36

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

CONTENTS AT A GLANCE Understanding Switching Supplies

Concepts of switching regulation

Troubleshooting Switching Power Supplies

Tips for power-supply service An example power supply Symptoms

Connecting the Power Supply

AT-style power connections Drive power connections ATX/NLX-style power connections Optional ATX/NLX power connector Voltage tolerances

Further Study

Power supplies play a vital role in the operation of PCs and their peripheralsa supply
converts commercial ac into various levels of dc that can be used by electronic and electromechanical devices. For the purposes of this book, power supplies are broken into three classes: linear (dc) supplies, switching (dc) supplies, and high-voltage supplies. Although linear power supplies are popular because of their simplicity, they are inefficient. As a result, linear supplies are typically relegated to low-end applications, such as ac adapters and battery eliminators, and are not covered in this edition of the book. On the other hand, switching power supplies are well-entrenched as the primary power source in PC applications. Virtually all PC and peripheral designs incorporate a switching supply. This chapter illustrates the operation and troubleshooting approaches for a switching power supply.
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UNDERSTANDING SWITCHING SUPPLIES

1105

Understanding Switching Supplies

The great disadvantage to linear power supplies is their tremendous waste. At least half of all power provided to a linear supply is literally thrown away as heatmost of this waste occurs in the regulator. Ideally, if just enough energy was supplied to the regulator to achieve a stable output voltage, regulator waste could be reduced almost entirely and supply efficiency would be vastly improved.

CONCEPTS OF SWITCHING REGULATION

Instead of throwing away extra input energy, a switching power supply creates a feedback loop. Feedback senses the output voltage provided to a load, then switches the ac primary (or secondary) voltage on or off (as needed) to maintain steady levels at the output. In effect, a switching power supply is constantly turning on and off to keep the output voltage(s) steady. A block diagram of a typical switching power supply is shown in Fig. 36-1. A variety of configurations are possible, but Fig. 36-1 illustrates one classic design. Raw ac line voltage entering the supply is immediately converted to pulsating dc, then filtered to provide a primary dc voltage. Notice that unlike a linear supply, ac is not transformed before rectification, so primary dc can easily reach levels that exceed 170 V. Remember that ac is 120 V RMS. Because capacitors charge to the peak voltage (peak = RMS ( 1.414), dc levels can be higher than your ac voltmeter readings.
Remember that high-voltage pulsating dc can be as dangerous as ac line voltage, so treat it with extreme caution.

2
SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

On start-up, the switching transistor is turned on and off at a high frequency (usually 20kHz to 40kHz), and a long duty cycle. The switching transistor acts as a chopper, which
Primary rectifier Primary filter Solid-state switch Transformer Secondary rectifier Secondary filter

ac input voltage

Switching pulses Sensing/ switching circuit Voltage sense signal

FIGURE 36-1

Block diagram of a switching power supply.

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SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

breaks up this primary dc to form chopped dc, which can now be used as the primary signal for a step-down transformer. The duty cycle of chopped dc will affect the ac voltage level generated on the transformers secondary. A long duty cycle means a larger output voltage (for heavy loads) and a short duty cycle means lower output voltage (for light loads). Duty cycle itself refers to the amount of time that a signal is on, compared to its overall cycle. The duty cycle is continuously adjusted by the sensing/switching circuit. You can use an oscilloscope to view switching and chopped dc signals. Figure 36-2 illustrates a more practical representation for a switching supply. Ac voltage produced on the transformers secondary winding (typically a step-down transformer) is not a pure sine wave, but it alternates regularly enough to be treated as ac by the remainder of the supply. Secondary voltage is re-rectified and re-filtered to form a secondary dc voltage that is actually applied to the load. Output voltage is sensed by the sensing/switching circuit, which constantly adjusts the chopped dc duty cycle. As load increases on the secondary circuit (more current is drawn by the load), output voltage tends to drop. This is perfectly normal, and the same thing happens in every unregulated supply. However, a sensing circuit detects this voltage drop and increases the switching duty cycle. In turn, the duty cycle for chopped dc increases, which increases the voltage produced by the secondary winding. Output voltage climbs back up again to its desired value. The output voltage is regulated. The reverse will happen as load decreases on the secondary circuit (less current is drawn by the load). A smaller load will tend to make output voltage climb. Again, the same actions happen in an unregulated supply. The sensing/switching circuit detects this increase in voltage and reduces the switching duty cycle. As a result, the duty cycle for chopped dc decreases and transformer secondary voltage decreases. Output voltage drops back to its desired value. The output voltage remains regulated. Consider the advantages of a switching power circuit. Current is only drawn in the primary circuit when its switching transistor is on, so very little power is wasted in the primary circuit. The secondary circuit will supply just enough power to keep the load voltage constant (regulated), but very little power is wasted by the secondary rectifier, filter, or switching circuit. Switching power supplies can reach efficiencies higher than 85% (35%

Switching transistor Q ac Input voltage dc Output voltage

High-frequency switching pulses FIGURE 36-2

Sensing/ switching circuit

Voltage sense

Simplified diagram of a switching power supply.

CONNECTING THE POWER SUPPLY

1107

ac Input voltage

dc Output voltage

Fuse

Choke

Switch regulating IC Primary filter

Output filter

FIGURE 36-3

Simplified schematic of an IC-based switching power supply.

2
SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

more efficient than most comparable linear supplies). More efficiency means less heat is generated by the supply, so components can be smaller and packaged more tightly. Unfortunately, switching supplies have several disadvantages. First, switching supplies tend to act as radio transmitters. Their 20kHz to 40kHz operating frequencies can wreak havoc radio and television reception, not to mention the circuitry within the PC or peripheral itself. This is why you will see most switching supplies somehow covered or shielded in a metal casing. It is crucially important that you replace any shielding removed during your repair. Strong ElectroMagnetic Interference (EMI) can easily disturb the operation of a logic circuit. Second, the output voltage will always contain some amount of high-frequency ripple. In many applications, this is not enough noise to present interference to the load. In fact, most of the noise is filtered out in a carefully designed supply. Finally, a switching supply often contains more components and is more difficult to troubleshoot than a linear supply. This is often outweighed by the smaller, lighter packaging of switching supplies. Today, sensing and switching functions can be fabricated right onto an integrated circuit. IC-based switching circuits allow simple, inexpensive circuits to be built (Fig. 36-3). Notice how similar this looks versus a linear supply. Ac line voltage is transformed (usually stepped down), then it is rectified and filtered before reaching a switch-regulating IC. The IC chops dc voltage at a duty cycle that will provide adequate power to the load. Chopped dc from the switching regulator is filtered by the combination of choke and output filter capacitor to reform a steady dc signal at the output. The output voltage is sampled back at the IC, which constantly adjusts the chopped dc duty cycle.

Connecting the Power Supply

PC power supplies operate the motherboard directly, as well as a number of internal drives. This part of the chapter presents the typical connection schemes for AT, ATX, and NLX power supplies, and highlights the major signals.

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SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

AT-STYLE POWER CONNECTIONS

The AT-style power supply is largely considered to be the classic connection scheme for IBM-compatible PCs. An AT-style supply provides four voltages to the motherboard (+5 Vdc, 5 Vdc, +12 Vdc, and 12 Vdc) through a series of two 6-pin connectors (Fig. 36-4). You might notice that several wires are used for Ground and other voltage signals, such as +5 Vdc. There is no difference between these similarly colored wiresthe extra wires are provided simply because the additional wire is needed to help carry the required current.
If you cant remember the orientation of P8 and P9 connectors, just remember that the black ends of each connector go together.

The only discrete signal in the AT-style power connector is the Power Good (PwrGood or PG) signal. This signal is typically tied to the CPUs Reset pin. When the PC is first powered up, this signal is logic 0 and the CPU is forced into a continuous reset mode. After the power supply is stable (usually about 0.5 seconds from the time you flip the power switch), this signal rises to a logic 1. This releases the Reset, and the CPU can begin processing, which starts the boot process.

DRIVE POWER CONNECTIONS

The internal drives of the PC (e.g., floppy drives, hard drives, CD-ROM drives, etc.) must also be powered. Because drives are electromechanical devices that typically demand a substantial amount of current, they are powered directly from the power supply, rather than from their respective interfaces. Drives traditionally use a heavy-duty four-wire connector to provide
1 P8 1 Orange 2 Red 3 Yellow 4 Blue 5 Black 6 Black

P8 6 1

PwrGood 5Vdc 12Vdc 12Vdc Gnd Gnd

P9

P9 1 Black 2 Black 3 White 4 Red 5 Red 6 Red

Gnd Gnd 5 Vdc 5Vdc 5Vdc 5Vdc

FIGURE 36-4

AT-style motherboard power connections.

CONNECTING THE POWER SUPPLY

1109

+12 Vdc and +5 Vdc to each drive. The +12-Vdc signal powers the drives motor(s), while the +5-Vdc signal operates the drives logic circuits. The wire colors are identified as follows:
s s s s

Yellow Black Black Red

+12 Vdc Ground Ground +5 Vdc

As a rule, one drive power connector should be available for each drive in the system. Higher-capacity power supplies typically offer more drive power connectors. If you do not have enough drive power connectors to power all of the drives in your system, you might be able to use a Y splitter to transform one power connector into two. However, you should be extremely judicious in the use of Y splitters. The use of inadequate power connectors might indicate that youre pushing the power supply beyond its capacity, and erratic system behavior can result (if the system boots at all). Also, never split the power connector operating a hard drivethe power diverted from a hard drive might result in erratic HDD performance and data corruption.

2
SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

ATX/NLX-STYLE POWER CONNECTIONS

Although ATX and NLX form-factor systems now constitute the majority of new systems entering service, their power requirements are remarkably similar. The ATX/NLX power supply provides five voltages to the motherboard (+5 Vdc, 5 Vdc, +12 Vdc, 12 Vdc, and +3.3 Vdc) through a 20-pin connector (Fig. 36-5). The +3.3-Vdc supply is added to support the growing base of low-voltage logic appearing in the PC. Older AT-style motherboards also incorporate low-voltage logic, but require an on-board voltage regulator to supply the +3.3 Vdc, rather than the power supply. The signals can be identified by their colors:
s s s s s s s s s s

Black Blue Brown Gray Green Orange Purple Red White Yellow

Gnd 12 Vdc 3.3 V sense Power OK PS-ON +3.3 Vdc 5 VSB +5 Vdc 5 Vdc +12 Vdc

In addition to the actual voltages feeding the motherboard, several logic signals are used to control power:
PS-ON PS-ON is an active-low signal that turns on all of the main power outputs (+3.3

Vdc, +5 Vdc, 5 Vdc, +12 Vdc, and 12 Vdc). When this signal is held high (logic 1) or left open-circuited, the power-supply outputs should be off. In effect, this is the signal that allows soft control of the system power.

1110

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

3.3Vdc 12Vdc Gnd PS ON Gnd

11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3.3Vdc 3.3Vdc Gnd 5Vdc Gnd 5Vdc Gnd Power OK 5VSB 12Vdc

Gnd 16 Gnd 17 5Vdc 18 5Vdc 19 5Vdc 20 FIGURE 36-5 ATX/NLX-style motherboard power connector.

5VSB 5VSB is a standby voltage source that can be used to power circuits that require

power input during the powered-down state. The 5VSB pin should deliver 5 Vdc (+/- 5%) at a minimum of 10 mA for PC board circuits to operate.
PW-OK PW-OK (Power OK) is a power good signal and should be set at logic 1 by the

power supply to indicate that the +5-Vdc and +3.3-Vdc outputs are above the undervoltage thresholds of the power supply.

OPTIONAL ATX/NLX POWER CONNECTOR

The ATX and NLX form-factor specifications also provide for an optional 6-pin power connector (Fig. 36-6). Each signal adds a certain amount of versatility to the ATX/NLX system. You can identify the optional power connector signals by their wire colors:
s s s s s

White White/blue stripe White/brown stripe White/red stripe White/black stripe

FanM FanC 3.3-V sense 1394V 1394R

CONNECTING THE POWER SUPPLY

1111

FanM signal The FanM signal is an open collector, 2-pulse per revolution tachometer

signal from the power-supply fan. This signal allows the system to monitor the power supply for fan speed or failures. If this signal is not implemented on the motherboard, it should not impact the power-supply function.
FanC signal The FanC signal is an optional fan-speed and shutdown-control signal.

The fan speed and shutdown are controlled by a variable voltage on this pin. This signal allows the system to request control of the power supply fan from full speed to off. The control circuit on the motherboard should supply voltage to this pin from +12 Vdc to 0 Vdc for the fan-control request.
3.3-V sense line A remote 3.3-V sense line can be added to the optional connector to

allow for accurate control of the 3.3-Vdc line directly at motherboard loads.
1394V pin This pin on the optional connector allows for implementation of a segregated

voltage supply rail for use with unpowered IEEE-1394 (fire wire) solutions. The power derived from this pin should be used to power only 1394 connectors (unregulated anywhere from 8 to 40 V).
1394R pin The 1394R pin provides an isolated ground path for unpowered IEEE-1394

2
SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

(fire wire) implementations. This ground should be used only for 1394 connections, and should be fully isolated from other ground planes in the system.

VOLTAGE TOLERANCES
If you pursue power-supply testing or troubleshooting at any level, youre going to need to test the output voltages. One important aspect of voltage measurements that are often overlooked by novice technicians is the idea of voltage tolerance. Voltage outputs are rarely exact, and might vary from their rated value by as much as 5% (often 3 to 4% for the +3.3-Vdc output). For example, a +5-Vdc output might actually read between +4.75 Vdc and +5.25 Vdc, and a +12-Vdc output might read from +11.4 Vdc to +12.6 Vdc. As long as the measured voltage is within a reasonable tolerance, the output should be considered good. If the measured voltage strays outside of this reasonable tolerance (usually to the

1394R

Fan M

1394V

Fan C

Reserved

3.3V sense

FIGURE 36-6

Optional ATX/NLX motherboard power connector.

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SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

low side), chances are that the output is being overloaded by excessive devices. If the output measures extremely low (or is absent) chances are that the output (and the power supply) is defective. You can then choose to repair or replace the power supply.

Troubleshooting Switching Power Supplies

Troubleshooting a switching power supply can be a complex and time-consuming task. Although the operation of rectifier and filter sections are reasonably straightforward, sensing/switching circuits can be complex oscillators that are difficult to follow without a schematic. Sub-assembly replacement of dc switching supplies is quite common.

TIPS FOR POWER-SUPPLY SERVICE

Power and power-supply problems can manifest themselves in a stunning variety of ways, but the following tips should help you to stay out of trouble:
s Power-supply cooling is importantkeep the vent openings and fan blades clean. s Be sure that the line-voltage switch (120/220 Vac) is set correctly for your region. s Verify that the power-supply connectors are attached to the motherboard and drives se-

curely.
s Remember that for AT-style power connections, the black wires go together. s Do not use a Y splitter to split power from a HDD (avoid Y splitters entirely, if possible). s Some Y splitters are wired improperly. If you have trouble with a device after installing

a Y splitter, check the splitter or try powering the device directly.

s Voltage tolerances are usually 5% (4% for 3.3 Vdc), so be sure that each output is

within tolerance.
s If you experience erratic system behavior after adding a new device, this can be the re-

sult of an overload. Try removing the device.

AN EXAMPLE POWER SUPPLY

For the purposes of this troubleshooting section, consider the IC-based switching supply of Fig. 36-7. The STK7554 is a switching regulator IC manufactured as a 16-pin SIP (single in-line package). It offers a dual output of 24 Vdc and 5 Vdc. Notice that both output waveforms from the STK7554 are 38-V square waves, but the duty cycle of those square waves sets the desired output levels. The square waves amplitude simply provides energy to the filter circuits. Filters made from coils (chokes) and high-value polarized capacitors smooth the square-wave input (actually a form of pulsating dc) into a steady source of dc. Some small amount of high-frequency ripple will be on each dc output. Smaller, nonpolarized capacitors on each output act to filter out high-frequency components of the dc output. Finally, notice the resistor-capacitor-diode combinations on each output. These form a surge and flyback protector, which prevents energy stored in the choke from re-entering the IC and damaging it. Refer to Fig. 36-7 for the following symptoms.

TROUBLESHOOTING SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

1113

120 Vac input

39 Vdc

38 Vdc 24-V sense

24 Vdc output

F1

L1
Parts list D1 to D6 L1 T1 L2, L3, L4 R1 R2, R3 C1 C2 C3, C4, C7 C5, C6, C8 C9 F1 IC1

T1

D1 D2 D3 D4

L3 C1 R1 STK 7554 IC1 R3 D6 C4 5-V sense L2 R2 D5 C5 C3 C6 C7 L4 C8 C9 5-Vdc output

Rectifier diodes Surge supressor Transformer Chokes 10 k 1/2 W 47 1 W 6000 F 22 F 0.01 F 1000 F 1 F Fuse Switching regulator STK 7554

C2 38 Vdc

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SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

FIGURE 36-7

A complete IC-based switching power supply.

SYMPTOMS
Symptom 36-1. The PC or peripheral is completely deadno power indicators are lit As with linear supplies, check the ac line voltage entering the PC before

beginning any major repair work. Use your multimeter to measure the ac line voltage available at the wall outlet that is powering your computer or peripheral. Be extremely cautious whenever measuring ac line-voltage levels. Normally, you should read between 105 and 130 Vac to ensure proper-supply operation. If you find either very high or low ac voltage, try the device in an outlet that provides the correct amount of ac voltage. Unusual line voltage levels might damage your power supply, so proceed cautiously. If ac line voltage is normal, suspect that the main power fuse in the supply has failed. Most power fuses are accessible from the rear of the computer near the ac line cord, but some fuses might only be accessible by disassembling the device and opening the supply. Unplug the device and remove the fuse from its holder. You should find the fusible link intact, but use your multimeter to measure continuity across the fuse. A good fuse should measure as a short circuit (0 ohms), but a failed fuse will measure as an open circuit (infinity). Replace any failed fuse and re-test the PC. If the fuse continually fails, a serious defect is elsewhere within the power supply or other computer/peripheral circuits. If your supply has an ac selector switch that sets the supply for 120-Vac or 240-Vac operation, be sure that switch is in the proper position for your region of the world (an improperly set ac switch can disable the entire system). Unplug the computer and disassemble it enough to expose the power supply clearly. Restore power to the PC and measure each dc output with your multimeter or oscilloscope (you can usually find a power connector at the motherboard or other main board). Be sure that any power cables are securely attached. If each output measures correctly, then your

1114

SWITCHING POWER SUPPLIES

trouble lies outside of the supplya key circuit has failed elsewhere in the device. You can try a POST board or diagnostic to trace the specific problem further. A low output voltage is suggestive of a problem within the supply itself. Check each connector and all interconnecting wiring leading to or from the supply. Remember that many switching supplies must be attached to a load for proper switching to occur. If the load circuit is disconnected from its supply, the voltage signal could shutdown or oscillate wildly. If the supply outputs continue to measure incorrectly with all connectors and wiring intact, chances are that your problem is inside the supply. With a linear supply, begin testing at the output, then work back toward the ac input. For a switching supply, you should begin testing at the ac input, then work toward the defective output. Measure the primary ac voltage applied across the transformer (T1). Use extreme caution when measuring high-voltage ac. You should read approximately 120 Vac for Fig. 36-7. If voltage has been interrupted in that primary circuit, the meter will read 0 Vac. Check the primary circuit for any fault that might interrupt power. Measure secondary ac voltage supplying the rectifier stage. It should read higher than the highest output voltage that you expect. For the example of Fig. 36-7, the highest expected dc output is 24 V, so ac secondary voltage should be several volts higher than this. The example shows this as 28 Vac. If primary voltage reads correctly and secondary voltage does not, an open circuit might be in the primary or secondary transformer winding. Try replacing the transformer. Next, check the pre-switched dc voltage supplying the switching IC. Use your multimeter or oscilloscope to measure this dc level. You should read approximately the peak value of whatever secondary ac voltage you just measured. For Fig. 36-7, a secondary voltage of 28 Vac should yield a dc voltage of about (28 Vac RMS ( 1.414) 39 Vdc. If this voltage is low or non-existent, unplug ac from the supply and check each rectifier diode, then inspect the filter capacitor. Use your oscilloscope to measure each chopped dc output signal. You should find a high-frequency square wave at each output (20kHz to 40kHz) with an amplitude approximately equal to the pre-switched dc level (38 to 39 volts in this case). Set your oscilloscope to a time base of 5 or 10 S/DIV and start your VOLTS/DIV setting at 10 VOLTS/DIV. Once you have established a clear trace, adjust the time base and vertical sensitivity to optimize the display. If you do not read a chopped dc output from the switching IC, either the IC is defective or one (or more) of the polarized output filter capacitors might be shorted. Unplug the PC and inspect each questionable filter capacitor. Replace any capacitors that appear shorted. As a general rule, filter capacitors tend to fail more readily in switching supplies than in linear supplies because of high-frequency electrical stress and the smaller physical size of most switching-supply components. If all filter capacitors check out correctly, replace the switching IC. Use care when desoldering the old regulator. Install an IC socket (if possible) to prevent repeat soldering work, then just plug in the new IC. If you do not have the tools to perform this work (or the problem persists), replace the power supply outright.
Symptom 36-2. Supply operation is intermittentdevice operation cuts in and out with the supply Inspect the ac line voltage into your printer. Be sure that

the ac line cord is secured properly at the wall outlet and printer. Be sure that the power fuse is installed securely. If the PC/peripheral comes on at all, the fuse has to be intact. Unplug the device and expose your power supply. Inspect every connector or intercon-

FURTHER STUDY

1115

necting wire leading into or out of the supply. A loose or improperly installed connector can play havoc with the systems operation. Pay particular attention to any output connections. In almost all cases, a switching power supply must be connected to its load circuit in order to operate. Without a load, the supply might cut out or oscillate wildly. In many cases, intermittent operation might be the result of a PC board problem. PC board problems are often the result of physical abuse or impact, but they can also be caused by accidental damage during a repair. Lead pull-through occurs when a wire or component lead is pulled away from its solder joint, usually through its hole in the PC board. This type of defect can easily be repaired by re-inserting the pulled lead and properly re-soldering the defective joint. Trace breaks are hairline fractures between a solder pad and its printed trace. Such breaks can usually render a circuit inoperative, and they are almost impossible to spot without a careful visual inspection. Board cracks can sever any number of printed traces, but they are often very easy to spot. The best method for repairing trace breaks and board cracks is to solder jumper wires across the damage between two adjacent solder pads. You could also simply replace the power supply outright. Some forms of intermittent failures are time or temperature related. If your system works just fine when first turned on, but fails only after a period of use, then spontaneously returns to operation later on (or after it has been off for a while), you might be faced with a thermally intermittent componenta component might work when cool, but fail later on after reaching or exceeding its working temperature. After a system quits under such circumstances, check for any unusually hot components. Never touch an operating circuit with your fingersinjury is almost certain. Instead, smell around the circuit for any trace of burning semiconductor or unusually heated air. If you detect an overheated component, spray it with a liquid refrigerant. Spray in short bursts for the best cooling. If normal operation returns, then you have isolated the defective component. Replace any components that behave intermittently. If operation does not return, test any other unusually warm components. If problems persist, replace the entire power supply outright.

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SYSTEM DATA AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Further Study
This concludes the material for Chapter 36. Be sure to review the glossary and chapter questions on the accompanying CD. If you have access to the Internet, take a look at some of these power-supply resources: UL (Underwriters Laboratories): http://www.ul.com/ TUV (German Standards): http://www.tuv.com/ Astec: http://www.astec.com/ PC Power and Cooling: http://www.pcpowercooling.com Amtrade: http://www.amtrade.com