize output by groups: Cc d liu phn tch s c tch theo cc gi tr ca bin c la chn tch d liu (hin th trong hp Groups Based On list), v vic tch ny mang tnh cht t chc li d liu thnh nhng nhm nh do khi tin

hnh phn tch d liu cc phn tch da trn s phn tch v c th hin mt cc ring bit gia cc nhm phn tch Ch sau ki tin hnh phn tch trn s phn tch, tr li trng thi bnh thng ca d liu i hi phi b i lnh tch d liu va a ra bng cch chn phn Analyze all cases, do not create groups trong hp thoi Slipt Files 5. Cng c tnh ton gia cc bin (Compute) Cng c compute c dng tnh ton gia cc gi tr trong cc bin v kt qu s c lu gi trong mt bin mi hoc l mt bin khc sn c hoc bin cha ng gi tr ang tnh ton.

Hnh 5-10 thc hin cng c ny ta truy xut cng c compute variable t transform trn thanh menu ta c hp thoi nh hnh 5-10: - Target variable cha ng tn bin s nhn gi tr c tnh. Ta c th khi bo kiu v gn nhn cho cc gi tr ca bin bng cch nhn vo thanh Type&lable. Numeric Expression cha ng cc biu thc s c dng tnh gi tr cho bin ch (bin cha ng gi tr mi, biu thc ny c th dng tn cc bin sn c, cc hng, cc ton t v cc hm s. Chng ta co th son cc biu thc tnh ton vo thng Numeric Expression, v c th s dng cc cng c c hin th trong hp thoi nh cc phim (+), (-), Function,

- Cng c if dng nh ra nhng iu kin cn thit km theo trong tnh ton nu c, c s dng ging nh ging nh cng c if trong hp thoi recode, c cp phn trn. 6. Cng c m (Count)

Hnh 5-11 Cng c ny c dng to ra mt bin mi cha kt qu s ln xut hin (s m) ca mt gi tr hay nhiu gi tr c ch nh ra trong danh sch cc bin c chn trong variables trong mi trng hp. T menus ta chnTransform/count c c hp thoi nh hnh 5-11 Mt bin mi s c to ra khi ta thc hin th tc Count gi l bin ch (Taget variable) s cha ng gi tr cng dn mi khi gp c gi tr cn m trong mt hoc nhiu bin c khai bo trc trong hp thoi Numeric variables.

Hnh 5-12

Gi tr cn m s c nh r trong phn Define values (hnh 5-12). Gi tr khai bo m c th l nhng gi tr c th nu (Value), hoc nhng gi tr rng (System missing) hoc l mt dy cc gi tr (range). Sau khi khai bo gi tr cn m ta dng thanh Add xc nhn gi tr cn m vo trong hp thoi Values to count. S dngChange hoc Remove thay th hoc loi b gi tr cn m (gi tr c nh du bng vt en). Cng c If dng xc nh cc iu kin nu c khi thc hin lnh Count (ging nh cng c if trong phn recode c cp trn). 7. Hp nht cc tp d liu (Merge files) SPSS cho php ta hp cc d liu quan st t trong mt tp d liu bn ngoi vo tp d liu ang s dng. Hoc hp cc bin mi trong tp d liu bn ngoi vo tp d liu ang hot ng. C hai u to ra mt tp d liu mi c th cha tt c cc quan st c hp li hoc tt c cc bin c hp ty theo ta chn Add Cases hay Add Variables 7.1. Thm vo cc quan st (Add Cases) Cng c Add Cases cho php ta hp d liu trong tp d liu ang hot ng vi d liu trong mt tp d liu bn ngoi, vi iu kin tp d liu phi cha cc bin ging nh bin trong tp d liu ang hot ng. Sau khi thao tc, mt tp d liu mi (cha c khai bo tn, v ta phi tin hnh lu v khai bo tn mi) s c to ra cha cc d liu trong c hai tp d liu va c hp li vi nhau. Trong trng hp hai tp d liu hp vi nhau nhng c cc bin khc nhau (khc nhau v tn bin hoc loi bin) th sau khi hp tp d liu mi s t ng loi b cc bin khc nhau ny, ta c th s b mt d liu cha trong cc bin b loi b ny. Cng c ny rt thch hp cho vic hp nht d liu nghin cu cc khu vc khc nhau, v d nh mt cuc kho st c tin hnh ba khu vc H Ni, Nng, v TP.HCM, d liu thu thp v s c nhp, chnh sa cho ba khu vc ring bit. Tuy nhin sau ta c th tin hnh hp d liu ba khu vc ny vo mt tp d liu thng nht tin hnh phn tch v x l. Ch phi thng nht v cc tn bin, loi bin v s lng bin trong c ba khu vc trc khi nhp 3 file ny li vi nhau.

Hnh 5-13 Chn Data/Merge Files/Adds Cases (Xem hnh 5-13) Hp thoi Read File cho php ta la chn tp d liu s c hp vi tp d liu ang hot ng (working file). Nhn Open xc nhn vic la chn ny

Hnh 5-14 Sau khi la chn xong tp d s c kt hp, ta s c mt hp thoi mi nh hnh 5-14: Unpaired Variables: lit k cc bin khng ging nhau gia hai tp d liu ang c tin hnh hp nht li, cc bin khng ging nhau ny s b loi ra v khng c trong tp d liu mi c to ra t vic hp nht hai tp d liu ban u. Cc bin ny c k hiu khc nhau vi k hiu (*) i din cho cc bin trong tp d liu ang hot ng v (+) i din cho cc bin trong tp d liu c truy xut t bn ngoi. Nhng bin c lit k trong hp

thoi Unpaired Variables l nhng bin c nhng c im nh sau: Hai bin c tn bin c khai bo khc nhau Nhng bin c dng d liu khc nhau

- C hai bin bin cng l dng chui nhng lai khng bng nhau v s k t trong chui. Cac bin ny nh ni s b loi b ra khi tp d liu va hp nht, iu ny ng ngha ta b mt d liu sau khi hp nht, do cn phi khc phc sai st ny bo m tnh y ca d liu sau khi hp nht. Cc bin ny s c hp li vi nhau bng cnh nh du hai bin (trong hp thoi Unpaired Variables) v nhn thanh Pair, lc d liu trong hai bin ny s c hp nht v c cha ng trong bin ly tn bin ging nh tn bin trong tp tin ang hot ng. Hoc ta c th dng cng c Rename khai bo li tn bin hoc kiu bin cho ging nhau. Hp thoi Variables in New Working Data File lit k cc bin s c trong tp tin mi c to ra t vic hp nht hai tp d liu ban u. Ton b cc bin trong hai tp tin ban u tha mn cc iu kin ging nhau v tn v loi d liu (s hoc chui) s c lit k vo hp thoi ny Chng ta cng c th loi b nhng bin m chng ta khng mun c trong tp d liu hp nht. Bng cch nh du cc bin (trong variables in new data working file) v chuyn sang Unpaired Variables 1.2. Thm vo cc bin (Add Variables) Cng c Add Variables cho php hp nht d liu trong tp tin ang hot ng vi mt tp tin bn ngoi vi iu kin tp tin bn ngoi ny phi cha ng cng cc quan st vi tp tin ang s dng, nhng khc nhau v bin (khai bo tn bin khc vi tp tin ang c s dng), qu trnh ny s to ra mt tp d liu mi cha cng cc quan st nhng tp hp tt c cc bin khc nhau trong hai tp d liu ban u. Cng c ny thch hp vi cc cuc nghin cu c chia lm nhiu giai on. V d nh nghin cu v mc nh hng ca mt chng trnh qung co, ngi ta thng nghin cu mt s i tng ngi tr li v

sn phm xp c qung co trc khi tung chng trnh qung co ra th trng, gi l Pre-test. Sau s tin hnh mt cuc nghin cu na trn ng cc i tng sau khi chng trnh qung co c tung ra th trng, ta gi l Post-test. Phn tch thng k i hi mt s so snh (nh Paired-sample t test) cc kin ca nhng ngi tiu dng ny trc v sau khi c chng trnh qung co. thc hin cng vic ny cn ch nhng im sau: - Cc quan st (Cases) trong c hai tp tin cn hp nht bin phi c xp xp theo cng mt th t, thng thng th t ny c qun l bng mt tp tin cha cc gi tr l s bng cu hi. Ch cc bng cu hi ca i tng nghin cu trong ln phng vn trc phi ging vi s bng cu hi dng phng vn chnh i tng trong ln sau. Khi loi b bng cu hi no ca ln phng vn trc hoc sau ta phi loi b lun bng cu hi trc khi tin hnh hp nht. - Thng thng ta dng mt hay nhiu bin kha bo m cc trng hp khp vi nhau (thng s dng bin ID cha s bng cu hi). iu phi bo m trc khi tin hnh hp nht bin gia hai tp d liu ny l ta phi xp xp d liu trong hai bin kha ca hai tp d liu theo th t t nh n ln. - Cc bin c tn ging nhau trong tp tin ang hot ng vo tp tin bn ngoi s b loi tr khi tp tin mi c to.

Hnh 5-15 T tp d liu ang thao tc ta m cng c Data/Merge Files/Adds Variables t menu, SPSS s truy sut hp thoiAdd Variables: Read File ta la chn tp d liu s c hp vi tp d liu ang hot

ng. Nhn Open xc nhn vic la chn ny (ging nh trng hp Adds Cases - Xem hnh 5-13). Sau khi la chn c tp d liu s hp bin vi tp d liu ang hot ng. SPSS s truy sut cho ta hp thoi nh hnh 5-15. - Excluded Variables lit k cc bin s b loi tr ra khi bin mi hp thnh. Nhng bin ny l nhng bin c tn bin ging nhau. Bin trong tp tin ang hot ng c k hiu l (*), v nhng bin trong tp tin bn ngoi l(+). Nu mun cc bin ging tn nhau ny c trong tp d liu mi ta phi tin hnh rename n li v chuyn n sang hp thoi cha cc bin s c trong tp tin mi (New Working Data File) - Key Variables. Bin kha da vo cc quan st ging nhau c xc nh. Ch bin kha ny phi c cng tn cc hai tp tin cn hp nht. Cc trng hp khng tha mn vi bin kha th vn bao hm trong tp d liu mi nhng s khng c hp vi cc trng hp trong tp tin khc. Nhng trng hp ny ch cha ng gi tr ring bit ca tp d liu m n bao hm t trc (trc khi tin hnh hp nht) v cc trng hp ny s c gi tr khuyt trong cc bin cha ng trong tp tin th hai m ta s hp nht.
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CHNG 6: X L V PHN TCH D LIU 1. Kim tra d liu (Explore) Cng vic u tin rt quan trng v cn phi thc hin mt cch cn thn trc khi i vo cc bc m t hay cc phn tch thng k phc tp sau ny l tin hnh xem xt d liu mt cch cn thn. SPSS cung cp cho cng c Explore xem xt v kim tra d liu: Pht hin cc sai st

- Nhn dng d liu tm phng php phn tch thch hp v chun b cho vic kim tra gi thuyt nhn dng v pht hin sai st trong d liu, ta c ba cch hin th d liu nh sau Biu Histogram S cnh v l Stem-and-leaf plot S hp Boxplot

c lng cc gi nh c dng cho vic kim nghim cc gi thuyt, ta dng cc php kim tra sau: Kim tra levene: Kim tra tnh ng u ca phng sai

- Kim tra K-S Lilliefors: Kim tra tnh chun tc ca tng th, xem d liu c c ly t mt phn b chun hay khng Chng ta thng dng gi tr trung bnh s hc c lng hi t ca d liu. Tuy nhin v gi tr trung bnh b nh hng bi tt c cc gi tr quan st. gim thiu nhng nh hng ca cc gi tr bt thng (qu ln hoc qu b), ngi ta thng loi b cc gi tr ln nht v cc gi tr nh nht (Outliers) theo cng mt t l no . Khi gia tr trung bnh c gi l gi tr trung bnh gin lc (Timmed-mean). Mt cch lm khc l gn cc trng s khc nhau cho cc gi tr quan st ty theo khong cch ca n n gi tr trung bnh, cng xa trng s cng nh. Cc trong s ny gi l M-estimators. C 4 loi trng s l Huber, Turkey, Hampel, v Andrew. Da vo trng s ny ta c lng li gi tr trung bnh cho d liu. kim tra d liu, chn trn menu Statistic/Summarize/Explore m hp thoi Explore nh Hnh 6-1: Hnh 6-1 Cc bin trong tp d liu xut hin trong hp bn tri. Chn mt hay nhiu bin a vo Depende nt list, cc bin cn quan st s c lit k rong ny. Chng ta cng c th tch cc quan st thnh cc nhm nh ring bit kim tra da vo cc gi tr ca cc bin kim sot s c a vo Factor List. V d nh kim tra bin mc nh gi ni chung da vo bin nhn hiu ang s dng. C th ln ra cc quan st ny bng cch gn nhn cho n bng ga tr ca mt bin no , bin ny s c a vo trong label cases by.

V d mun bit nhng gi tr di thng trong bin mc nh gi ni chung theo nhn hiu TV ang dng. Ta gn nhn cho cc quan st ny bng cc gi tr trong bin s bng cu hi. Lc ny nu c cc gi tr d thng ta d dng ln ra n bng s bng cu hi km theo Display, cho php chng ta chn cch hin th kt qu, cc tham s thng k (Statistic), hoc th (Plot), SPSS mc nh l hin th c hai S dng cng c Statistics cho php ta la chn cc thng k hin th nh hp thoi Hnh 6-2: Hnh 6-2 - Descriptives: Cho php ta hin th cc gi tr thng k nh gi tr trung bnh, khong tin cy, trung v, trung bnh gin lc, gi tr nh nht, ln nht, khong bin thin, cc bch phn v trung bnh theo 4 loi trng s - Outliers: Hin th cc quan st c 5 gi tr nh nht v 5 gi tr ln nht, gi lExtreme Values Percentiles: Hin th cc gi tr bch v phn M-estimators: Hin th cc gi tr

Hnh 6-3 S dng cng c Plots (Hnh 6-3), la chn hin th dng th (Histogram), biu chnh tc, cc php kim tra v phn phi chun, tnh ng u ca phng sai

- Boxplots: iu kin hin th ca Boxplots l ta phi ang quan st nhiu hn mt bin ph thuc (hin th trong dependent list). o Factor levels together a ra mt hin th ring bit cho mi bin ph thuc. Trong phm vi mt hin th, Boxplots c hin th cho mi mt nhm c phn ra theo gi tr ca bin iu khin (factor variable). Dependents together a ra mt hin th ring bit theo mi nhm c phn theo cc gi tr trong bin iu khin. Trong phm vi ca hin th, boxplots c a ra ln lt cho mi bin ph thuc - Descriptive: Cho php la chn hin th dng th Histogram hay dng cnh l (stem-and-leaf plots) - Normality plots with tests. a ra cc dng th v phn phi chun. ng thi cung cp mt kim nghim thng k Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic, vi mc tin cy Lilliefors dng kim nghin tnh chun ca phn phi mu ang quan st. Mt kim nghim khc l thng k Shapiro-Wilk c s dng cho mu c kch c nh hn hoc bng 50 mu. - Spread vs. Level with Levene Test. Cho php chng ta kim tra tnh ng u ca phng sai gia cc mu trong d liu gc hay d liu c bin i. thc hin php thng k Levene i hi phi c khai bo bin iu khin trong khun Factor lists, Thng thng ta thng lm vic trn d liu gc do la chn Untransformed trong khung Spread vs Level with Levene test. Kim nghim Kolmogorov-Smirnov (Lilliefors) Kim nghim Lilliefors l mt dng kim nghim Kolmogorov-Smirnov, dng kim nghim tnh chun tc ca mt mu hay hai mu. Vi gi tr sig. nh hn mc ngha (0.05) l kt qu bc b gi thuyt phn phi mu l phn phi chun. Php kim nghip Shapiro-Wilk ch dng trong nhng trng hp s mu nh hn 40. Kim nghim Levene Trc khi i vo cc kim nghim trung bnh ta cn phi tham kho mt kim nghim khc m kt qu ca n l rt quan trng cho cc kim nghim trung bnh sau ny. Kim nghim Levene l php kim nghim tnh ng nht ca phng sai. y ta kim nghim gi thuyt cho rng phng sai ca gia cc mu quan st l bng nhau. Kim nghim cho ta kt qu Sig. nh hn mc tin cy (5%) ta kt lun

khng chp nhn gi thuyt cho rng phng sai mu th bng nhau. Ch trong mt s kim nghim nh ANOVA, kim nghim t, i hi phi kim nghim thng k Levene trc xc nh tinh cn bng hay khng cn bng ca cc phng sai mu. Kt qu ny s nh hng n vic la chn cc kim nghim trung bnh khc (Kim nghip trung bnh vi phng sai mu bng nhau hoc kim nghim trung bnh vi phng sai mu khng bng nhau). 2. Lp bng phn b tn sut cho bin mt tr li (Frequencies) Cng c Frequencies s dng cc tham s thng k m t cho nhiu loi bin, y cng l mt cng c hu ch ta kho st d liu tm li cho d liu. Chng ta c th kho st d liu thng qua cc cng c nh: Tn sut xut hin, phn trm, phn trm tch ly. Ngoi ra n cn cung cp cho ta cc php o lng thng k nh tp trung (central tendency measurement), phn tn (dispersion), t phn v (Quartiles) v cc bch phn v (percentiles), phn phi d liu (distribution). Lp bng ny ngoi vic tm tt d liu, n cn gip ta pht hin nhng sai st trong d liu nh, nhng gi tr bt thng (qu ln hay qu nh) c th lm sai lch kt qu phn tch thng k, nhng gi tr m ha bt thng do sai st vic nhp liu hay m ha tin hnh lp bng n ta chn c Statistic/sumarize/frequencies ta c hp thoi nh Hnh 6-4: cng

Hnh 6-4

Chuyn bin cn m t sang hp thoi variable(s, ta c th la chn nhiu bin cn quan st cng mt lc. Cng c Charts c dng v th cho d liu, v cng c Format c s dng nh ra kiu hin th ca d liu, theo th t tng dn hoc gim dn.

Hnh 6-5 Cng c statistics truy sut hp thoi nh Hnh 6-5. Trong hp thoi statistics ny s bao gm cc cng c o lng cc gi tr thng k ca d liu nh v tr tng i ca cc nhm gi tr hay cn gi l cc phn v, mt tp trung v phn tn ca d liu, nhng c tnh v phn phi ca d liu (Distribution)
- Gi

tr bch phn v (percentile values): c dng xc nh cc ranh gii tng i ca cc nhm t mu quan st, iu lu l d liu cn quan st c xp xp thep th t t thp n cao. o Ta c cng c phn nhnh d liu thnh 4 phn bng nhau gi l t phn v (quartiles). o Hoc ta c th chia d liu theo cc phn bng nhau c th bng cch g s phn mun chia vo cng c cuts points for equal groups. o Hoc ta c th xem gi tr phn nhnh c th no t cng c percentile(s). S dng thanh Add xc nhn s th t phn v cn quan st, s dng thanh Remove v Change loi b hoc thay i s xc nhn ban u.

V d nh i vi bin cha cc cu tr li trc tip v s tui ca ngi tr li trong mt cuc kho st dn s (tui ngi tr li c ghi trc tip t 18 89 tui) ta c th dng cng c phn v d liu phn cc tui ny thnh cc nhm nh, v d nh ta phn cc tui ny bng phng php t phn v (quartiles). Lc tui ca ngi tr li s c phn thnh 4 phn sao cho mi nhm tui c phn chim 25% s ln xut hin (tn sut xut hin). - c tnh phn phi (Distribution): C hai i lng o lng nhng c tnh ca s phn phi d liu l (1) H s i xng Skewness (Cs) cho ta bit dng phn phi ca cc gi tr quan st Standard Error of Skewness c th c s dng kim nghim tnh phn phi chun. Mt phn phi Skewness khng c xem l phn phi chun khi Statndard error ca n nh hn 2 hoc ln hn 2. Mt gi tr dng ln ca Statndard error cho thy nhnh ca phn phi ny di qua bn phi v ngc li mt tr m ch ra nhnh ca phn phi ny di qua bn tri - Cs = 0: Cc quan st c phn phi mt cc i xng xung quanh gi tr trung bnh - Cs > 0: Cc quan st tp trung ch yu vo cc gi tr nh nht - Cs < 0: Cc quan st tp trung ch yu vo cc gi tr ln nht (2) H s tp trung Kurtosis (Cc) dng so snh ng cong quan st vi dng ng cong phn phi chun. Standard Error of Kurtosis c th c s dng kim nghim tnh phn phi chun. Mt phn phi Kurtosis khng c xem l phn phi chun khi Statndard error ca n nh hn 2 hoc ln hn 2. Mt gi tr dng ln ca Statndard error cho ta bit hai nhnh ca phn phi ny di hn nhnh ca phn phi chun v ngc li mt tr m ch ra hai nhnh ca phn phi ngn hn phn phi chun - Cc > 0: Cho thy xu hng tp trung mnh ca cc quan st xung quanh gi tr trung bnh Cc < 0: Cho thy ng cong c dng hp hn. 3. Lp bng m t (Descriptive)

Hnh 6-6 S dng Statisticts\Summaries\Descriptives m hp thoi m t thng k nh Hnh 6-6

Hnh 6-7 y l mt dng cng c khc c th c dng tm tc d liu v ch cho php thao tc trn dng d liu nh lng (thang o khong cch v t l). c dng th hin xu hng tp trung ca d liu (central tendency) thng qua gi tr trung bnh ca cc gi tr trong bin (mean), v m t s phn tn ca d liu thng qua phng sai v lch chun. Chuyn cc bin cn tm tc vo hp thoi variables v nhp thanh options la chn cc thng s thng k cn m t, nh gi tr trung bnhmean, gi tr ti thiu, gi tr ti a, phng sai v lch chun, (Hnh 6-7) 4. Lp bng nhiu chiu cho cc bin mt tr li (Crosstabs)

Hnh 6-8 Bng nhiu chiu l dng bng cho th hin tn sut xut hin ca mt bin ny trong mi quan h vi mt hay nhiu bin khc. Bng cho cn cung cp nhiu loi kim nghim thng k v o lng mi quan h v tng quan gia cc bin trong bng. Cu trc ca bng v loi d liu (loi thang ) s quyt nh loi cng c no c s dng o lng. Ngoi vic th hin mi lin h gia cc bin. Bng nhiu chiu cn gip ta pht hin nhng sai st trong d liu t vic pht hin ra nhng mi quan h v l v bt thng gia hai bin. Chn trn menuStatistics/Summaries/Crosstabs m hp thoi nh Hnh 6-8. Cc bin trong tp d liu c hin th bn hp bn tri. Chn cc bin hng a vo hp Row(s) v cc bin ct a vo hp Column(s). Thng thng bin ph thuc hay bin cn quan st thng c a v hng (rows) v bin c lp hay bin kim sot c a v ct (columns). Vic la chn cc phn tch theo cc t l phn trm, %row v %column cng nh %total tu thuc vo yu cu nghin cu. Ngoi ra, chng ta c th a thm vo bng cho cc lp bin iu khin (layer) to ra cc bng bin cho nhiu chiu. Mi bng cho ring bit s c to ra ng vi mi gi tr ca mi bin iu khin. Mi lp iu khin s chia bng cho thnh nhiu nhm nh hn. C th thm ti a 8 bin iu khin, dng cc thanh Next v previous di chuyn gia cc bin iu khin ny. Vic a vo cc bin iu khin ny cho php ta xem xt cc mi quan h m lc ban u khng th thy ngay. Cc cng

c thng k s cho ra cc kt qu ring bit i vi tng gi tr ca bin iu khin. Cng c Cells trong hp thoi cho php ta tnh ton cc h s o lng mi quan h gia cc bin nh % hng, % ct, % Total. Cng c Exact cung cp cho chng ta hai phng php tnh ra mc tin cy cho cc php kim nghim s dng trong bng cho, hoc cc php th phi tham s (nonparametric). Hai phng php ny bao gm phng php Exact v phng php Monte Carlo c s dng nh cng c thu c nhng kt qu chnh xc trong trng hp d liu ca chng ta khng p ng c nhng gi thuyt cn thit cho mt kt qu ng tin cy khi s dng phng php tim cn tiu chun (Standard asymptonic) phng php m km theo n d liu ca chng ta i hi phi tho mn nhng iu kin sau: - D liu s dng c phn phi chun, hoc kch c mu phi ln (n>=30) - Khng tn ti tn sut mong mun no ca bt k gi tr no trong bng cho nh hn 5.

Hnh 6-9 i vi trng hp d liu khng gp c nhng yu cu nh trn. Phng php exact hoc Monte Carlo v tin cy lun lun cho ta kt qu ng tin cy m khng cn quan tm n kch c mu, phn phi ca cc quan st cng nh s cn bng ca d liu (cn bng v s lng cc gi tr khc nhau trong bin). Chn cng c Exact trong hp thoi Crosstabs ta c hp thoi con nh Hnh 6-9. SPSS mc nh l s dng phng php tim cn thng thng (Asymptotic). Nu ta s dng phng php exact hoc mote carlo xc nh tnh tin cy th cn ch cc im sau:

- Nu ta la chn phng php Monte Carlo, g khong tin cy mong mun vo cng c Confidence level, ng thi cho bit kch c mu c s dng. S dng phng php cho ta kt qu nhanh hn phng php exact. - Nu la chn phng php Exact, nhp vo thi gian gii hn ti a cho vic tnh ton cho mi php th. Nu mt php kim nghim vt qu thi gian gii hn ti a 30 pht, cch tt hn nn s dng l Moten Carlo.

Hnh 6-10 Cng c Statistics cho php ta tnh cc kim nghim gi thuyt v tnh c lp ca cc bin, v mi lin h gia cc cc bin, h s tng quan, cng nh o lng cc mi quan h . (Xem Hnh 6-10)

Cc kim nghim thng k kim nghim mi quan h v tng quan gia cc bin s dng trong bng cho
Kim nghip Chi-square: - L mt cng c thng k s dng kim nghip gi thuyt cho rng cc bin trong hng v ct th c lp vi nhau (H 0). Phng php kim nghim ny ch cho ta bit c liu mt bin ny c quan h hay khng vi mt bin khc, tuy nhin phng php kim nghip ny khng ch ra cng ca mi quan h gia hai bin mnh hay yu (nu c quan h), cng nh khng ch ra hng thun hay nghch ca mi quan h ny (nu c quan h). - kim nghip tnh c lp gia hai bin ct v hng, kim nghip Chi-square s cho ra cc kt qu kim nghip nh sau: Pearson chi-square, likelihood-ratio chi-square, and linear-by-linear

association chi-square mi ci s c s dng trong nhng trng hp c th - Theo nh ngha hai bin trong bng l c lp vi nhau nu nh xc sut sao cho mt trng hp quan st(case) ri vo mt trng hp c th (v d nh gii tnh l Nam v ang tht nghip) l c to ra t cc xc sut bin (xc sut ct v xc sut hng). V d ta c xc sut mt i tng quan st l tht nghip l 35/923. V xc sut i tng quan st l Nam gii l 452/923. Do hai bin l c lp, theo l thuyt xc sut mt trng hp quan st va l Nam gii va l Tht nghip th xc sut trong trng hp ny phi l (452/923) x (35/923) v bng 0.018. Xc sut ny s c s dng c lng (estimate) s lng cc trng hp quan st mong i trong tng phn giao nhau gia hai bin trn bng cho di iu kin hai bin l c lp vi nhau. Do tnh ton c s lng quan st mong i l Nam gii v tht nghip ta ch vic nhn xc sut va tm c vi tng s mu quan st (0.018 x 923). (Xem bng pha cho pha di)

kim nghim tnh c lp gia hai bin, ngi ta s dng phn phi ngu nhin Chi bnh phng ( 2) vi tham s thng k Pearson chi bnh

phng tin hnh so snh s lng cc trng hp quan st c vi s lng cc trng hp mong i bng cng thc sau:

- Khi kt qu thng k Chi bnh phng ( 2) ln (Da vo l thuyt phn phi Chi bnh phng vi tin cy xc nh, kch c mu l n, bt t do-degree of freedom l df=(r-1)(c-1)) ta c th kt lun bc b gi thuyt c lp gia hai bin (H0). Hoc s dng gi tr P (P-value hay Asymtotic Significance) so snh vi mc ngha (Significance level) thng l = 0.05 tng ng vi 95% tin cy, ta c th kt lun bc b H0 khi p-value nh hn hoc bng mc ngha v ngc li chp nhn H0 khi p-value ln hn mc ngha. - Tuy nhin vic kim nghim ny l ng tin cy th cc s liu trong bng cho gia hai bin ang kho st phi tha mn mt s iu kin nht nh sau: o Khng tn ti bt k giao nhau gia hai bin c gi tr mong i nh hn 1. o Khng vt qu 20% lng giao nhau gia hai bin ang kho st trong bng cho c gi tr nh hn 5 (i vi bng 2x2-bng m mi bin trong bng cho ch c hai gi tr, phn trm gii hn ny l 0%)

Nu khng tha mn cc iu kin trn ta phi tin hnh loi b bt cc gi tr trong mt bin m d liu giao nhau ca n l khng ng k (qu nh) - kim nghim tnh c lp gia hai bin ct v hng trong bng cho, kim nghip Chi-square s cho ra cc kt qu kim nghip khc nhau nh sau: Pearson chi-square, likelihood-ratio chi-square, v linear-by-linear association chi-square. - Thng thng xc nh mi quan h gia hai bin trong bng cho, vic s dng ch s no kim nghim tch c lp gia hai bin ph thuc vo s lng ct v hng trong bng, s mu nghin cu, tn sut xut hin mong mun ca mt gi tr trong bin trong

iu kin ca bin khc, dng o lng ca cc bin trong bng (dng thang o). Ta c: o Da vo cc h s Pearson Chi-square v Likelihood Ratio ta c th kim nghip mi lin h gia hai bin m khng cn quan tm n s lng hng v ct trong bng. o Hoc ta c th dng ch s Linear-by-linear association khi m cc bin trong bng l bin nh lng. o i vi dng bng cho c hai ct v hai dng (2X2 tables) mi bin trong bng ch c hai gi tr, ta dng cc ch s Yates corrected chi-square hay cn gi l Continuity Correction nh gi mi tng quan gia hai bin trong bng. o S dng ch s Fishers exact test khi m s mu nghin cu v cc gi tr mong i nh, thng thng ta s s dng ch s ny khi mu trong bng nh hn hoc bng 20 hoc tn sut xut hin mong mun trong mt phn giao nhau gia hai bin trong bng (cell) nh hn 5. - kt lun mi lin h gia hai bin l c lp hay ph thuc vo nhau (c hay khng c tng quan) ngi ta da vo Asymptotic Significance vi s mu ln hoc phn phi l phn phi chun. y l ch s thng k o lng vi mc ngha (thng l 5%) nhm a ra kt lun phn bt hay chp nhn gi thuyt ban u (Hai bin l c lp vi nhau). Ta c th kt lun gia hai bin tn ti mt mi quan h vi nhau khi m Asym. Sig. nh hn mc ngha v ngc li. - i vi kim nghim Chi-square ta ch c th xc nh gia hai bin c hay khng tn ti mt mi quan h. Tuy nhin o lng cng ca cc mi quan h ny i hi cc cng c thng k khc s c cp sau y. Correlation: - Dng o lng mi tng quan gia hai bin th t hoc khong cch. Vic o lng mi tng quan gia hai bin th t ny ch yu d vo hai h s Spearmans correlation coefficient rho v Pearson correlation coefficient. Trong :

o Spearmans rho c dng o lng mi quan h gia hai bin th t (cc bin ny hu ht u c xp xp t thp nht n cao nht). o Khi cc bin trong bng l cc bin nh lng ta s dng h s Pearson correlation coefficient o lng mi quan h tuyn tnh gia cc bin ny. - Cc gi tr ca h s tng quan bin thin t 1 n 1, du cng hoc tr ch ra hng tng quan gia cc bin (thun hay nghch), gi tr tuyt i ca ch s ny cho bit cng tng quan gia hai bin, gi tr ny cng ln mi tng quan cng mnh. Mt s o lng mi tng quan khc gia hai bin Gia hai bin nh danh: - o lng mi quan h gia hai bin biu danh. S dng cc h s Phi (coefficient) v Crawsmrs V, Contingency coefficient o lng nu da vo kt qu kim nghim Chibnh phng. y cc h s ny s bng 0 nu v ch nu h s Pearson chi bnh phng bng 0. Do ngi ta s dng cc thng s ny kim nghim gi thuyt cho rng cc h s ny u bng 0 - iu ny tng ng vi gi thuyt c lp gia hai bin, hay hai bin khng c m quan h vi nhau. Ta s t chi gi thuyt ny . - Phi: Ch dng cho dng bng 2x2 tables, h s phi coefficient ny bin thin t -1 n +1. Do h s ny ngoi kh nng ch ra mi quan h v cng ca mi quan h n cn ch ra hng ca mi quan h . - Cramer's V v Contingency coefficient (h s ngu hin): c s dng cho bng m s ct v hng l bt k, gi tr kim nghim bin thin t 0 n 1, vi gi tr 0 ch ra khng c mi quan h gia cc bin. - Ngoi ra cn c cc h s o lng trc tip nh Lambda (symmetric and asymmetric lambdas and Goodman and Kruskals tau), v Uncertainty coefficient. L cc o lng khng da vo gi tr Chi-square tnh ton, v khng quan tm n tnh i xng ca phn phi chun. Cc gi tr ca h s ny cng bin thin t 0 1 v c dng o lng kh nng d bo ca mt bin (bin c lp) i vi mt bin khc

(bin ph thuc). Vi gi tr 0 nhn c c ngha rng nhng kin thc v bin c lp khng gip ch g cho vic d bo nhng kh nng xy ra ca bin ph thuc, v gi tr 1 cho bit khi ta bit c nhng thng tin v bin c lp th n s gip ta xc nh c mt cch hon ho cc kh nng xy ra cho bin ph thuc. - Vic la chn bin no l bin c lp v bin no l bin ph thuc ty thuc vo vn c th m ta ang kho st - H s Asymptotic Std. Error c th c dng nh ra khong tin cy (95%) cho cc tham s o lng (Value +(-) 2*Asymptotic std. Error) S dng Odds Ratio cho bng hai ct hai hng (2x2 tables) - o lng mi tng quan gia hai bin cho loi bng ny ngi ta c th s dng cc kt qu thng k Yates corrected chi bnh phng v Fishers exact test. Cc kt qu ny c dng kim nghim gi thuyt cho rng cc t l gia cc gi tr trong hai bin ny l ngang bng nhau (v d nh t l ngi nam i bo tng th ngang bng vi t l ngi n i bo tng), tng t vi cc kt qu thng k chi bnh phng khc ta s t chi gi thuyt H0 khi p-value nh hn mc tin cy. - Ngoi phng php trn ta cn c th s dng phng php odds ratio v relative risk o lng mi lin h gia hai c tnh. Thng thng mt trong hai c tnh xut hin trc (v d nh bin cha c tnh c ht thuc hay khng) v sau l s dn n mt c tnh khc xut hin theo sau (v d bin cha c tnh c b bnh lao phi hay khng). Ta gi bin cha c tnh xut hin trc l bin nhn t (factor) v bin theo sau l bin s kin (event). Ta c hai phng php tnh nh sau: (1) Relative risk: Bin s kin Yes Yes No a c No b d T l ri ro T l ri ro risk tng i Relative risk a/(a+b) a(c+d) c/(c+d) c(a+b)

Phng php ny bt u vi bin nhn t v theo sau ta m s mi s kin xut hin trong mi nhm nhn t. T l ri ro c tnh ring bit cho tng nhm nhn t v t l ri ro tng ng l t s gia hai t l ri ro ca tng nhm nhn t (2) Odds ratio: Bin nhn t Yes No Yes a c No b d odds a/b c/d T l odds ad cb

Phng php ny bt u vi bin s kin. Vi mt s kin (v d b bnh lao phi) th t l gia ngi ht thuc i vi ngi khng ht thuc l bao nhiu, gi l odd. Sau ta lp t l cc odds ny. - C hai phng php ny u c cch kim nghip kt qu ging nhau. C T l Odds v relative risk u nhn gi tr 1 khi cc t l ny l ging nhau. V kim nghim gi thuyt ban u cho rng cc t s ny l nh nhau (H0) - t chi hay chp nhn ta da vo khong tin cy (95%) xem xem gi tr 1 c nm trong khong tin cy hay khng. Nu gi tr 1 khng nm trong khong tin cy 95% ta t chi gi thuyt H0, v c th xem gi tr trong (value) l t s din gii. Nu gi tr 1 nm trong khong tin cy 95%, khng cn quan tm n cc gi tr trong ct value, bi v kim nghim cho ta kt qu chp nhn gi thuyt hai t l odds hoc relative ca hai gi tr l nh nhau - Ch phng php Odds ratio lun lun ly t s odd hng th nht chia cho hng th hai, v s kin cn quan tm lun lun nm ct th nht. Cn i vi phng php Relative risk bt c ct no cng c th i din cho s kin cn quan tm (SPSS s a ra cc kt qu khc nhau c lng cho mi ci Dng Kappa o lng s ng gia hai bin trong mt bng c cng s lng hng v ct

- Kappa dng o lng mc ng gia nhng o lng ca hai nhm nh gi i vi cng mt tiu ch no . Gi tr 1 ch ra s hon ton ng gia hai nhm, gi tr 0 ch ra s ng ch l mt s ngu hin.Hoc ta dng p-value kim nghim gi thuyt ban u H0 cho rng cc gi tr o lng ny l bng khng. Kappa ch thch ng vi nhng bng m cc bin c s dng trong bng c cng s gi tr trong bin. o lng mi tng quan gia cc bin th t v bin nh lng (1) Nominal by Interval: Dng o lng mi tng quan gia bin biu danh v bin nh lng trong bng cho. S dng h s Eta. (2) Correlation: Dng o lng mi tng quan gia hai bin th t hoc khong cch. Vic o lng mi tng quan gia hai bin th t ny ch yu d vo hai h s Spearmans correlation coefficient rhov Pearson correlation coefficient. Trong Spearmans rho c dng o lng mi quan h gia hai bin th t (cc bin ny hu ht u c xp xp t thp nht n cao nht). Khi cc bin trong bng l cc bin nh lng ta s dng h s Pearson correlation coefficient o lng mi quan h tuyn tnh gia cc bin ny. Cc gi tr ca h s tng quan bin thin t 1 n 1, du cng hoc tr ch ra hng tng quan gia cc bin (thun hay nghch), gi tr tuyt i ca ch s ny cho bit cng tng quan gia hai bin, gi tr ny cng ln mi tng quan cng mnh. (3) Ordinal: Dng o lng mi tng quan gia cc bin trong bng cho trong cc bin ct v dng l cc bin th t, bao gm cc h s sau: (1) Somers' d: o lng mi tng quan phi i xng gia hai bin th t, gi tr bin thin t 1 n 1. (2) Gamma: o lng mi tng quan i xng gia hai bin th t, gi tr bin thin t 1 n 1. (3) Kendall's tau-b v Kendall's tau-c: o lng cc mi quan h phi tham s gia hai bin th t, bin thin t 1 1 Phn ny c th xem thm v d trong phn ph lc 5. Lp bng cho bin nhiu tr li

5.1. nh ngha nhm bin nhiu tr li (define multi response sets) Trong cu hi nhiu tr li s bao gm nhiu bin cha ng cc tr li c th c, nhng bin ny gi l bin s cp. Do x l, chng ta phi gp cc bin s cp ny thnh mt bin gp cha cc bin s cp. Sau trong cc phn tch thng k lin quan n cu hi nhiu tr li, chng ta s dng bin gp ny thay th cho tt c cc bin s cp. Bin gp cha ng ton b cc gi tr trong cc bin s cp ca mt cu hi nhiu tr li. V d nh cu hi v nhn bit sn phm, ngi tra li c th lit k ra nhiu nhn hiu m h bit, do ta phi khai bo lng bin cha ng cc nhn hiu c lit k t ngi tr li, y l cc bin s cp. Tuy nhin khi x l ta khng th x l ring bit cc bin ny, v n khng i din y cho tt c cc nhn hiu c nhn bit. Do khi tin hnh phn tch cu hi nhn bit sn phm ny ta phi tin hnh gp cc bin s cp thnh mt bin gp cha ng tt c cc nhn hiu c lit k.

Hnh 6-11 tin hnh gp cc bin s cp ny ta chn menu Statistics/Multiple Response/Define sets m hp thoiDefine Multiple Response Sets nh Hnh 6-11. Chn tt c nhng bin s cp lin quan n mt cu hi nhiu tr li hp thoi Set Definition bn tri chuyn sang hp thoi Variables in Set bn phi, v d ta c 10 bin n cha ng cc nhn hiu c nhn bit, ta phi chn tt c 10 bin ny t hp thoi Set Definition v chuyn sang hp thoi Variable in Set. Sau ch nh cch m ha cc bin (dichotomy hay category); dy gi tr m ha (Range Through) xc nh khong bin thin cho cc gi tr trong

bin gp; xc nh tn v gn nhn cho bin gp. Sau n thanh Add a tn nhm va xc nh vo hp Multi Response Sets. Sau khi tin hnh khai bo bin gp xong mi s l phn tch cc bin nhiu tr li s c tin hnh trn cc bin gp c khai bo trong Multi Response Sets. Trong khung Variable Are Code As, chng ta c th chn mt hay hai mc sau y ty theo phng php m ha: - Dichotomies: y l trng thi mc nh, v chng ta nhp gi tr cn m vo hp Counted Value. Kt qu ch hin th duy nht gi tr m va khai bo - Category: Mi bin s cp c nhiu hn hai gi tr, v chng ta nhp cc gi tr nh nht v ln nht ca dy gi tr m ha vo cc Range v thourgh (nn khai bo mt khong cch cng rng cng tt) Chng ta t tn cho nhm a bin (ti a 7 k t) v nhn (ti a 40 k t) vo cc hp Name v Label. Lu l tn ca cc nhm a bin ch c s dng trong cc th tc x l bin nhiu tr li m thi. loi b v sa i vic nh ngha mt nhm bin a tr li no ta di chuyn vt sng n tn nhm v nhn thanh remove loi b v thanh Change thay i. 5.2. Lp bng cho bin nhiu tr li tin hnh lp bng cho cc bin nhiu tr li, ta s dng cc tn nhm a bin c nh ngha bng cng c Define Multi Response Sets c cp phn trn sau vo Statistics\Multiple response v chn Frequencies hoc Crosstabs ty theo nhu cu lp bng mt chiu hay a chiu. Tuy nhin trong cc cng c Frequencies v Crosstabs s dng cho bin nhiu tr li ch m t tn sut xut hin ca cc gi tr trong bin gp v cc t l % nhng khng c cc phng php kim nghim thng k km theo. 6. Custom Table Ngoi ra khi chng ta tin hnh lp bng m t thng k cho kt qu cui cng ca vn nghin cu c th dng cc cng c trong statistics\custom table to ra cc bng biu, c th l bng mt chiu, bng nhiu chiu hoc cc bng biu m t thng k ty theo yu cu ca vn nghin cu.

Cc loi bng ny cho php ta to ra cc bng biu p hn. Tuy nhin ngoi vic truy sut cc gi tr m, t l phn trm th n khng cung cp thm cho ta phng php kim nghim thng k no khc km theo - Bng biu th hin tn s xut hin (Tables of frequencies): Cho php chng ta to ra nhng bng biu th hin tn s xut hin ca mt hay nhiu bin n - Dng bng biu c bn (Basic tables): Th hin cc d liu nghin cu theo dng bng cho (cross-tabulation) gia hai bin hoc gia mt bin v mt nhm cc bin. - Dng bng a bin (Multiple response tables): Ging nh basic tables th hin tn sut xut hin v bng cho, tuy nhin dng bng biu ny cho php ta xy dng bng biu cho cc cu tr li a bin - Dng bng biu tng hp (General tables): Ging nh bng biu c bn v a tr li. Cc d liu c th hin di dng bng cho, tuy nhin dng bng biu ny cho php ngi phn tch th hin mi lin h gia mt bin vi nhiu bin khc trn cng mt bng. 7. So snh cc gi tr trung bnh C nhiu php kim nghip c s dng trong SPSS: Nu so snh gi tr trung bnh ca mu vi mt gi tr c nh no ta s dng php kim nghim t mt mu (One-sample t test). Nu so snh gi tr trung bnh ca mt nhm cc trng hp quan st vi mt nhm quan st khc, ta s dng kim nghim t mu c lp (Independent-sapmles t test). so snh gi tr trung bnh ca hai bin c kho st t cng mt mu ta s dng kim nghip t theo tng cp mu (Pairedsamples t test). Hoc vi trng hp ta c nhiu hn hai mu c lp cn kim nghim trung bnh, ta c th dng ANOVA mt chiu (One-way ANOVA). Vi cc trng hp trn, hoc cc bin c kim nghim trung bnh i hi phi l cc bin nh lng v phn phi phi l phn phi ngu nhin hay mu nghin cu phi ln. Tuy nhin vi nhng trng hp bin quan st l bin nh lng (nhng l bin thang th t) hoc s lng mu khng ln hoc khng tha mn iu kin phn phi chun ta c

th tin hnh kim nghip bng cng c Wilcoxon signed rank test trong kim nghim phi tham s 7.1. Means Cng c Means dng tnh ton cc gi tr trung bnh v a cc tham s thng k lin quan cho mt bin ph thuc trong phm vi cc nhm ca mt hay nhiu bin c lp. Ta c th la chn cc cng c km theo nh phn tch ANOVA mt chiu, eta, v cc kim nghim tuyn tnh. V d ta c th o lng mc nh gi trung bnh v mt show qung co ca ba nhm tiu dng khc nhau, cng nhn, sinh vin v cng chc. Cng c ny s cho ta mt bng cho th hin s nh gi ca ba nhm ngi ny v show qung co c xem. Cc bin ph thuc trong bng Means phi l bin nh lng v cc bin c lp thng l cc bin nh danh. Cc i lng thng k c s dng ty thuc vo dng d liu. Nh mean v stadard deviation th da trn l thuyt phn phi chun v thch hp cho cc bin nh lng vi phn phi i xng. Cc i lng khc nh Media, vrange th thch hp cho cc bin nh lng m ta khng bit liu n c tho mn cc iu kin v phn phi chun hay khng. Ta c th la chn ANOVA v eta thc hin vic phn tch s bin thin mt chiu cho mi bin c lp. Eta v eta bnh phng cho php o lng cc mi tng quan.

Hnh 6-12 thc hin cng cu ny ta chn Compare Means/Means. T Menus, ta c hp thoi nh hnh 6-12. C th chn mt hay nhiu bin ph thuc. Di chuyn vt en n bin cha ng cc gi tr nh lng m ta cn quan st gi tr trung trong

phm vi cc nhm trong bin c lp, s dng mi tn chuyn bin chn vo hp thoi dependent list. C hai cch la chn bin c lp, l bin m da vo cc gi tr trong n m ta phn chia cc gia tri trung bnh ca bin ph thuc thnh nhng nhm nh. - La chn mt hoc nhiu bin c lp. Lc ny cc kt qu cng nh cc i lng thng k km theo s c th hin trn cc bn ring bit cho mi bin c lp - La chn bin c lp theo lp, mi bin c lp trong mt lp, lc ny cc kt qu v i lng thng k c th hin trn chung mt bng

Hnh 6-13 Cng c Options (Hnh 6-13). Cho php ta la chn cc i lng thng k cn kho st v ANOVA, Eta, v Eta bnh phng (s c cp chi tic v ngha phn sau) 7.2. Kim nghip t-mt mu Phng php kim nghip mt mu c dng kim nh c hay khng s khc bit ca gi tr trung bnh ca mt bin n vi mt gi tr c th, vi gi thuyt ban u cho rng gi tr trung bnh cn kim nghim th bng vi mt con s c th no . V d mt nh nghin cu c th kim nh c hay khng s khc bit gia ch s IQ trung bnh ca mt nhm sinh vin vi ch s c th l 100 tinh cy l 95%. Phng

php kim nghim ny dng cho bin dng thang o khong cch hay t l. Ta s loi b gi thuyt ban u khi kim nghim ch ta ch s Sig. nh hn mc tinh cy (0.05). T Menus ta chn Compare Mean\One-Sample T Test ta c hp thoi nh

Hnh

6-14

La chn bin cn so snh bng cch di chuyn vt en v chuyn n vo hp thoi Test Variable(s), nhp gi tr cn so snh vo hp thoi Test Value. Chn cng c Options (hnh 6-15) xc nh tin cy cho kim nghim, mc nh l 95% v cch x l i vi cc gi tr khuyt, Khi kim nghip cc bin ta s gp mt vi gi tr khuyt trong cc bin , vn y l ta loi b cc gi tr khuyt trong kim nghim hay bao hm lun tt c. - Exclude cases analysis by analysis. Mi kim nghim T s dng ton b cc trng hp (cases) cha ng gi tr c ngha i vi bin c kim nghim. c im l kch thng mu lun thay i.

Hnh 6-15

Exclude cases listwise. Mi kim nghim T s dng ch nhng trng hp c gi tr i vi ton b tt c cc bin c s dng trong bt k kim nghim T test no. Kch thc mu lun khng i iu kin tin hnh mt kim nghim t mt mu i hi d liu phi p ng gi nh sau: d liu phi l phn phi chun, hoc kch thc mu phi ln c xem l xp x phn phi chun. 7.3. Kim nghip t hai mu c lp Kim nghip ny dng cho hai mu c lp, dng d liu l dng thang o khong cch hoc t l. i vi dng kim nghim ny, cc ch th cn kim nghim phi c n nh mt cch ngu nhin cho hai nhm d liu cn nghin cu sao cho bt k mt khc bit no t kt qu nghin cu l do s tc ng ca chnh nhm th , ch khng phi do cc yu t khc. V d nh ta khng th dng phng php ny so snh thu nhp ca nam v n bi v thu nhp cn b nh hng ln bi trnh hc vn v ngh nghip. Hoc nh gi tc ng ca mt chng trnh qung co ta la chn ra hai nhm khch hng c lp, nhm xem qua chng trnh qung co v nhm cha xem qua chng trnh qung co nh gi mc a thch ca sn phm c qung co. y ngoi cng c th l vic xem qung co hoc khng xem, nh nghin cu phi bo m khng tn ti yu t no ng k tc ng n s nh gi v sn phm, nh gii tnh, s tiu dng, trnh , Tm li nh gi gi tr trung bnh (v nh gi s a thch, thu nhp, chi tiu, ) ca hai nhm c lp ngha l cc phn ng thu c ca nhm ny khng b nh hng bi nhm kia v ngoi cc tc nhn cn nh gi cn phi ch n cc tc ng khc c th lm thay i s phn ng thu nhn c gia hai nhm. Cc d liu cn so snh nm trong cng mt bin nh lng. so snh ta tin hnh nhm cc gi tr thnh hai nhm tin hnh so snh. Gi thuyt ban u cn kim nghim l gi tr trung bnh ca mt bin no th bng nhau gia hai nhm mu v chng ta s t chi gi thuyt ny khi m ch s Sig. nh hn mc ngha (thng l 0.05)

Hnh 6-16 thc hin vic so snh ny ta vo Compare means\Independent sample t-test. T Menus ta c hp thoi nh hnh 6-16. Di chuyn vt ti vo bin nh lng m ta cn so snh gi tr trung bnh, chn bng cch nhn nt mi tn chuyn bin nh lng vo hp thoi Test variable(s). Ta c th chn nhiu bin nh lng so snh.

Hnh 6-17 Di chuyn vt ti n bin dng nh ra cc nhm cn so snh vi nhau (thng l bin nh danh) di chuyn vo hp thoi Gouping variable. Cng c Define Groups cho php ta nh ra hai nhm cn so snh vi nhau, nh hnh 6-17. C hai cnh nh nhm so snh: - S dng con s c th, nhp hai gi tr i din cho hai nhm cn so snh trong bin vo group 1 v group 2, v d so snh thi gian t hc ca hai nhm sinh vin nm nht v sinh vin nm cui nm trong bin loi sinh vin vi 4 nhm sinh vin c m ha nh sau sinh vin nm nht: 1, sinh vin nm hai: 2, sinh vin nm ba: 3, sinh vin nm cui: 4. Ta nhp gi tr 1 vo Group 1 v nhn gi tr 4 vo group 2. Lc thi gian t hc trung bnh s

c so snh gia hai nhm sinh vin nm nht v sinh vin nm cui. - Cch th hai l s dng Cut point, nhp gi tri phn cch cc gi tr trong bin thnh hai nhm. Ton b cc trng hp c gi tr (con s m ha) nh hn gi tr c nhp vo trong cut point s nh ra mt nhm, v ton b cc trng hp c gi tr m ha ln hn hoc bng gi tr trong Cut point s to ra mt nhm khc. V d ta mun so snh thi gian t hc ca sinh vin hai nm u v sinh vin hai nm cui, ta nhp gi tr 3 (l gi tr m ha ca nhm sinh vin nm th ba) v cut point lc ta to c hai nhm sinh vin bao gm, sinh vin hai nm u (sinh vin nm th nht v sinh vin nm th hai) v nhm sinh vin hai nm cui (sinh vin nm ba v sinh vin nm cui) v s tin hnh so snh s thi gian t hc trung bnh trn hai nhm sinh vin ny. i vi cng c Options c thao tc v ngha ging cng c Options cp trong phn Kim nghip t mt mu cp phn trc. Cc gi nh phi c tha mn khi dng kim nghim t cho hai mu c lp: - i vi kim nghim t cho hai mu c phng sai bng nhau (c th kim nh gi nh ny bng thng kLevene), cc quan st phi c lp, c ly ngu nhin t tng th c phn phi chun vi phng sai m ng bng nhau - i vi kim nghim t cho hai mu c phng sai khng bng nhau, cc quan st phi c lp, c ly ngu nhin t tng th c phn phi chun. Cng thc tnh t: Vi phng sai hp nht Vi phng sai ring bit

Vi:

Vi xi: Gi tr trung bnh ca nhm i ni: S cc quan st trong nhm i Si: Phng sai mu trong nhm i Bt t do trong kimnghim phng sai hp nht bng df= (n1 + n2 2) Bt t do trong kimnghim phng sai ring bit bng:

7.4. Kim nghim t theo tng cp mu y l dng kim nghip dng cho hai bin trong cng mt mu c lin h vi nhau, d liu dng thang khong cch hoc t l. N tnh ton s khc bit gia cc gi tr ca hai bin cho mi trng hp v kim nghim xem gi tr trung bnh cc khc bit c khc 0 hay khng. Gi thuyt ban u c a ra l gi tr trung bnh ca cc khc bit l bng 0. V ta s loi b gi thuyt ny trong trng hp kim nghim cho kt qu Sig. nh hn mc ngha (0.05) Li im ca vic s dng kim nghim T theo tng cp l ta loi tr c nhng yu t tc ng bn ngoi vo nhm th. V d ta kho st s a thch ca hai loi nc hoa chun b tung ra th trng. Kt qu kim nghip trn cng mt nhm mu s cho nhng thng tin xc thc hn v s a thch ca mi v hai loi nc hoa ny, ng thi tp trung vo s khc bit t nhin ca hai loi nc hoa ny. Nu ta tin hnh so

snh gia hai nhm mu c lp vi nhau s cho ra nhng kt qu khc bit do nhng tc nhn khc vi bn thn s khc bit ca hai loi nc hoa ny nh s khc bit v con ngi, v nhn thc, v kinh nghim cng nh cc yu t bn ngoi khc. Phng php ny thch ng cho vic kim nghim sn phm. Phng php ny kim nghim gi thuyt cho rng s khc bit gia hai trung bnh mu l bng khng. Ta t chi gi thuyt ny khi mc ngha ca ta (significante) l nh hn mc ngha (thng l 5%). iu kin yu cu cho loi kim nghim ny l kch c hai mu so snh phi bng nhau. Cc quang st cho mi bn so snh phi c thc hin trong cng nhng iu kin ging nhau. Cc khc bit t gi tr trung bnh ca hai mu phi l phn phi chun hoc s lng mu ln xp x l phn phi chun. Phng sai ca mi bin l ngang bng hoc khng ngang bng (c th kim nghim qua php kim nghim phng sai Levene). thc hin vic so snh ny ta vo Compare means\Paired-samples ttest. T Menus ta c hp thoi nh hnh 6-17:

Hnh 6-17 Chn hai bin ta cn so snh bng cch di chuyn vt en n ln lc hai bin cn quan st, di chuyn bin cn quan st vo hp thoi Paired Variables bng nt mi tn. Paired-samples t test cn cho ta kt qu v mi tng quan gia hai bin ang quan st. Cho bit liu hai bin ny c tng quan vi nhau hay khng, tng quan v chiu tng quan (th hin bng Paired samples correlation). Cc gi nh phi c tha mn khi dng kim nghim cp mu l cc quan st mi cp phi c thc hin trong cng mt iu kin. Nhng

khc bit gi tr trung bnh phi c phn phi chun. Phng sai ca mi bin c th ngang bng hoc khng. i vi kim nghim t cc cp mu, SPSS s tnh ton gi tr khc bit gia hai bn trong tng quan st v tin hnh kim nghim gi tr trung bnh cc khc bit c bng 0 hay khng Trong kim nghim hai mu c lp cp phn trc SPSS chia cc gi tr ca mt bin n thnh hai nhm da trn mt bin kim sot v sau tin hnh so snh trung bnh trong bin n gia hai nhm vi nhau. i vi kim nghim cp, gi tr trung bnh cc gi tr trong hai bin c so snh vi nhau. Kim nghim loi ny c s dng kim nghim xem trung bnh ca hai o lng l khc bit hay ngang bng nhau, hay ni cch khc kim nghim xem c hay khng trung bnh ca cc gi tr khc bit gia hai bin trn mi trng hp quan st l khc 0 tin hnh kim nghim t theo cp i hi hai bin trong kim nghim phi bng nhau v s lng mu quan st v c cng kiu o lng v n v o lng Cng thc tin gi tr kim nghim t theo cp c tnh nh sau: Trung bnh cc sai bit gia hai bin kim nghim t = Vi SD: lch tiu chun ca cc sai bit n : S lng cc quan st (mu)
Ln trn (top)

8.5. Phn tch phng sai mt chiu (One way ANOVA) Cc php so snh cp phn trn ch cho php ta so snh trung bnh hai tng th da trn mu tng cp phi hp hoc hai mu c lp. Trong phn ny phng php kim nh s m rng cho trng hp so snh trung bnh ca nhiu tng th c xy dng trn vic xem xt cc bin thin (phng sai) ca cc gi tr quan st trong ni b tng nhm (mu) v gia cc nhm (mu) vi nhau. y ta cp n phn tch phng sai mt yu t l trng hp ch c mt yu t (bin kim sot) c xem xt nhm xc nh nh hng ca n n mt yu t khc. Yu t c xem xt nh hng c dng phn loi cc quan st thnh cc nhm nh khc nhau.

Mt cch tng qut, gi s ta c k nhm (mu) n1, n2, , nk quan st c chn ngu nhin c lo t k tng th (n1, n2, , nk c th khc nhau v kch thc). Gi 1, 2, , k l cc trung bnh ca k tng th, xij l quan st th j ca nhm th i. Ta c th m t cc quan st ca k nhm nh sau: Nhm 1 X11 X12 X1n1 2 X21 X22 X2n2 K XK1 XK2 XKnK

Vi gi nh cc tng th c phn phi chun, c phng sai bng nhau, cc sai s l c lp vi nhau, phn tch phng sai mt yu t kim nghim gi thuyt ban u nh sau: H0: 1 = 2 = = k. Ta thy y l vic so snh gia cc gi tr trung bnh, vy phn tch phng sai nghe nh l mt sai st. Tuy nhin vic phn tch phng sai y da trn thng s thng k F, vi F l t s gia bin thin gia trung bnh cc nhm trn bin thin gia cc quan st trong ni b nhm: Bin thin gia trung bnh cc nhm F= Bin thin gia cc gi tr quan st trong ni b nhm Nu cc gi tr trung bnh ca cc nhm khc bit nhau nhiu, c bit trong mi quan h vi s bin thin ca ni b tng nhm, gi tr F thu c s ln v khi gi thuyt H0: 1 = 2 = = k. s b t chi. V nu ta quan st vic phn tch phng sai mt yu t cho hai nhm th kt qu thng k F tnh c s chnh bng bnh phng kt qu thng k t trong kim nghim t cho hai mu c lp Cc bc phn tch phng sai mt yu t kim nghim s ngang bng gia cc gi tr trung bnh ca k tng th Phn tch phng sai mt yu t kim nghim gi thuyt H0: 1 = 2 = = k c tin hnh thng qua cc bc sau:

Bc 1: Tnh gi tr trung bnh xi cho tng nhm v x chung cho tt c cc nhm

Hoc Bc 2: Tnh cc i lng th hin s bin thin trong ni b tng nhm (SSW) v gia cc nhm (SSG)

Gi SS l i lng th hin s bin thin trong ni b tng nhm, ta c:

Ta c tng cng cc bin thin trong ni b tng nhm l: Ni mt cch n gin SSW l tng bnh phng cc chnh lch gia tng quan st vi trung bnh ca nhm m quan st thuc v (withingroups sum of squares). SSW l nhng bin thin khng do yu t kim sot (yu t dng phn chia cc nhm) gy ra.

i lng th hin s bin thin gia cc nhm (between-groups sum of squares) c tnh bng cng thc: SSG th hin s bin thin do s khc nhau gia cc nhm, tc l bin thin do yu t kim sot gy ra

Gi STT l tng bnh phng cc chnh lch gia tng quan st vi trung bnh ca tt c cc quan st ta c: chng mnh c rng SST = SSW + SSG v cng thc ny chnh l c s ca phng php phn tch phng sai mt yu t vi bin thin

ca cc quan st so vi gi tr trung bnh l tng cng ca bin thin c gii thch bi yu t kim sot (SSG) v bin thin do cc yu t khc ngoi yu t kim sot l SSW Bc 3: Tnh cc c lng cho phng sai chung ca k tng th, MSW v MSG, bng cch cia SSW v SSG cho s bt t do tng ng, ta c:

SSW MSW= n-k (Within-groups mean square)

SSG MSG= (Between-groups mean square) k-1 T s ny c dng kim nghim gi thuyt H0. Nu H0 ng, ngha l trung bnh ca k tng th bng nhau th t s MSG/MSW s gn vi gi tr 1. Ngc li, khi cc trung bnh ca k tng th khng bng nhau, th MSG ln hn MSW, do vy t s MSG/MSW s ln hn 1. Mc ln hn bao nhiu th c xem l ln (tu thuc vo tin cy) ta c th bc b H0. Bc 4 vi vic tnh ra gia tr kim nh F s l gii iu ny Bc 4: Tnh gi tr kim nh F: MSG F= MSW Ta s bc b H0 mc ngha (thng l 0.05), nu gi tr p-value nh hn mc ngha, tng ng vi t s F=MSG/MSW ln hn Fk-1, n-k, , vi Fk-1, n-k, c phn phi F vi k-1 v n-k bt t do tng ng t v mu s.

Kt qu phn tch phng sai mt yu t thng c th hin di dng bng sau:

Tng cc Bt t do Trung bnh cc chnh lch chnh lch bnh (Variance) (df) bnh phngphng Phng sai (Sum of squares) SSG (Mean square) k-1

Bin thin

Gi tr kim nh

P-value Sig.

Gia cc nhm (Between Groups) Trong ni b nhm (Within Groups) Tng cng (Total)

MSG=SSG/k-1 F=MSG/MSW

SSW

n-k

MSW=SSW/n-k

SST

n-1

So snh tng cp trung bnh tng th Mt khi quyt nh c s khc bit tn ti gia cc gi tr trung bnhbc b H0, hin nhin ny sinh cu hi tip theo l trung bnh nhng tng th no l khc nhau, tng th no c trung bnh ln hn hoc nh hn. tr li cc cu hi ny SPSS cung cp cc kim nghim post hoc range v pairwise multiple comparisons c th quyt nh c nhng gi tr trung bnh no l khc bit. Range tests xc nh ra nhng nhm gi tr trung bnh ng nht khng tn ti s khc bit gia cc gi tr trung bnh ny. Kim nghim Pairwise multiple comparisons kim nghim s khc bit gia cc cp gi tr trung bnh v a ra mt ma trn nh du hoa th ch nhng nhm gi tr trung bnh c khc bit ng k mc tin cy l 5%

i vi gi thuyt cn bng v phng sai c chp nhn (thng qua kim nghim Levene) ta c cc phng php kim nghim thng k sau so snh cc trung bnh mu: - The least significant difference (LSD) l php kim nghim tng ng vi vic s dng phng php kim nghim t ring bit cho ton b cc cp trong bin. Yu im ca phng php ny l n khng chnh l tin cy cho tng thch vi vic kim nghim cho nhiu so snh cng mt lc. Do dn n tin cy khng cao. Cc kim nghim khc s c tham kho sau y loi b c yu im ny bng cch iu chnh tin cy cho mt so snh nhiu thnh phn. - Phng php kim nghip Bonferroni v Tukeys honestly significant difference th c s dng cho hu ht cc kim nghim so snh a bi. Kim nghim Sidaks t test cng c s dng tng t nh phng phpBonferroni tuy nhin n cung cp nhng gii hn cht ch hn. Khi tin hnh kim nghim mt s lng ln cc cp trung bnh Tukeys honestly significant difference test s c tc ng mnh hn l Bonferroni test. V ngc li Bonferroni th thch hp hn cho cc kim nghim c s lng cp so snh t. - Hochbergs GT2 th ging nh Tukeys honestly significant difference test nhng thng thng Tukeys test c tc dng tt hn. Gabriels pairwise comparisons test th ging nh Hochbergs GT2 nhng n thng c s dng hn khi kch c gia cc mu kim nghim c s sai bit ln - Phng php kim nghim Dunnetts pairwise th c dng so snh cc gi tr trung bnh ca cc mu vi mt ga tr trung bnh c th c ly t trong tp cc mu so snh. Thng thng mc nh nhm mu cui cng lm nhm kin sot, hoc ta c th la chn nhm u tiu lm nhm kim sot, lc cc gi tr trung bnh ca cc nhm tong bin c lp s c so snh vi gi tr trung bnh ca nhm u tin hoc nhm sau cng ca bin c lp - Ryan, Einot, Gabriel, and Welsch (R-E-G-W) a ra hai bc kim nghim. u tin tin hnh kim nghim c hay khng ton b cc gi tr trung bnh l ngang bng nhau hay khng. Nu ton b cc gi tr trung bnh l khng ngang bng nhau sau bc th hai s kim nghim s khc bit gia cc nhm nh vi nhau, tm ra nhng nhm no tht s khc bit v khng khc bit v gi tr trung bnh. Tuy nhin vic kim nghim ny khng nn thc hin i vi trng hp kch c mu trong cc nhm khng ngang bng nhau

- Thng thng khi kch thc mu khng ngang bng gia cc nhm. Bonferroni v Scheff l hai phng php kim nghim c la chn hn l phng php Tukey - Duncans multiple range test, Student-Newman-Keuls (S-NK), and Tukeys b cng tng t tuy nhin n t khi c s dng nh cc phng php trn. - Kim nghim Waller-Duncan t c s dng khi kch thc mu l khng bng nhau - Phng php kim nghim Scheff cho php s kt hp tuyn tnh ca nhng gi tr trung bnh s c kim nghim, khng ch l so snh gia cc cp. Chnh v vy kt qu ca kim nghim Scheff th thng thn trng hn cc phng php kim nghim khc , n i hi mt s khc bit ln gia cc gi tr trung bnh quan st c bo m tnh tht s khc bit ca php kim nghim i vi trng hp gi thuyt v s cn bng phng sai gia cc mu khng c chp nhn ta s s dng cc phng php kim nghim sau tin hnh so snh gi tr trung bnh gia cc nhm:Tamhanes T2, Dunnetts T3,Games-Howell, Dunnetts C. V d nh trong nng nghip ngi ta mun bit ng cc s pht trin nh th no khi s dng cc loi phn bn khc nhau. Nh nghin cu mun bit liu tt c cc loi phn bn trn th c nh hng ngang bng n s pht trin ca ngu cc hay mt vi loi phn bn s c tc dng tt hn mt vi loi khc. kim nghim iu ny ngi ta dng ANOVA kim nghim tc pht trin trung bnh (c th l trong lng ng cc thu hoch, chiu cao ca cy, s lng tri trung bnh thu hoch c, ) y chnh l cc gi tr trung bnh c s dng trong thng k. ANOVA thng thng kim nghim trn mt s lng mu ln hn hai, nu s lng mu bng 2 ta c th dng mt phng php tng i n gin hn l kim nghim t hai mu nh cp phn trn. ANOVA c s dng rng ri trong thc t bi v ta s gp rt nhiu trng hp i hi ta phi kim nghim nhiu mu trong cng mt lc. Ch nu ta kim nghip theo tng cp ln lt bng phng php kim nghim t hai mu mi ln kim nghim sai lch s l 5% (tu thuc vo mc tin cy m ta mong mun). Do khi kim nghim tt c cc cp mu ln lt t l sai st s tng ln theo mi ln. Do ANOVA s cho phep1 ta kim nghim tt c cc mu trong cng mt mc sai st l 5% v kim nghim trong mt ln

thc hin kim nghim ANOVA, d liu i hi phi tha mn mt s gi thuyt sau: Cc mu kim nghim phi c lp v mang tnh ngu nhin

- Cc mu s dng trong kim nghim phi c phn phi chun hoc kch thc mu ln c xem l gn nh phn phi chun. - Phng sai ca cc mu th phi ngang bng nhau (c th kim nghip iu ny bng php kim nghim phng sai Levene. Nu nh cc mu nghin cu ca ta khng tha mn iu kin trn ta c th dng php kim nghim phi tham s (nonparametric) nh nh php kim nghim Kruskal-Wallis V d minh ha: Cc nh ch bin v phn ph Coffee th trng Hoa K ang i mt vi mt tnh hnh bt n v gi ca ht Coffee. Trong mt nm gi ca ht coffee tri xt t $1.40 mt pound (0.373 kg) ln $2.50/pound ri sau li tt xung $2.03/pound. Ngi ta xc nh s bt n v gi coffee ny l do tnh hnh hot ng ca bn thn cc nh ch bin v phn phi coffee v mt yu t khc rt quan trng l vn hn hn Brazil, bi v Brazil sn xut ra 30% sn lng coffee trn th gii, do th trng coffee rt nhy cm vi nhng bin chuyn v thi tit (nguy c hn hn) Brazil. to ra mt s n nh cho hot ng ca mnh mt nh phn phi Coffee mun loi b mt hng Coffee Brazil ra khi c cu hng ha ca mnh. Tuy hin trc khi thc hin quyt nh ny cn c mt cn nhc l liu loi b mt hng Coffee Brazil th c lm gim doanh s ca cng ty hay khng. V vy cng ty thu mt cng ty nghin cu Marketing tin hnh kim nghim thng k v s a thch mi v coffee ca khch hnh tiu dng Coffee trn th trng. Cng ty tin hnh kho st da trn ba nhm khch hng c la chn ngu nhin bao gm nhm khch hng chuyn tiu dng Coffee Brazil, Nhm khch hng chuyn tiu dng Coffee Colombia v nhm khch hng tiu dng Coffee Chu Phi (y l 3 loi Coffee c tiu dng ch yu ca cng ty). Ch cng ty loi tr nhng nhm khch hnh va tiu dng nhiu loi coffee khc nhau, bo m tnh c lp ca cc mu c chn, v do nghin cu v mi v nn i hi chn nhng khch hng c gu tiu dng ring bit. y cng ty mun xc nh xem liu c s khc bit v s mc a thch i vi ba loi coffee (S cho khch hnh th ba loi coffee v kho st s nh

gi v mc a thch ca ba loi Coffee) hay c s khc nhau v khc nhau ny nh th no bao loi Coffe v ba nhm khch hng. Da vo kt qu phn tch ANOVA s cho ta bit liu mc a thch trung bnh ca ba nhm khch hng trn l ging nhau hay khc nhau i vi tng loi coffee. Sau dng phng php kim nghip Post Hoc xc nh nhng khc bit ca tng nhm khch hng v loi coffee th. Sau khi dng ANOVA kho st s khc bit gia cc mu. Nu ta c c s kt lun l khng c s khc bit gia cc mu. Ta c th kt thc cng vic (vic loi b coffee brazil khng gy nh hng n doanh s, ngi tiu dng c th chuyn sang coffee comlobia hoc chu Phi mt cch d dng). Tuy nhin khi ta loi b gi thuyt v s ngang bng gia cc nhm. Ta phi xc nh tip s khc bit nh th no gia cc mu kim nghim. Chng ta cn phi xc nh hng v ln ca cc khc bit ny bng cch ln lt so snh s khc bit gia cc mu vi nhau (ngi tiu dng coffee brazil c th thch coffee comlombia hn coffe chu Phi, hoc ngi tiu dng coffee brazil nh gi coffee brazil ngang bng vi coffee colombia, trong khi mc a thch coffee chu Phi th thp hn do gim thiu s mt doanh s bn coffee brazil khi loi b mt hng cng ty nn tng lng coffee comlombia tiu th trn th trng) cc cng c thng k trong kim nghip Post Hoc cho php ta thc hin cng vic ny. Phn tch phng sai mt chiu l tin trnh phn tch phng sai mt chiu cho mt bin nh lng ph thuc vi mt yu t n l hay cn gi l bin c lp. Phn tch phng sai (ANOVA) c dng kim nghim gi thuyt cho rng tt c cc gi tr trung bnh u ngang bng nhau. K thut ny l mt dng m rng ca kim nghim T hai mu. xc nh s khc bit gia cc gi tr trung bnh chng ta c th mun bit nhng gi tr trung bnh no l khc bit. Mt khi quyt nh c s khc bit tn ti gia cc gi tr trung bnh, cc kim nghim post hoc range vpairwise multiple comparisons c th quyt nh c nhng gi tr trung bnh no l khc bit. Range tests xc nh ra nhng nhm gi tr trung bnh ng nht khng tn ti s khc bit gia cc gi tr trung bnh ny. Kim nghim Pairwise multiple comparisons kim nghim s khc bit gia cc cp gi tr trung bnh v a ra mt ma trn nh du hoa th ch nhng nhm gi tr trung bnh c khc bit ng k mc tin cy l 5%

i vi gi thuyt cn bng v phng sai c chp nhn (thng qua kim nghim Levene) ta c cc phng php kim nghim thng k sau so snh cc trung bnh mu: - The least significant difference (LSD) l php kim nghim tng ng vi vic s dng phng php kim nghim t ring bit cho ton b cc cp trong bin. Yu im ca phng php ny l n khng chnh l tin cy cho tng thich vi vic kim nghim cho nhiu so snh cng mt lc. Do dn n tin cy khng cao. Cc kim nghim khc s c tham kho sau y loi b c yu im ny bng cch iu chnh tin cy cho mt so snh nhiu thnh phn. - Phng php kim nghip Bonferroni v Tukeys honestly significant difference th c s dng cho hu ht cc kim nghim so snh a bi. Kim nghim Sidaks t test cng c s dng tng t nh phng phpBonferroni tuy nhin n cung cp nhng gii hn cht ch hn. Khi tin hnh kim nghim mt s lng ln cc cp trung bnh Tukeys honestly significant difference test s c tc ng mnh hn l Bonferroni test. V ngc li Bonferroni th thch hp hn cho cc kim nghim c s lng cp so snh t. - Hochbergs GT2 th ging nh Tukeys honestly significant difference test nhng thng thng Tukeys test c tc dng tt hn. Gabriels pairwise comparisons test th ging nh Hochbergs GT2 nhng n thng c s dng hn khi kch c gia cc mu kim nghim c s sai bit ln - Phng php kim nghim Dunnetts pairwise th c dng so snh cc gi tr trung bnh ca cc mu vi mt ga tr trung bnh c th c ly t trong tp cc mu so snh. Thng thng mc nh nhm mu cui cng lm nhm kin sot, hoc ta c th la chn nhm u tiu lm nhm kim sot, lc cc gi tr trung bnh ca cc nhm tong bin c lp s c so snh vi gi tr trung bnh ca nhm u tin hoc nhm sau cng ca bin c lp. - Ryan, Einot, Gabriel, and Welsch (R-E-G-W) a ra hai bc kim nghim. u tin tin hnh kim nghim c hay khng ton b cc gi tr trung bnh l ngang bng nhau hay khng. Nu ton b cc gi tr trung bnh l khng ngang bng nhau sau bc th hai s kim nghim s khc bit gia cc nhm nh vi nhau, tm ra nhng nhm no tht s khc bit v khng khc bit v gi tr trung bnh. Tuy nhin vic kim nghim ny khng nn thc hin i vi trng hp kch c mu trong cc nhm khng ngang bng nhau.

- Thng thng khi kch thc mu khng ngang bng gia cc nhm. Bonferroni v Scheff l hai phng php kim nghim c la chn hn l phng php Tukey. - Duncans multiple range test, Student-Newman-Keuls (S-N-K), and Tukeys b cng tng t tuy nhin n t khi c s dng nh cc phng php trn. - Kim nghim Waller-Duncan t c s dng khi kch thc mu l khng bng nhau. - Phng php kim nghim Scheff cho php s kt hp tuyn tnh ca nhng gi tr trung bnh s c kim nghim, khng ch l so snh gia cc cp. Chnh v vy kt qu ca kim nghim Scheff th thng thn trng hn cc phng php kim nghim khc , n i hi mt s khc bit ln gia cc gi tr trung bnh quan st c bo m tnh tht s khc bit ca php kim nghim. i vi trng hp gi thuyt v s cn bng phng sai gia cc mu khng c chp nhn ta s s dng cc phng php kim nghim sau tin hnh so snh gi tr trung bnh gia cc nhm:Tamhanes T2, Dunnetts T3,Games-Howell, Dunnetts C. thc hin php kim nghim ANOVA ta vo Comapre means\OneWay ANOVA t thanh menus truy xut ra hp thoi nh hnh 6-18. Di chuyn vt ti n cc bin nh lng cn so snh, chuyn sang hp thoi Dependent List. La bin kim sot tc l bin c lp (yu cu phi c ba gi tr tr ln trong bin kim sot ny) chuyn bin kim sot vo hp thoi Factor, Bin kim sot ny cho php ta phn cc gi tr trung bnh theo tng nhm kim nghim. Thao tc n y cho php ta a ra kt lun liu cc trung bnh ca cc nhm c bng nhau hay khng.

Hnh 6-18

Hnh 6-19 tin hnh kim nghip so snh s khc bit gia cc nhm vi nhau ta la chn cng c Post Hoc ta c c hp thoi nh hnh 6-19 v la chn cc phng php kim nghim thch hp.

Hnh 6-20

La chn cng c Options cho ta hp thoi nh hnh 6-20. xc nh loi loi thng k m t (Descriptive) v tnh ng nht ca phng sai, cng c tnh h s thng k Levene kim nghim s ngang bng v phng sai gia cc nhm (vic tnh ton ny quyt nh n s la chon phng php kim nghip trong phn Post Hoc. Cng c Means Plot dng hin th th v gi tri trung bnh ca cc nhm. Cng c Missing Values dng kim sot gi tr khuyt. - Exclude cases analysis by analysis: Nhng trng hp c gi tr khuyt trong bin ph thuc v c bin kim sot s khng

c a vo trong kim nghim. Ngoi ra nhng trng hp c gi tr quan st nm bn ngoi chui xc nh cho bin kim sot cng khng c s dng - Exclude cases listwise. Nhng trng hp c gi tr khuyt Cases trong bin iu khin hoc bt k bin ph thuc no c a ra hoc khng a ra kim nghim u b loi tr ra khi qu trnh kim nghim phn tch . Cc gi nh phi c tha mn khi dng phn tch ANOVA mt chiu - Cc mu d liu phi c lp, ngu nhin v c ly ra t mt tng th phn phi chun - Trong tng th cc phng sai ca cc mu d liu phi bng nhau (iu ny s c kim nghim qua thng k Levenes homogeneity-of-variance.

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