4.

BIOPHYSICSOFTHEGENERATIONOFEMGSIGNALS
D.FarinaandR.Merletti
LaboratoryforEngineeringoftheNeuromuscularSystem DepartmentofElectronics PolitecnicodiTorino,Italy

D.F.Stegeman

DepartmentofClinicalNeurophysiology UniversityMedicalCenter,Nijmegen InteruniversityInstituteforFundamental,and ClinicalHumanMovementSciences(IFKB),Amsterdam,TheNetherlands

4.1Introduction TheEMGsignalisarepresentationoftheelectricpotentialeld generatedbythedepolarizationoftheoutermuscleber membrane(thesarcolemma).Itsdetectioninvolvestheuseof intramuscularorsurfaceelectrodesthatareplacedatacertain distancefromthesources.Thetissueseparatingthesourcesand therecordingelectrodesactsasasocalledvolumeconductor.The volumeconductorpropertieslargelydeterminethefeaturesofthe detectedsignals,intermsoffrequencycontentandofdistance beyondwhichthesignalcannolongerbedetected. Inthischapterbasicconceptsofgenerationanddetection ofEMGsignalswillbedescribed.Inparticular,attentionisdevoted totheissuesoftheappearanceattheendplate,thepropagation alongthesarcolemma,andtheextinctionoftheintracellularaction potentialatthetendons,crosstalkbetweennearbymuscles, selectivityofthedetectionsystemsinrelationtothesignalsources andthevolumeconductorproperties.Thelastpartofthechapter presentstherelationshipsbetweenthedevelopedforceandthe characteristicsofthedetectedsurfaceEMGsignal. TofullyunderstandsomepartsoftheChapter,thereader shouldconsulttheparagraphsdevotedtospatiallteringand samplinginChapter7.Theissuesdiscussedinthischapterprovide abasisfortheEMGmodelingapproachespresentedinChapter8. OsinalEMGumarepresentaodopotencialdocampoeltrico geradopeladespolarizaodamembranaexternadafibra muscular(sarcolema).Suadetecoenvolveousodeeletrodosde superfcieouintramuscularquesocolocadosaumacerta distnciadasfontes.Otecidoqueseparaasfonteseoseletrodosde registrofuncionacomoumchamadovolumecondutor.As propriedadesdovolumecondutordeterminamemlargamedidaas caractersticasdossinaisdetectados,emtermosdefreqnciae contedodadistnciaalmdaqualosinalnopodeserdetectado. Nestecaptulo,osconceitosbsicosdegeraoedeteco desinaisdeEMGserodescritas.Emparticular,aateno dedicadasquestesdaaparncianaplacafinal,apropagaoao longodosarcolemaedaextinodopotencialdeaointracelular natendes,crosstalkentremsculosadjacentes,aseletividadedos sistemasdedetecoemrelaoaosinalfonteseaspropriedadesde volumecondutor.Altimapartedocaptuloapresentaasrelaes entreaforadesenvolvidaeascaractersticasdasuperfciedosinal EMGdetectado. Paraentendercompletamentealgumaspartesdocaptulo, oleitordeveconsultarospargrafosdedicadosfiltragemespacial eamostragemnoCaptulo7.Asquestesdiscutidasnestecaptulo fornecemumabaseparaasabordagensdemodelagemEMG apresentadasnoCaptulo8.

4.2EmgSignalGeneration TheEMGsignalisgeneratedbytheelectricalactivityofthe musclebersactiveduringacontraction.Thesignalsourcesare thuslocatedatthedepolarizedzonesofthemusclebers.The sourcesofthesignalareseparatedfromtherecordingelectrodesby biologicaltissues,whichactasspatiallowpassltersonthe (spatial)potentialdistribution[3].Incaseofintramuscular recordingstheeffectofthetissuesbetweenelectrodesandmuscle bersisrelativelysmallduetotheclosenessoftherecording electrodestothesources.Onthecontrary,forsurfacerecordings thevolumeconductorconstitutesanimportantlowpassltering effectontheEMGsignal.Asindicated,thevolumeconductor mediatedlteringeffectisprincipallyspatial.Itisawidespread misunderstandingthatthislteringactsdirectlyinthetemporal domain.Thiswillbeelucidatedlaterextensively,especiallyin relationtothepossibilitiestoreducecrosstalk. OsinalEMGgeradopelaatividadeeltricadasfibrasmusculares ativasduranteumacontrao.Asfontesdesinalso,portanto, localizadosnaszonasdespolarizadadasfibrasmusculares.As fontesdosinalsoseparadosdoseletrodosderegistroportecidos biolgicos,queatuamcomoespacialfiltrospassabaixana distribuio(espacial)empotencial[3].Emcasodegravaes intramuscularoefeitodostecidosentreoseletrodoseasfibras muscularesrelativamentepequeno,devidoproximidadedos eletrodosdegravaoparaasfontes.Pelocontrrio,paraas gravaesdasuperfciedovolumecondutorconstituiumefeito passabaixaimportantenafiltragemdosinalEMG.Conforme indicado,ovolumedoefeitomediadocondutorfiltragem principalmenteespacial.umequvocogeneralizadodequeessa filtragematuadiretamentenodomniotemporal.Issovaiser esclarecidodepoisextensivamente,especialmenteemrelaos possibilidadesdereduzirainterferncia.

4.2.1SignalSource Ifamicropipetteelectrodeisinsertedintracellularlyintoamuscle ber,amembranerestingpotentialof70/90mV(whichisnegative insidethecellwithrespecttotheextracellularenvironment)is measured[38](seeFig.1.10,Chapter1).Themaintenanceofthis potentialmainlydependsontheactivityoftheenergytaking sodiumpotassiumpumpsworkingagainsttheconcentration gradientsofionsowingthroughthemembrane[19].Theelectric impulsethatispropagatedalongthemotoneuronarrivesatits terminalandcausestheemissionofacetylcholineinthegap Seumeletrodomicropipetainseridaintracelularmenteemuma fibramuscular,umpotencialderepousodamembranade70/90 mV(oquenegativonointeriordaclulaemrelaoaoambiente extracelular)medida[38](verfig.1.10,Captulo1).A manutenodessepotencialdepende,principalmente,aatividade daenergiaqueasbombasdesdiopotssiotrabalhandocontraos gradientesdeconcentraodeonsquefluiatravsdamembrana [19].Oimpulsoeltricoquepropagadoaolongodomotoneurnio chegaaoseuterminaleprovocaaemissodeacetilcolinanoespao

betweenthenerveterminalandthemusclebermembrane,which excitesthebermembraneatthisneuromuscularjunction.Inthis caseapotentialgradientinapartoftheberisgenerated.An inwardcurrentdensity(depolarizationzone)correspondstothis potentialchange.Thedepolarizationzonepropagatesalongthe musclebersfromtheneuromuscularjunctionstothetendons endings.Thepropagatingintracellularactionpotential(IAP) causesanionictransmembranecurrentprolealsopropagating alongthesarcolemma.Incaseofnerveandmusclebersthetotal lengthofthedepolarizationzone,alongwiththezoneinwhichthe membraneisrepolarizing,isontheorderofafewmillimetersto severalcentimetersforfastconductingnervebers.Thismeans thatintermsofanelectriccircuitabercanbeconsideredasa verythintubeinwhichcurrentisonlyowingaxially.Ifthisline sourcemodel[37]isassumed,thetransmembranecurrentthatis generatedisproportionaltothesecondspatialderivativeofthe IAP.ThemodeldepictedinFigure4.1arepresentsaportionzof bermembraneintheassumptionoflinesourcecondition.The decreaseinpotentialperunitlengthisequaltotheproductofthe resistanceperunitlengthandthecurrentowingthroughthe resistance.

entreoterminalnervosoeamembranadafibramuscular,oque excitaamembranadefibranestajunoneuromuscular.Neste caso,umgradientedepotencialemumapartedafibragerado. Umadensidadedecorrenteparadentro(zonadespolarizao) correspondeaestamudanapotencial.Azonadedespolarizaose propagaaolongodasfibrasmuscularesapartirdajuno neuromuscularsterminaesdostendes".Opotencialdeao propagaointracelular(IAP)fazumperfilinicatransmembrana atualtambmpropagaaolongodosarcolema.Emcasodefibras nervosasemuscularesocomprimentototaldazonade despolarizao,juntamentecomazonaemqueamembrana repolarizante,daordemdepoucosmilmetrosavrioscentmetros paraumarpidarealizaodefibrasnervosas.Istosignificaque emtermosdeumcircuitoeltricodeumafibrapodeserconsiderado comoumtubomuitofinonoqualacorrentesfluiaxialmente.Se estemodelodefontedelinha[37]assumido,acorrente transmembranaquegeradaproporcionalsegundaderivada espacialdoIAP.OmodelomostradonaFigura4.1arepresenta umapartedozmembranadefibranaassunodacondiode fontedelinha.Adiminuiodopotencialporunidadede comprimentoigualaoprodutodaresistnciaporunidadede comprimentoeacorrentequefluiatravsdaresistncia.

(1)

Figure4.1.(a)Linearcoreconductormodelrepresentingaportion ofthefibermembrane.Forgraphicalrepresentationthestructure isshownasarepetitivenetworkoffinitelengthDz,butinfactDz 0;theanalysisisbasedonthecontinuum.Theopenboxisa symbolrepresentingtheequivalentcircuitofthemembrane,which dependsonthemembranestate,namelyapassivestructureduring therestingperiodandacircuitwithtimedependentcomponents duringtheactivephase,asdescribedinChapter1.(b) RepresentationofmusclefiberpositioninCartesianandcylindrical coordinatesystems.

Figura4.1.(a)modelodencleocondutorLinearquerepresenta umapartedamembranadafibra.Paraarepresentaogrficada estruturamostradacomoumarederepetitivadeduraofinita Dz,masnaverdadeDz0;aanlisebaseiasenocontinuum.A caixaabertaumsmboloquerepresentaocircuitoequivalenteda membrana,quedependedoestadodamembrana,ouseja,uma estruturapassivaduranteoperododerepousoeumcircuitocomo tempodependentecomponentesduranteafaseativa,conforme descritonoCaptulo1.(b)Representaodaposiodafibra muscularemsistemasdecoordenadascartesianasecilndricas.

Fortheextracellularandintracellularpathwehavewith reandritheresistanceperunitlength(/cm)oftheextracellular andintracellularpath,respectively.Moreoverconservationof currentrequiresthattheaxialrateofdecreaseintheintracellular

Paraocaminhoextracelulareintracelularquetemoscom areeriaresistnciaporunidadedecomprimento(/cm)do caminhoextracelulareintracelular,respectivamente.Almdisso conservaodaatualexigequeataxaaxialdediminuiona

longitudinalcurrentbeequaltothetransmembranecurrentper unitlength:

correnteintracelularlongitudinalserigualacorrente transmembranaporunidadedecomprimento:

(2) Theextracellularlongitudinalcurrentmaydecreasewith increasingzeitherbecauseofadecrementofcurrentthatcrosses themembrane(transmembranecurrent)oralossthatiscarried outsidebyindwellingelectrodes: Oextracelularlongitudinalcorrentepodediminuircomz ouporcausadeumdecrscimodacorrentequeatravessaa membrana(atualtransmembrana)ouumaperdaquerealizado foradeeletrodosdehabitao:

(3)

Figure4.2.Representationofamotorunit(MU)andofamotor unitactionpotential(MUAP).Zoomedviewofthesource.

Figura4.2.Representaodeumaunidadedemotor(MU)edeum potencialdeaodaunidademotora(MUAP).Ampliadavisoda fonte.

whereipisthecurrentowingthroughtheelectrodes.The transmembranevoltageisgivenby

ondeipofluxodecorrenteatravsdoseletrodos.Avoltagem transmembranadadapor

(4) thus,itsrstderivativeisobtainedas(substitutingEq.1): assim,suaprimeiraderivadaobtidacomo(substituindoaEq.1.)

(5) andderivingasecondtime(substitutingEqs.2and3): umaderivaoesegundotempo(substituindoEqs..2e3):

(6) whichshowsthatthesecondderivativeofthetransmembrane potentialisproportionaltothetransmembranecurrentinthe hypothesisofthelinesourcemodel.Figure4.1bshowstwo coordinatesystems(rectangularandcylindrical)adoptedinthe literaturetostudytheeldgeneratedbyabersdepolarizedarea. Figure4.2depictsthesurfacepotentialgeneratedbyamotorunit. quemostraqueasegundaderivadadopotencialtransmembrana proporcionalparaoatualtransmembrananahiptesedeomodelo defontedelinha.Afigura4.1bmostradoissistemasde coordenadas(rectangularesecilndricos),aprovadanaliteratura paraestudarocampogeradopeladespolarizaodafibraporrea. Figura4.2mostraopotencialdesuperfciegeradaporuma unidademotora.

Thevelocitywithwhichtheactionpotentialpropagates dependsontheberdiameterandtypeandisreferredtoas conductionvelocity(CV).ItisgenerallyacceptedthatCVincreases withincreasingberdiameter[51].Theobservedrelationbetween berdiameterandCVevenseemstobevalidforaffectedmuscles inneuromusculardiseases[8]. TheIAPshapecanbeapproximatedbysimplefunctions, suchastheanalyticalexpressionprovidedbyRosenfalck[57]ora triangularapproximation.Ingeneral,theIAPcanbecharacterized byadepolarizationphase,arepolarizationphase,anda hyperpolarizinglongafterpotential.TheIAPshapemaychange duetotheconditionsofthemuscle.Inparticular,duringfatigue fewstagesofIAPalterationcanbedistinguished[35].Inthe beginningoffatigue,theIAPspikewidthinspaceincreasesmainly becauseoftheslowingoftherepolarizationphase.Inthisphase therateofincreaseoftheIAPremainspracticallyunchangedwhile theamplitudedecreasesslightly.Theamplitudeofthe afterpotentialincreases.Inthefollowingstages,theabsolutevalue oftherestingpotential,spikeamplitude,andrateoftheIAPrise decreasetogether,withfurtherslowingoftheIAPfallingphase andincreasingoftheafterpotentialamplitude.

Avelocidadecomqueopotencialdeaosepropaga dependedodimetrodafibraedotipoeconhecidocomo velocidadedeconduo(CV).geralmenteaceitequeos aumentosdeCVcomoaumentododimetrodafibra[51].A relaoobservadaentreodimetrodafibraeCVmesmopareceser vlidoparaosmsculosafetadosnasdoenasneuromusculares[8]. AformaIAPpodeseraproximadaporfunessimples, comoaexpressoanalticafornecidoporRosenfalck[57]ouuma aproximaotriangular.Emgeral,oIAPpodesercaracterizada porumafasededespolarizao,afasederepolarizao,eumtempo depoishiperpolarizantespotencial.AformaIAPpodemmudar devidoscondiesdomsculo.Emparticular,duranteafadigade algumasetapasdealteraoIAPpodemserdistinguidos[35].No inciodafadiga,aumentodalarguradoIAPnoespaoaumenta principalmenteporcausadadesaceleraodafasede repolarizao.Nestafase,ataxadeaumentodoIAPmantmse praticamenteinalterada,enquantoaamplitudediminuiumpouco. Aamplitudedosaumentosafterpotential.Nasfasesseguintes,o valorabsolutodopotencialderepouso,amplitudedoponto,etaxa dedecrscimoaumentoIAPemconjunto,commaiordesacelerao daquedadefaseIAPeaumentodaamplitudedopotencialdepois.

4.2.2GenerationAndExtinctionOfTheIntracellularAction Potential ThegenerationandextinctionoftheIAPcanbedescribedin differentways[12,15,32,33,34,47].Generally,itisassumedthat theintegralofthetransmembranecurrentdensityovertheentire muscleberlengthiszeroatalltimes.OnthisbasisGootzenetal. [31,32]replacedthecurrentdensitysourceattheendplateandat thetendonswithanequivalentsourceproportionaltotherst derivativeoftheIAP.Thesameapproachhasbeenusedinamodel inwhichthevolumeconductorissimulatednumericallybyanite elementapproach[45]. DimitrovandDimitrova[13]startedtheirdescriptionby consideringtherstderivativeoftheIAPandassumedits progressiveappearanceattheendplateanddisappearanceatthe tendons.Thissecondapproachiscomputationallyandconceptually attractiveandhasbeenalsousedbyanumberofresearcherswho applieddifferentcomputationtechniques[24,47].One approximatestheIAPwithatriangularfunction,whoserst derivativeisafunctionthatassumestwoconstantvaluesof oppositesign.Thecurrentdensitysourceis,inthiscase, approximatedbyacurrenttripole,sometimesdividedconceptually inaleadingandatrailingdipolepart[18].Whenthetripole reachesthetendontherstpolestopsandtheothertwopolesget closertotherst;whenthesecondpolecoincideswiththerst,the leadingdipoledisappears,andnallyalsothetrailingdipole disappearsatthetendon.Asimilarmechanisminopposite directionoccursattheendplate.Theelementarylifecycleofthe IAPisschematicallypresentedinFigure4.3.Fromthebasic understandingoftheextinctionofanIAP,independentoftheway inwhichitisdescribed,itcanbeconcludedthattheendofber potentialwaveshapeequalstheIAPwaveshape[64].Onthebasis oftheconceptsoutlinedbyDimitrovandDimitrova[13],Farina andMerletti[24]proposedageneraldescriptionofthecurrent densitysourcetravelingatvelocityvalongtheberwithanorigin andanendpoint: AgeraoeextinodoIAPpodeserdescritodediferentes maneiras[12,15,32,33,34,47].Geralmente,supesequeaintegral dadensidadedecorrentetransmembranasobreafibramuscular comprimentototalzeroemtodososmomentos.NestabaseGootzen etal.[31,32],substituiuafontedensidadedecorrentenaplacaeno finalostendescomumafonteequivalenteproporcionalprimeira derivadadaIAP.Amesmaabordagemfoiutilizadaemummodelo emqueovolumecondutorsimuladanumericamenteatravsde umaabordagemdeelementosfinitos[45]. DimitroveDimitrova[13]iniciouasuadescrio, considerandoaprimeiraderivadadoIAPeassumiuseuaspecto progressistanaplacafinaledesaparecimentoemtendes.Esta segundaabordagemcomputacionalmenteeconceitualmente atraenteetambmtemsidoutilizadaporumnmerode investigadoresqueaplicoutcnicasdecomputaodiferentes [24,47].UmseaproximadoIAPcomumafunotriangular,cuja primeiraderivadaumafunoqueassumedoisvaloresconstantes desinaloposto.Afontededensidadedecorrente,nestecaso, aproximadaporumtripoloactual,porvezesdividida conceitualmenteemumldereumdipolopartedireita[18]. Quandootripoloatingeotendodoploprimeirasparadaseos outrosdoisplosdechegarmaispertodoprimeiro,quandoo segundoplocoincidecomoprimeiro,odipololderdesaparece,e, finalmente,odipolodefugadesaparecenotendo.Ummecanismo semelhanteocorrenadireoopostaaopratofinal.Ociclodevida elementardoIAPesquematicamenteapresentadonaFigura4.3.A partirdoconhecimentobsicodaextinodeumIAP,independente daformaemquedescrito,podeseconcluirqueofimdefibra formadeondaigualaopotencialdeformadeondaIAP[64].Com basenosconceitosdescritosporDimitroveDimitrova[13],Farinae Merletti[24]propsumadescriogeraldafontededensidadede correnteviajandocomvelocidadevaolongodafibracomuma origemeumpontofinal:

(7) wherei(z,t)isthecurrentdensitysource,y(z)=dVm(z)/dz(Vm(z)is theIAP),pL(z)isafunctionthattakesvalue1forL/2zL/2 and0otherwise,ziisthepositionoftheendplate,L1andL2are thelengthoftheberfromtheendplatetotherightandtotheleft tendon,respectively. ondei(z,t)afontedadensidadedecorrente,y(z)=dVm(z)/dz(Vm (z)oIAP),PL(z)umafunoqueassumevalor1paraL/2z L/2e0,casocontrrio,ziaposiodaplacafinal,L1eL2so ocomprimentodafibradaplacadefinalparaadireitaeparao tendoesquerdo,respectivamente.

Figure4.3.(a)Stylizedpresentationofanintracellularaction potentialasafunctionofpositionalongamusclefiberduring steadyactionpotentialpropagation.Indicationsofpropagation velocityCV,theshortdepolarizationandthe(longertail) repolarizationphaseareincluded,aswellasthetripole transmembraneioniccurrentImanditsultimatesimplificationin termsofaleading(+)andtrailing(+)dipolepair.(b)The spatiotemporaldevelopmentofthetransmembranecurrentalonga musclefiber.Thetransmembraneioniccurrentstartsastwo dipolesattheendplateafterexcitationbyamotoneuronaction potential(1).Afterfulldevelopmentofthesefirst(leading)dipoles, asecond(trailing)pairemerges(2).Thebalanced,doublepairthen propagatesastwotripolesinoppositedirections(3,4).Onarrival atthetendon,theleadingdipolesdeclineinstrengthand disappears,leavingthetrailingdipole(5).Subsequentlyalsothe trailingdipolesdecline(6)anddisappear(7).

Figura4.3.(A)apresentaoestilizadodeumpotencialdeao intracelularemfunodaposioaolongodeumafibramuscular duranteopotencialdeaodepropagaoestvel.Asindicaesde velocidadedepropagaodoCV,adespolarizaocurtasecauda) repolarizaofasemais(estoincludos,bemcomoainica transmembranatripoloImatualesuasimplificaofinalem termosdeumlder(+)edireita(+)pardipolo.(B)O desenvolvimentoespacialetemporaldatransmembranaatualao longodeumafibramuscular.Oinicostransmembranacorrente comeacomodoisdipolosnaplacamotoraapsaexcitaoporum potencialdeaodomotoneurnio(1).Apsodesenvolvimento integraldestesprimeiros(esquerda)dipolos,umpar(direita), segundoemerge(2).Ocasal,parequilibrado,emseguida,propaga secomodoistripolesemdireesopostas(3,4).Nachegadaao tendo,osdipoloslderdeclniodaforaedesaparece,deixandoo arrastodipolo(5).Posteriormente,tambmodeclniodireita dipolos(6)edesaparecem(7).

Equation(7)isgeneralanddoesnotassumeany approximationofthecurrentdensitysource.Specialcases,suchas thetripoleapproximation,areincludedinEq.(7).Fromthe equationwenotethatthesourcesofEMGsignalsarenotplane wavestravelingatconstantvelocityfromminustoplusinnity.As aconsequenceEMGsignalsatdifferentpositionsalongthebers lengtharenotsimplydelayedversionsofeachother. Inparticular,whenthepotentialstopsatthetendon junction,itgeneratesasignalcomponentthatisnotpropagating andwillhavedifferentshapesatdifferentlocationsalongthe muscle.Thesecomponentsarereferredtoasendofbersignalor endofbereffect.Theirpropertieswillbediscussedinthenext sections.

Equao(7)geralenoassumequalqueraproximao dafontededensidadedecorrente.Casosespeciais,taiscomoa aproximaotripolo,soincludosnaequao.(7).Apartirda equao,notamosqueasfontesdesinaisdeEMGnosoondas planasviajandoaumavelocidadeconstantedemenosparamais infinito.ComoconseqnciasinaisEMGemdiferentes posiesaolongodocomprimentodafibranoso simplesmenteversesatrasadaunsdosoutros. Emespecial,quandopraopotencialnajunodo tendo,quegeraumcomponentedesinalquenoestse propagandoeterdiferentesformasemdiferenteslocaisaolongo domsculo.Essescomponentessodenominadosdefimdefibra ticadosinaloudefimdefibraefeito.Suaspropriedadessero discutidasnasprximassees.

4.2.3VolumeConductor Thegenerationoftheintracellularactionpotentialdeterminesan electriceldinthesurroundingspace.Thepotentialgeneratedbya motorunit(MU)canthusbedetectedalsoinlocationsrelatively farfromthesource.Thebiologicaltissuesseparatingthesources Ageraodopotencialdeaointracelulardeterminaumcampo eltriconoespaocircundante.Opotencialgeradoporumaunidade motora(MU)podeassimserdetectadatambmemlocais relativamentedistantesdafonte.Ostecidosbiolgicosqueseparaas

andthedetectingelectrodesarereferredtoasvolumeconductor andtheircharacteristicsstronglyaffectthedetectedsignal.Under thestatichypothesis,inavolumeconductor,thecurrentdensity, theelectriceld,andthepotentialsatisfythefollowing relationships[54]: (8) whereJisthecurrentdensityinthevolumeconductor(Am2),I thecurrentdensityofthesource(A*m3),Etheelectriceld(Vm 1 ),andjthepotential(V).FromEq.(8),Poissonsequationis obtained:

fonteseoseletrodosdedetecosoreferidoscomovolumecondutor eassuascaractersticasafetamfortementeosinaldetectado.Soba hipteseesttica,numvolumecondutor,adensidadedecorrente,o campoeltricoeopotencialdesatisfazerasseguintesrelaes[54]:

ondeJadensidadedecorrentenocondutorvolume(Am 2),quea densidadedecorrentedafonte(A*m3),Eocampoeltrico(Vm1), ejopotencial(V).Daequao.(8),aequaodePoissonobtido:

(9) wheresx,sy,andszaretheconductivitiesofthemediuminthe threespatialdirections.Equation(9)isthegeneralrelation(in Cartesiancoordinates)betweenthepotentialandthecurrent densityinanonhomogenousandanisotropicmedium.Ifthe mediumishomogenous,theconductivitiesdonotdependonthe pointandthefollowingequationisobtained: ondesx,syeszsoascondutividadesdomeioemtrsdirees espaciais.Equao(9)arelaogeral(emcoordenadas cartesianas)entreopotencialeadensidadedecorrenteemummeio anisotrpicoenonhomogenous.Seomeiohomogneo,a condutividadenodependedopontoedaseguinteequaoobtida:

(10) Equation(10)canbealsowrittenincylindricalcoordinates(r,z), resultingin Equao(10)tambmpodemserescritasemcoordenadas cilndricas(r,z),resultandoem

(11) ThesolutionofEq.(10)or(11)provides,theoretically,the potentialinanypointinspacewhenthecharacteristicsofthe source(I)andofthemedium(s)areknown.Thissolutioncanbe obtainedonlyiftheboundaryconditionscanbedescribedinsimple coordinatesystems.Thisproblemhasbeensolvedfordifferent degreesofsimplication.Thesimplestassumptionforthesolution ofPoissonsequationistodealwithahomogeneous,isotropic, innitevolumeconductor.Inthiscase,assumingasource distributedalongalineinzcoordinatedirection,thepotential distributioninthevolumeconductorisgivenbythefollowing relationship: Asoluodaequao.(10)ou(11)proporciona, teoricamente,opotencialemqualquerpontodoespao,quandoas caractersticasdafonte(I)edomdio(s)soconhecidas.Esta soluopodeserobtidasomenteseascondiesdecontornopode serdescritoemsimplessistemasdecoordenadas.Esseproblemafoi resolvidoparadiferentesgrausdesimplificao.Asimpleshiptese paraasoluodaequaodePoissonlidarcomumhomogneo, isotrpicovolumecondutorinfinito.Nestecaso,assumindouma fontedistribudoaolongodeumalinhaemdireocoordenadaz,a distribuiodepotencialnocondutorvolumedadopelaseguinte relao:

(12) whereI(z)isthecurrentdensitysource,andsistheconductivityof themedium.Incaseofaseminnitemediumwithdifferent conductivitiesinthelongitudinalandradialdirections(e.g.,muscle tissue),weget ondeI(z)afontedadensidadedecorrente,esacondutividade domeio.Nocasodeummeioseminfinitecomcondutividades diferentesnosentidolongitudinaleradial(porexemplo,tecido muscular),chegarmos

(13) whereszandsrarethelongitudinalandradialconductivities, respectively.Themethodofimagesmaybeappliedtocomputethe surfacepotentialdistributionincaseofasemispaceofconductive medium(tissue)andasemispaceofinsulationmaterial(air).Itis oneofthebasicobservationsfromelectrostaticsthatinthatcase thesurfacepotentialdoubleswithrespecttothecaseofaninnite medium[47]. Morecomplexdescriptionsofthevolumeconductorhave beenproposedandincludenonhomogeneousmediumcomprisedof ondeszesrsoascondutividadeslongitudinaleradial, respectivamente.Omtododasimagenspodeseraplicadapara calcularopotencialdedistribuiodesuperfcienocasodeum semispacedemeiodecondutores(tecido)eumasemispacede materialisolante(ar).umadasobservaesbsicasde eletrosttica,quenessecaso,opotencialdesuperfcieduplicaem relaoaocasodeummeioinfinito[47]. Descriesmaiscomplexasdovolumecondutortmsidopropostose incluemnohomogneamdiacompostadecamadasdediferentes

layersofdifferentconductivities.Incaseoflayeredgeometries, Eqs.(10)and(11)canbesolvedindependentlyinthedifferent layers.Thenalsolutionisthenobtainedbyimposingthe boundaryconditionsatthesurfacesbetweenthelayers.Boundary conditionsarethecontinuityofthecurrentinthedirection perpendiculartotheboundarysurfaceandcontinuityofthe potentialitselfovertheboundary.Additionalconditionsare obtainedbyimposingtheabsenceofdivergenceofthepotentialin allthepointsofthevolumeconductor,exceptforthelocationsof thesources. IncaseofCartesiancoordinatesandlayeredmedium (innitelayersparalleltothexzplane),theboundaryconditions are

condutividades.Emcasodegeometriasemcamadas,equaes.(10) e(11)podeserresolvidodeformaindependenteemdiferentes camadas.Asoluofinal,ento,obtidosatravsdaimposiode condiesdecontornonassuperfciesentreascamadas.Condies decontornosoacontinuidadedacorrentenadireo perpendicularsuperfciedecontornoedecontinuidadedo potencialdesimesmoaolongodafronteira.Condiesadicionais soobtidosmedianteaimposiodeausnciadedivergnciado potencialemtodosospontosdovolumecondutor,excetoparaos locaisdasfontes. Emcasodecoordenadascartesianasecamadasmdias (camadasinfinitaparalelaaoplanoxz),ascondiesdecontorno so

(14) fortheinterfaces(herey=hi)betweenadjacentlayers.Similar expressionscanbederivedincaseofcylindricalcoordinatesystem [9]. Farinaetal.[24,28]computed,inthespatialfrequency domain,thesurfacepotentialdistributionovertheskinplaneina threelayervolumeconductormodel.Thelayerswereseparatedby planes;thusthesolutionwasprovidedintheCartesiancoordinate system. Acylindricaldescriptionofthevolumeconductorismore realisticinthesensethatittakesintoaccountthenitenessofthe volumeconductor.Athreelayermodel(muscle,fat,andskin)has beendevelopedbyBloketal.[9]asanelaborationofthetwolayer modeldescribedbyGootzenetal.[31,32].Thegeneralsolutionof thePoissonsequationforeachofthethreeconcentriccylindrical layersofthisconguration,forthepotentialdetectedovertheskin layerreadsasfollows: paraasinterfaces(aquiy=oi)entrecamadasadjacentes. Expressessemelhantespodemserobtidosemcasodesistemade coordenadascilndricas[9]. Farinaetal.[24,28]computadorizada,nodomnioda freqnciaespacial,opotencialdedistribuiodesuperfciesobreo planodapeleemumacamadadevolumecondutormodeloetrs. Ascamadasforamseparadasporavies,assim,asoluofoi fornecidanosistemadecoordenadascartesianas. Umadescriodocondutorcilndricodevolumemais realistanosentidodequeelelevaemconsideraoafinitudedo volumecondutor.Ummodelodetrscamadas(msculo,gordurae pele)foidesenvolvidoporBloketal.[9]comoumaelaboraodo modelodeduascamadasdescritaporGootzenetal.[31,32].A soluogeraldaequaodePoissonparacadaumadastrs camadasconcntricascilndricadestaconfigurao,parao potencialdetectadosobreacamadadepeleoseguinte:

(15) InEq.(15),randfarethecylindricalcoordinates,risthedistance oftheberaxisfromthedetectionpoint,kisthespatialangular frequencyintheaxialdirection,andG(k)istheFouriertransform oftheelectriccurrentsourcefunctiontothespatialfrequency domain.Theconductivityoftheskinlayerintheradialdirectionis representedbytheparameters3r,thatintheaxialdirectionby s3z.Allthreelayerswereallowedtobeanisotropicinthe cylindricalcoordinatesrandz.ThefunctionsKnandInare modiedBesselfunctionsofordern,oftherstandsecondkind, respectively,andEn(k),Fn(k)areunknownsthathavetobe determinedforeachnandkfromboundaryconditions.Together withexpressionssimilartoEq.(15),forthetwootherlayers (muscle,subcutaneousfat),veofsuchunknownshavetobe determinedbytheuseofveboundaryconditions.Finally,disthe Naequao.(15)r,eFsoascoordenadascilndricas,ra distnciadoeixodafibra,dopontodedeteco,kafreqncia angularespacialnadireoaxial,eG(k)atransformadade Fourierdafontedecorrenteeltricafunoparaodomnioda freqnciaespacial.Acondutividadedacamadadepelenosentido radialrepresentadopeloS3Rparmetro,que,nadireoaxialpor s3z.Todasastrscamadasforamautorizadosaseranisotrpicana coordenadascilndricasrez.AsfuneseKnEmfunesso modificadasdeBesseldeordemn,daprimeiraesegundaespcie, respectivamente,eEn(k),Fn(k)soincgnitasquedevemser determinadosparacadanekdecondiesdecontorno.Juntocom expressessimilaresaEq.(15),paraasduasoutrascamadas (msculo,gordurasubcutnea),cincodeincgnitastaltmdeser determinadospelousodecincocondiesdecontorno.Porfim,do

diameteroftheber.BecausetheKnandInBesselfunctionstend toverylargeorverysmallvaluesforincreasingvaluesofnandfor smallorlargevaluesofk,thesolutionsystembecomesill conditionedanditssolutioninaccurate.AsdescribedbyGootzenet al.[31],itispossibletoconditionthelinearsystembyrewritingit. Ithastobenotedthatthenitenessofthevolume conductorhaspeculiarconsequencesespeciallyfortheappearance oftheendofberpotentials,sincetheythendobelongtothe categoryofsocalledfareldpotentials[18,32,61],indicatingthat thepotentialofadipolarsourcecanprincipallybeofanondecaying character[61].DepictedinFigure4.4areexamplesofmonopolarly recordedsinglemuscleberactionpotentials,showingthe increasinganddifferentialinuenceofvolumeconductiononthe propagatingandnonpropagatingcomponentswithincreasing observationdistance.Moreadvanceddescriptionsofthevolume conductormayinvolvetissueinhomogeneities[59]orthepresence ofthebones[45]and,incaseofneedleEMG,thepresenceofthe needleitself[62].

dimetrodafibra.PorqueoKnEmBesselefunestendema grandesoumuitopequenosvaloresmuitoparaaumentarosvalores deneparagrandesoupequenosvaloresdek,osistemadesoluo tornasemalcondicionadosesuasoluoimprecisa.Conforme descritoporGootzenetal.[31],possvelcondicionarosistema lineardereescrevlo. Devesernotadoqueafinitudedovolumecondutortem conseqnciaspeculiares,especialmenteparaoaparecimentodo potencialdefinaldafibra,poisentonopertencemcategoria doschamadospotenciaisdecampodistante[18,32,61],indicando queopotencialdeumafontedipolarpodemserprincipalmentede carternondecaying[61].IlustradanaFigura4.4soexemplosde monopolarlysingledepotenciaisdeaodafibramuscular, mostrandoainflunciacadavezmaiorediferenciadodeconduo sobreovolumeenopropagaocomponentesdepropagaocoma distnciadeobservaocadavezmaior.Maisavanadodescries docondutorvolumepodeenvolverotecidoemhomogeneidades[59] ouapresenadosossos[45]e,emcasodeagulhaEMG,apresena daagulhaemsi[62].

4.2.4EmgDetection,ElectrodeMontagesAndElectrodeSize EMGcanbedetectedbyintramuscularelectrodes(Chapter1)orby electrodesattachedtotheskinsurface.Theinsertionofelectrodes directlyintothemuscleallowsthedetectionofelectricpotentials veryclosetothesource,sotheinuenceofthevolumeconductoron thecurrentsourcesatthebermembranesisminimal.Forthis reasontheactionpotentialsofthedifferentMUscanbeseparated relativelyeasilyatmedium/lowforcelevels(Chapter3). Whensurfaceelectrodesareapplied,thedistance betweenthesourceandthedetectionpointissignicant,andthe spatiallowpasslteringeffectofthevolumeconductorbecomes relevant.Toremovethecommonmodecomponentscausedby technicalinterference(e.g.,apowerline)andtopartially compensateforthelowpasslteringeffectofthetissueseparating sourcesandelectrodes(seeChapter5),thesurfacesignalsare usuallydetectedasalinearcombinationofthesignalsrecordedat differentelectrodes.Thisoperationcanbeviewedasaspatial lteringofthemonopolarsurfaceEMGsignal(Chapters2and7) [17].Thesimplestformisthedifferentialdetection,theclassical bipolarmontage. Theinterpretationoftheeffectoftheelectrode congurationasaspatiallteringoperationandtherelationship betweenthetimeandspacedomains(Chapter2)ledinthepastto theobservationthatbyproperlyselectingtheweightsofthe differentelectrodes,itispossibletointroducezerosofthetransfer functionofthelter.Iftheyarewithinthespatialbandwidthofthe EMGsignalandassumingpurepropagationoftheIAPalongthe musclebers,thesezerosarereectedinthe(timerelated) frequencyspectrumoftheEMGandarereferredtoasspectral dips.Thepresenceofspectraldipshasbeentheoreticallyshownby LindstromandMagnusson[43]for1Ddifferentialdetection systems. EMGpodeserdetectadoporeletrodosintramuscular(Captulo1) ouporeletrodosligadossuperfciedapele.Ainserodos eletrodosdiretamentenomsculopermiteadetecodepotenciais eltricosmuitoprximosfonte,assimqueainflunciadovolume condutorsobreasfontesatuaisdemembranasdefibramnima. Porestarazo,ospotenciaisdeaodosMUsdiferentepodeser separadadeformarelativamentefcilabaixaforadenveismdio /(Captulo3). Quandooseletrodosdesuperfciesoaplicadas,a distnciaentreafonteeopontodedetecosignificativo,e espacialpassabaixaefeitodefiltragemdovolumecondutorse tornarelevante.Pararemoveroscomponentesdemodocomum causadopelainterfernciatcnica(porexemplo,umalinhade energia)eparacompensarparcialmenteoefeitopassabaixa filtragemdotecidoqueseparaasfonteseoselctrodos(verCaptulo 5),ossinaisdesuperfciesogeralmentedetectadocomoumlinear combinaodossinaisregistradosemdiferentestiposdeeletrodos. Estaoperaopodeservistocomoumafiltragemespacialda superfciedosinalEMGmonopolar(Captulos2e7)[17].Aforma maissimplesadetecodiferencial,oclssico"bipolar montagem". Ainterpretaodoefeitodaconfiguraodoeletrodocomo umaoperaodefiltragemespacialearelaoentreosdomniosdo tempoeespao(captulo2)levou,nopassado,aobservaodequea seleocorretamenteospesosdosdiferentestiposdeeletrodos, possvelintroduzirzerosdafunodetransfernciadofiltro.Seeles estodentrodalarguradebandaespacialdosinalEMGe assumindopropagaopuradoIAPaolongodasfibras musculares,esseszerosestoreflectidosnosrelacionados)de frequnciasdoespectrodetempo(doEMGesoreferidoscomo mergulhosespectral.Apresenadedepressesespectralfoi mostradoteoricamenteLindstromporMagnussone[43]para sistemasdedetecodiferencialD1.

Figure4.4.Calculatedsinglefiberactionpotentialsfromthesame musclefiber.Theobservationdistancetothemusclefiber decreasesfrom25mm(uppertrace,monopolarskinrecordingfrom asinglefiberinadeepMU)to0.5mm(lowesttrace,monopolar needleelectroderecordingneartothefiber).Notethelarge amplitudeandwaveformdifferences,andalsothedifferencesin verticalscaling.Thepropagationvelocityis4m/s,thehalffiber lengthis60mm,andtheelectrodeispositionedat20mmfromthe endplatezone.Positivedeflectiondownward.(Adaptedfrom[9] withpermission) Spectraldipswerefoundexperimentallyfor1D differentiallydetectedsignalsbyLindstrometal.[44]andlaterby anumberofinvestigators.Moreingeneral,consideringbothone andtwodimensionalsystemswithpointorwithphysical dimensionelectrodes,FarinaandMerletti[24]demonstratedthata sufcient(butnotnecessary)conditionforhavingadipintheEMG spectrumatthespatialfrequencyfz0is

Figura4.4.Calculadodefibranicapotenciaisdeaodafibra muscularmesmo.Adistnciadeobservaoofibramuscular diminuide25mm(,monopolarpelegravaodotraosuperiora partirdeumanicafibraemumMUdeprofundidade)a0,5mm (menortrao,eletrodosmonopolaresdegravaojuntocomafibra). Observeagrandeamplitudeeasdiferenasdeformadeonda,e tambmasdiferenasdeescalavertical.Avelocidadede propagaode4m/s,ocomprimentodafibrameiade60mm, eoeletrodoposicionadoa20mmdazonadeplacamotora. deflexopositivaparabaixo.(Adaptadode[9],compermisso) mergulhosespectraisforamencontrados experimentalmentepara1Ddiferencialmentedetectadossinaisde Lindstrometal.[44]emaistardeporumnmerode investigadores.Maisemgeral,considerandoebidimensionalcom sistemasdeumpontooucomeletrodosdedimensofsica,Farinae Merletti[24]demonstrouqueumacondionecessria(masno necessrio)suficienteparaterummergulhonoespectroEMGna freqnciaespacialfz0

(16) wherefxandfzarethespatialfrequenciesinthedirection transversalandparalleltothemusclebers,respectively,and Hele(fx,fz)isthetransferfunctionofthedetectionsystem (includingthespatiallterduetothelinearcombinationofsignals andtothephysicaldimensionsofelectrodes). Condition(16)cannotholdinthecaseofdetection systemsthatresultinanonconstantHele(fx,fz)forfzxedatthe dipfrequency.Specialcasesarethoseresultinginanisotropic transferfunction(forwhichHele(fx,fz)cannotbeconstantforany xedfz),suchasacircularelectrodeoraconcentricringsystem (seeChapter7).InChapters2and5theconceptofspectraldipand itsuseinestimatingCVforonedimensionalelectrodesystemsis presented. AlsothephysicalsizeofanelectrodeinuencestheEMG signal.Whentheelectrodeskinimpedancebetweenelectrode materialandtheskinsurfaceisequallydistributedandwhenitis (1)lowcomparedtotheinputimpedanceoftheamplierbut(2) highcomparedtotheimpedanceswithinthetissue,itcaneasilybe arguedthatthepotentialmeasuredbyanelectrodeequalsthe averageofthepotentialdistributionovertheskinunderit[14][22] [25].Asaconsequencetheinuenceoftheelectrodesizecanalso bedescribedasaspatiallowpasslterwherebytheelectrodes ondefxefzsoasfreqnciasespaciaisnosentidotransversale paralelosfibrasmusculares,respectivamente,eHele(fx,fz)a funodetransfernciadedetecosistema(incluindoofiltro espacialdevidocombinaolineardesinaiseasdimensesfsicas doseletrodos). Condio(16)nopodeconter,nocasodossistemasde detecoqueresultamemumainconstanteHele(fx,fz)parafzfixo nafrequnciamergulho.Casosespeciaissoaquelesqueresultaem umafunodetransfernciaisotrpico(paraoqualHele(,fzfx) nopodeserconstanteparaqualquerfzfixo),talcomoumeletrodo circularouumsistemadeanisconcntricos(verCaptulo7).Nos captulos2e5,oconceitodemergulhoespectralesuautilizaona estimativadeCVparadimensionalsistemasdeelctrodoseum apresentado. Almdisso,otamanhofsicodeumeletrodoinfluenciao sinalEMG.Quandoaimpednciadapeleeletrodoentreomaterial eoeletrodonasuperfciedapeleigualmentedistribudaequando (1)baixaemcomparaocomaimpednciadeentradado amplificador,mas(2)elevadoemcomparaocomasimpedncias dentrodotecido,quepodefacilmenteserdiscutidoqueopotencial medidoporumeletrodoigualmdiadadistribuiode potencialsobreapeleporbaixo[14][22][25].Comoconseqncia

dimensionsdenetheltershaping.Asinthecaseofelectrode montages,heretheinuenceofelectrodesizeislargelydependent onstructuralelementsoftheEMGsources,likethedirectionofthe muscleberswithrespecttotheelectrodelengthorwidth.

dainflunciadotamanhodoeletrodotambmpodeserdescrito comoumespaofiltropassabaixaemqueasdimensesdoeletrodo definirofiltrodemodelagem.Comonocasodemontagensde eletrodos,aquiainflunciadotamanhodoeletrodoaltamente dependenteelementosestruturaisdasfontesEMG,comoadireo dasfibrasmuscularesemrelaoaocomprimentodoeletrodoou largura.

4.3Crosstalk 4.3.1CrosstalkMuscleSignals Crosstalkisthesignaldetectedoveramusclebutgeneratedby anothermuscleclosetotherstone.Thephenomenonispresent exclusivelyinsurfacerecordings,whenthedistanceofthe detectionpointsfromthesourcesmayberelevantandsimilarfor thedifferentsources.Crosstalkisduetothevolumeconduction propertiesincombinationwiththesourceproperties,anditisone ofthemostimportantsourcesoferrorininterpretingsurfaceEMG signals.Thisisbecausecrosstalksignalscanbeconfoundedwith thesignalsgeneratedbythemuscle,whichthusmaybeconsidered activewhenindeeditisnot.Theproblemisparticularlyrelevantin caseswherethetimingofactivationofdifferentmusclesisof importance,suchasinmovementanalysis. Ifitisclearthatcrosstalkisaconsequenceofvolume conduction;itislesseasytoidentifythesignalsourcesthatare mostlyresponsibleforit(throughvolumeconduction).The identicationofcrosstalksourcesiscrucialforthedevelopmentof methodsforitsquanticationandreduction.Inthepasttherehave beenmanyattemptstoinvestigatecrosstalk. MorrenhofandAbbink[50]usedthecrosscorrelation coefcientbetweensignalsasanindicatorofcrosstalk,assuming minorshapechangesofthesignalsgeneratedbythesamesource anddetectedindifferentlocationsovertheskin.Thisassumption wasbasedonasimplemodelofsurfaceEMGsignalgeneration thatdidnottakeintoaccountthegenerationandextinctionofthe IAPattheendplateandtendon.Theirapproachforthe vericationofthepresenceofcrosstalkwasalsobasedonthejoint recordingofintramuscularandsurfaceEMGsignals.Thesame methodwasfollowedbyPerryetal.[52],whoproposedcrosstalk indexesbasedontheratiobetweentheamplitudesofthesurface andintramuscularrecordings. DeLucaandMerletti[11]investigatedcrosstalkby electricalstimulationofasinglemuscleanddetectionfromnearby muscles.Theyprovidedreferenceresultsofcrosstalkmagnitudefor themusclesofthelegandprovedthetheoreticallyhigher selectivityofthedoubledifferentialwithrespecttothesingle differentialrecording(atleastforpropagatingsignalcomponents). Asimilartechniquewasmorerecentlyappliedforcrosstalk quanticationbyotherinvestigatorswithmorecomplexspatial lteringschemes[67]. Crosstalkosinaldetectadoporummsculo,masgeradoporum outromsculoparafecharoprimeiro.Ofenmenoestpresente exclusivamentenasgravaesdesuperfcie,quandoadistnciados pontosdedetecodasfontespodemserrelevantesesimilarespara asdiferentesfontes.Crosstalkdevidoconduodepropriedades devolume,emcombinaocomaspropriedadesdafonte,euma dasmaisimportantesfontesdeerronainterpretaodesinaisde EMGdesuperfcie.Issoocorreporqueossinaiscrosstalkpodeser confundidocomossinaisgeradospelomsculo,queassimpodem serconsideradosativosquandonaverdadeno.Oproblema particularmenterelevantenoscasosemqueotempodeativaode diferentesmsculosdegrandeimportncia,comonaanlisedo movimento. Seevidentequeainterfernciaumaconseqnciada conduovolume,menosfcildeidentificarasfontesdesinalque soosprincipaisresponsveisporisso(porconduovolume).A identificaodefontesdeinterfernciafundamentalparao desenvolvimentodemtodosparasuaquantificaoereduo.No houvemuitastentativasanterioresparainvestigarainterferncia. MorrenhofeAbbink[50]utilizaramocoeficientede correlaocruzadaentreossinaiscomoumindicadordecrosstalk, assumindopequenasmudanasnoformatodossinaisgeradospela mesmafonte,edetectadoemdiferenteslocaissobreapele.Essa hiptesefoibaseadaemummodelosimplesdegeraodosinal EMGdesuperfciequenoteveemcontaageraoeextinodo IAPnaplacafinaletendo.Suaabordagemparaaverificaoda presenadecrosstalktambmfoibaseadanagravaoconjuntade sinaisEMGdesuperfcieeintramuscular.Omesmomtodofoi seguidoporPerryetal.[52],quepropendicescrosstalkcombase narelaoentreasamplitudesdasuperfcieeasgravaes intramuscular. DeLucaeMerletti[11]investigoucrosstalkpela estimulaoeltricadeumnicomsculoedetecodemsculos adjacentes.Elesforneceramresultadosderefernciadegrandeza crosstalkparaosmsculosdapernaemostroumaiorseletividade teoricamentedodiferencialduplocomrelaoaodiferencialde gravaonica(pelomenosparaapropagaodecomponentesde sinal).Umatcnicasimilarfoiaplicadorecentementeparaa quantificaocrosstalkporoutrosinvestigadorescommais complexoespacialesquemasdefiltragem[67].

4.3.2CrosstalkAndDetectionSystemSelectivity TheselectivityofadetectionsystemforsurfaceEMGrecordingcan bedenedasthevolumeofmusclefromwhichthesystemrecords signalsthatareabovenoiselevel.Themoreselectiveasystemis, thesmalleristhenumberofsourcesdetected.Roeleveldetal.[55] didacomprehensiveexperimentalstudyofthecontributionofthe potentialsofsingleMUsofthebicepsbrachiimuscletothesurface EMG.Acrosssectionalimpressionoftheinuenceofbipolar electrodemontageversusamonopolarrecordingforasupercial andadeepMUrespectivelyispresentedinFigure4.5. IntramuscularlydetectedMUpotentials(MUAPs)servedas triggersforanaveragingprocessaimedatextractingthesurface potentialsindifferentlocationsoverthemuscle.Thedifference betweenthemonopolarandthebipolarrecordingsystemisobvious AseletividadedeumsistemadedetecodeEMGdesuperfciepode serdefinidacomoovolumedemsculosdaqualosistemaregistra ossinaisqueestoacimadonveldorudo.Quantomaisseletiva umsistema,menorseronmerodefontesdetectadas.Roeleveldet al.[55]fezumestudoexperimentalglobaldacontribuiodos potenciaisdeMUsnicodomsculobcepsbraquialaEMGde superfcie.Aimpressodeseotransversaldainflunciada montagemdeeletrodobipolarversusumagravaomonopolar paraumsuperficialeprofunda,respectivamenteMUapresentada naFigura4.5.IntramusculardetectadaspotenciaisMU(MUAPs) serviucomogatilhoparaumamdiadeumprocessoquevisa extrairopotencialdesuperfcieemdiferenteslocaissobreo

asistheinuenceofMUdepth.Farinaetal.[21]recently comparedinasimilarwaytheselectivityofanumberofspatial lteringsystemsforsurfaceEMGrecordingonthebasisofjoint intramuscularandsurfacerecordings.Inparticular,theseauthors detectedsingleMUactivitiesfromtheintramuscularrecordingsin differentmusclecontractions,duringwhichsurfacesystemswere locatedatdifferentlocationsoverthemuscle.Arepresentative resultofthisprocessingmethodisshowninFigure4.6.Therateof decayofthepeakpotentialamplitudeofasingleMUAPisdifferent forthedifferentlters.IthasalsotobenotedfromFigures4.5and 4.6that,inanycase,thepotentialsdetecteddecreasetoverysmall amplitudeswithin20to25mmfromthesource.Similarndings wereobtainedforanumberofMUsandsubjects.

msculo.Adiferenaentreosmonopolareosistemadegravao bipolarevidentecomoainflunciadaprofundidadedeMU. Farinaetal.[21]recentementecomparoudeformasemelhantea seletividadedeumasriedesistemasdefiltragemespacialpara gravaodeEMGdesuperfcieemfunodaarticulaoeda superfciegravaesintramuscular.Emparticular,essesautores detectaramMUatividadesindividuaisapartirdasgravaes intramuscularemcontraesmuscularesdiferentes,duranteoqual ossistemasdesuperfcieforamlocalizadosemdiferenteslocais sobreomsculo.Umresultadorepresentativodomtodode processamentomostradonaFigura4.6.Ataxadedecaimentoda amplitudedopotencialdepicodeumnicoMUAPdiferentepara osdiferentesfiltros.Temtambmaserobservadoapartirde Figuras4.5e4.6que,emqualquercaso,ospotenciaisdetectada diminuiodeamplitudesmuitopequenasnoprazode20a25mm dafonte.Resultadossemelhantesforamobtidosporumasriede MUseassuntos. Osresultadosanteriorespodemsugerirqueopotencial geradoporumafontedecaibastanterpidonoespao,e,portanto, interfernciadeveserumproblemalimitado.Noentanto,oMUs consideradaem[21]eramtodosmuitosuperficial,esimcomfibras longas.Defigura4.5b,d,podeseobservarqueparaMUsprofunda hquaseumgradienteespacialentreaslocalidadesdedeteco diferentes.EmboraacontribuiodoMUprofundanamontagem bipolar(Fig.4.5d)pareceinsignificante,tambmhpouca diferenaentreoseletrodoslogoacimadoMUedosqueestavam maisparaolado.Desdehmuitomaisprofunda

Thepreviousndingsmightsuggestthatthepotential generatedbyasourcedecaysratherfastinspace,andtherefore crosstalkshouldbealimitedproblem.However,theMUs consideredin[21]wereallverysupercialandwithratherlong bers.FromFigure4.5bandd,itcanbeseenthatfordeepMUs therehardlyisaspatialgradientbetweendifferentdetection locations.AlthoughthecontributionofthedeepMUinthebipolar montage(Fig.4.5d)seemsnegligible,therealsoishardlya differencebetweentheelectrodesrightabovetheMUandthose lyingfurtheraside.Sincetherearemanymoredeep

Figure4.5.Crosssectionalimpression,overthesurfaceofthebiceps brachii,oftheactionpotentialsofasupercial(a,c)andadeep(b, d)MU.Monopolar(farawayreference)(a,b)andbipolar(c,d) detectionwithatransversalelectrodearray.Thesedataon individualMUswereobtainedinastudyinwhichsocalled intramuscularscanningEMGwascombinedwithsurfaceEMG recordings.Theinterelectrodedistancewas6mm.(From[56]with permission)thansupercialMUs,thissuggeststhatcrosstalkisnot aproblemthatends20to25mmawayfromthesource.

Figura4.5.Impressodeseotransversal,sobreasuperfciedo bcepsbraquial,dospotenciaisdeaodeumsuperficial(a,c)e profundidade(b,d)MU.Monopolar(distantedereferncia)(a,b)e bipolar(c,d)adetecocomumasriedeeletrodostransversal. EstesdadossobreMUsindividuaisforamobtidosemumestudoem queachamadavarreduraEMGintramuscularfoicombinadocom gravaesEMGdesuperfcie.Adistnciaintereletrodosfoide6 mm.(From[56]compermisso)deMUssuperficial,issosugereque ainterferncianoumproblemaquetermina20a25mmde distnciadafonte.

Figure4.6.SinglesurfaceMUactionpotentialsdetected transversallywithrespecttothemuscleberdirectionfromthe tibialisanteriormuscle.Thesurfacepotentialswereaveraged usingintramuscularlydetectedpotentialsastriggers(contraction level20%MVC).TheresultsfromeightsystemsforsurfaceEMG detection(schematicallyrepresentedontheleft)areshown.For eachspatiallterthewaveformsarenormalizedwithrespecttothe highestpeaktopeakvalueamongthewaveformsdetectedbythat lter.Thedistancebetweeneachrecordinglocationis5mm,the interelectrodedistanceofthepointelectrodespatialltersis5mm, andtheradiusoftheringsystemis5mm.Position6isabovethe selectedMUwhoseintramuscularpotentialwasusedastrigger. (Adaptedfrom[21]withpermission) Farinaetal.[26]appliedthetechniqueproposedbyDe LucaandMerletti[11](selectivemusclestimulation)tothe extensorlegmusclesandrecordedsignalsbyeightcontactlinear electrodearrays(seealsoChapter7).Theirresults,inagreement with[20,69],aresummarizedbytherepresentativesignalsin Figure4.7.Inthiscasethesignalsdetectedfarfromthesourceare generatedwhentheactionpotentialsoftheactivemuscle extinguishatthetendonregionandgeneratenonpropagating components.FromFigure4.7differentconsiderationscanbe drawn:(1)crosstalkismainlyduetothesocalledfareldsignals [61,64]generatedbytheextinctionofthepotentialsatthetendons, (2)theshapeofcrosstalksignalsisdifferentfromthatofsignals detectedovertheactivemuscle,(3)asaconsequenceofpoint2, crosscorrelationcoefcientisnotindicativeoftheamountof crosstalk,(4)thebandwidthofcrosstalksignalsmaybeevenlarger thanthatofsignalsfromtheactivemuscleandthuscrosstalk reductioncannotbeachievedbytemporalhighpasslteringofthe surfaceEMGsignals[16].Theseconsiderationswereprovedona statisticalbasisin[26],andtheyindicatethatthetwomethods usuallyappliedtoidentifyandreducecrosstalk(crosscorrelation, highpassltering)arenot,ingeneral,appropriate.Inparticular, crosscorrelationbetweensignals,oftenusedtoverifytheabsence orpresenceofcrosstalk[50,71],doesnotseemjustied.

Figura4.6.superfciedeumnicopotencialdeaoMUdetectado transversalmentecomrelaodireodasfibrasmuscularesdo msculotibialanterior.Ospotenciaisdesuperfcieforam calculadosusandointramuscularpotenciaisdetectadoscomo gatilhos(nveldecontraode20%CVM).Osresultadosdosoito sistemasdedetecodeEMGdesuperfcie(representado esquematicamentenaesquerda)somostrados.Paracadafiltro espacialdasformasdeondasonormalizadosemrelaoaomaior valorpicoapicoentreasformasdeondadetectadopelofiltro.A distnciaentrecadalocaldegravaode5mm,adistncia intereletrodosdopontodeeletrodofiltrosespaciaisde5mm,eo raiodosistemadeanisde5mm.Posio6estacimadoMU selecionadoscujosintramuscularpotencialfoiutilizadocomo gatilho.(Adaptadode[21]compermisso) Farinaetal.[26]aplicouatcnicapropostaporDeLucae Merletti[11](estimulaomusculardeformaseletiva)paraaperna msculosextensoresesinaisregistradosporoitoconjuntosde eletrodosdecontatolinear(vertambmoCaptulo7).Seus resultados,deacordocom[20,69],soresumidospelasinais representativosnaFigura4.7.Nestecasoossinaisdetectadoslonge dafontesogeradosquandoopotencialdeaodomsculoativo extinonaregiodotendoegerarnonpropagatingcomponentes. DeFigura4.7diferentesconsideraespodemserfeitas:(1) crosstalkprincipalmentedevidoaochamadoagorasinaisde campodeforma[61,64]geradopelaextinodospotenciaisno tendo,(2)aformadesinaisdeinterfernciadiferentedados sinaisdetectadosaolongodosmsculosativos,(3)como conseqnciadoponto2,coeficientedecorrelaocruzadano indicativodaquantidadedecrosstalk(4),alarguradebandade sinaisdeinterfernciapodeseraindamaiorqueodesinaisdo msculoativoe,portanto,reduodeinterferncianopodeser alcanadopelotemporalpassaaltafiltragemdossinaisdeEMGde superfcie[16].Estasconsideraesforamprovadasemumabase estatstica[26],eelesindicamqueosdoismtodosusualmente aplicadosparaidentificarereduzirocrosstalk(correlaocruzada, passaaltafiltragem)noso,emgeral,adequadas.Emparticular, acorrelaocruzadaentreossinais,muitasvezesutilizadapara verificarapresenaouausnciadeinterferncia[50,71],nose justifica.

Figure4.7.Signalsrecordedfromthevastuslateralis(VL),vastus medialis(VM),andrectusfemoris(RF)musclesinsixconditionsof selectiveelectricalstimulation(2Hzstimulationfrequency)ofone muscleandrecordingfromamusclepair(onestimulatedandone nonstimulated).Ineachcasetheresponsesto20stimuliareshown. Forthissubject,thedistancesbetweenthearrays(centertocenter) are77mmforthepairVLRF,43mmforthepairVMRF,and39 mmforthepairVLVM.Notethedifferentgainsusedforthe stimulatedandnonstimulatedmuscles.Inthiscasetheratio betweenaverageARVvalues(alongthearray)is,forthesixmuscle pairs,2.8%(VLVM),2.5%(VMVL),6.5%(RFVL),6.6%(VLRF), 15.6%(RFVM),and7.0%(VMRF).Thesignalsdetectedfroma pairofmusclesarenormalizedwithrespecttoacommonfactor (apartfromthedifferentgain)andsoarecomparableinamplitude, whereasthesignalsdetectedfromdifferentmusclepairsare normalizedwithrespecttodifferentfactors.(From[26]with permission) Itisimportantthatspatialandtemporalfrequency characteristicsaresimplyrelatedbytheconductionvelocityvonly forcomponentsthataretravelingatthevelocityvwithoutrelevant shapechangesalongtheber.Forthisreasonthetemporal frequencyftisrelatedbyascalingfactortothespatial(inthe directionofpropagation)frequencyfz(seealsoChapter2).Asa consequencelow(high)spatialfrequenciesresultinlow(high) temporalfrequencies.Fornonpropagatingcomponentsthisdoes notoccur,asitisclearinFigure4.7.Indeed,ifweconsiderthe crosstalksignals(nontravelingcomponentsthatariseoverthe nonstimulatedmuscle),wewillobservethattheirtemporal frequenciesareoftenhigherthatthoseofthesignalsdetectedfrom thestimulatedmuscles.However,consideringtherateofvariation ofthesignalinthespatialdirection(i.e.,alongthearray),wenote thatthesignalisalmostconstant(beingnontraveling),thusthatit isspatiallyalmostdcbutchangesrapidlyintime.Highpass lteringintemporaldomainmaythereforeenhance,ratherthan reduce,thecrosstalkcomponents,whichhavehightemporaland lowspatialfrequencycontent.Forthesamereasonitisnot

Figura4.7.Sinaisgravadosapartirdovastolateral(VL),vasto medial(VM)eretofemoral(RF)msculosemseiscondiesde estimulaoeltricaseletiva(2freqnciadeestimulaoHz)de ummsculoeagravaodeumpardemsculo(umestmuloeuma nonstimulated).Emcadacaso,asrespostasa20estmulosso apresentados.Paraesteassunto,asdistnciasentreasmatrizes (centroacentro)sode77mmparaoparVLRF,de43mmparao parVMRF,e39mmparaoparVLVM.Observeosganhos diferenteutilizadaparaonoestimuladoseosmsculos estimulados.Nestecaso,arelaoentreosvaloresdeanti retrovirais(mdiaaolongodamatriz),paraosseisparesde msculos,2,8%(VLVM),2,5%(VMVL),6,5%(RF,VL),6,6%(VL RF),15,6%(RFVM),e7,0%(RFVM).Ossinaisdetectadosapartir deumpardemsculossonormalizadasemrelaoaumfator comum(paraalmdoganhodiferente)eassimsocomparveisem termosdeamplitude,enquantoqueossinaisdetectadosapartirde paresmuscularesdiferentessonormalizadoscomrespeitoa diferentesfatores.(From[26]compermisso) importantequeafreqnciadecaractersticas temporaiseespaciaissosimplesmenterelacionadaspela velocidadedeconduovsomenteparacomponentesqueesto viajandovelocidadev,semalteraesdeformarelevanteaolongo dafibra.Porisso,aftfrequnciatemporalrelacionadoporum fatordeescalaparaanadireodepropagao)Freqnciafz (espacial(vertambmCaptulo2).Comoconseqnciabaixa(alta) resultamembaixasfreqnciasespaciais(alto)freqncias temporais.Paranonpropagatingcomponentesissonoocorre,como evidentenaFigura4.7.Defato,seconsiderarmosossinaisde interferncia(nontravelingcomponentesquesurgemaolongodo msculononstimulated),vamosobservarqueassuasfrequncias temporaissofrequentementemaiselevadasqueasdossinais detectadosapartirdosmsculosestimulados.Noentanto, considerandoataxadevariaodosinalnadireodoespao(ou seja,aolongodamatriz),notamosqueosinalquaseconstante (sendonontraveling),oqueespacialmentequasecontnua,mas mudarapidamentenotempo.Altafiltragempassanodomnio temporalpode,portanto,reforar,aoinvsdereduzir,os

possibletopredicttheamountofcrosstalkfrommodelsthatdonot takeintoconsiderationtheendofbercomponents;indeed,the rateofdecayofthepropagatingpartofthesignalisconsiderably fasterthanthatofthenontravelingpotentials[18,61],sothatthe latteraremostlyresponsibleforcrosstalk.

componentesdecrosstalk,quetmebaixafreqnciaespacial contedotemporal.Pelamesmarazo,nopossvelprevera quantidadedeinterfernciaapartirdemodelosquenolevamem consideraoodecomponentesdefibrafinal,naverdade,ataxade decaimentodapartedepropagaodosinalconsideravelmente maisrpidodoqueopotenciaisnontraveling[18,61],demodoque estesltimossoagranderesponsvelpelainterferncia. Figura4.8mostraaosimuladafibrapotenciaisnica gravadaemdiferenteslocaisaolongodafibraporgravaes diferencialsimplescom10mmdedistnciaintereletrodos.Trs distnciaslateraissomostradasparadoislocaisaolongoda fibra:nomeioentreaplacadeextremidadeedetendoenonvel dotendo.Comeletrodosdiretamentesobreafibra(x0=0mm), espessuradacamadadegordurade3mm,egravaoentreofinal daplacaedotendo(local1),possvelobservaronico diferencialdeondabifsicaclssico(comparecomafigura.4,7em ocasodamusculaturaestimulada).Oefeitodageraodo potencialdeaopodeserobservadonoinciodaonda,eum potencialoffiberpequenaextremidadedesinalopostonoquediz respeitosegundafaseaparece.Notendo(local2)ofimdefibra depotencialmuitomaioreoelementodominantedosinal detectadosuperfcie.Seaespessuradacamadadegordura aumenta,opotencialdefinaldafibraseossinaisdominantepara ambososlocaisdeeletrodosaolongodafibra.Seadistncia transversalx0aumenta,opotencialdefinaldafibracadavezmais importantenoquedizrespeitoaoscomponentesdepropagao(em especial,ocasox0=75mm).Osinaldeamplitudemxima,em seguida,correspondeaoeletrododelocaismaisprximosregio dotendo,oqueindicaqueaorigemdosinalestlocalizadoem umaregio.Almdisso,oaumentodaespessuradacamadade gorduraaumentaaamplituderelativadospotenciaisdefinalda fibraemrelaoaopotencialdepropagao.Apartirdocasodas potencialidadesdetectadasemx0=0mmeemx0=75mm(que simulamossinaiscrosstalk),podeseconcluirqueascaractersticas dossinaissocompletamentediferentesnasduascondies.A atenuaodocomponentecomoaumentodapropagaox0maior queadocomponentenonpropagating,demodoqueemx0=75mm, osegundocomponentemuitomaiordoqueoprimeiro. Finalmente,observamosqueocontedodefreqnciadossinaisde pertoelongedafontebastantediferente,comasfontesdelonge mostrandocomponentesdefreqnciamaiselevada,comonocaso experimentaldafigura4.7.Ainflunciadofimdecontribuiode fibra,quedocampotipomuitochamadoassim,tornaseainda maisdominantenocasodeumcondutordevolumesfinitos.Nessa situao,umacontribuionondecayingmaislonga(teoricamente infinito)distnciasdedistnciadomsculopodeserobservadonas gravaesmonopolar[9,61].

Figure4.8showssimulatedsingleberactionpotentials recordedatdifferentlocationsalongtheberbysingledifferential recordingswith10mminterelectrodedistance.Threelateral distancesareshownfortwolocationsalongtheber:inthemiddle betweentheendplateandtendonandatthetendonlevel.With electrodesdirectlyovertheber(x0=0mm),fatlayerthickness3 mm,andrecordingbetweentheendplateandtendon(location1), itispossibletoobservetheclassicbiphasicsingledifferential waveform(comparewithFig.4.7inthecaseofstimulated muscles).Theeffectofthegenerationoftheactionpotentialcanbe notedatthebeginningofthewaveform,andasmallendofber potentialofoppositesignwithrespecttothesecondphaseappears. Atthetendon(location2)theendofberpotentialismuchlarger andisthedominantcomponentofthedetectedsurfacesignal.If thefatlayerthicknessincreases,theendofberpotentialsbecome thedominantsignalsforbothelectrodelocationsalongtheber.If thetransversaldistancex0increases,theendofberpotentials becomeincreasinglyimportantwithrespecttothepropagating components(inparticular,thecasex0=75mm).Themaximum amplitudesignalthencorrespondstoelectrodelocationsnearestto thetendonregion,indicatingthatthesignalsourceislocatedat sucharegion.Moreovertheincreaseoffatlayerthickness increasestherelativeamplitudeofendofberpotentialswith respecttothepropagatingpotentials.Fromthecaseofpotentials detectedatx0=0mmandatx0=75mm(whichsimulate crosstalksignals),itcanbeconcludedthatthecharacteristicsof thesignalsarecompletelydifferentinthetwoconditions.The attenuationofthepropagatingcomponentwithincreasingx0is greaterthanthatofthenonpropagatingcomponent,sothatatx0= 75mmthesecondcomponentismuchgreaterthantherst. Finally,observethatthefrequencycontentofthesignalscloseand farfromthesourceisratherdifferent,withthefarsourcesshowing higherfrequencycomponents,asintheexperimentalcaseofFigure 4.7.Theinuenceoftheendofbercontribution,whichisofthe socalledfareldtype,becomesevenmoredominantincaseofa nitevolumeconductor.Inthatsituationanondecaying contributionoverlong(theoreticallyinnite)distancesawayfrom themusclecanbeobservedinthemonopolarrecordings[9,61].

Figure4.8.Simulatedsingleberactionpotentialsdetectedin singledifferentialcongurationbetweentheendplateandtendon (location1)andatthetendon(location2),atthreedistancesfrom theber(0mm,25mm,75mm).Theinterelectrodedistanceis10 mm,thedepthoftheberis1mmwithinthemuscle.Twovalues ofthicknessofthefatlayer(h1)havebeensimulated.(a) Schematicrepresentationofthesimulatedberandofthe detectionpoints,(b)signalsdetectedovertheber,(c)signals detectedat25mmlaterallyfromtheber,and(d)signalsdetected at75mmlaterallyfromtheber.Theelectrodesarealignedwith themuscleber;h1=thicknessofthefatlayer.(From[26]with permission) Sincecrosstalksignalshaveonlylowspatialfrequency components,onewouldthinkthattheuseofhighpassspatial ltering(refertoChapters2and7)mayhelpreducethem,with largerreductionbeingpossiblethroughmoreselectivelters. However,thetheoreticaltransferfunctions,inthespatialdomain, ofthespatialltersarebasedontheassumptionsofsignals propagatingwiththesameshapealongthedirectionofthelter.It isclearthatthecorrespondencebetweentimeandspaceisnot validwhenthesignalsconsidereddonottravelwiththesame shapealongtheberdirection.Thusthetheoreticalhighpass transferfunctionofthespatiallterscannot,ingeneral,beapplied tosignalsdetectedfarfromthesource.Consideringthe nontravelingcomponentsassignalsinthetimedomainthatmay bedifferentwhendetectedatdifferentlocationsalongthemuscle bers,theapplicationofaspatiallterwithelectrodeswith weightsaiprovidethefollowingsignal:

Figura4.8.PotenciaisdeaonicafibraSimuladodetectadoem configuraodiferencialnicoentreaplacadeextremidadee tendes(local1)enotendo(local2),emtrsdistnciasapartirda fibra(0mm,25mm,75mm).Adistnciaintereletrodosde10 mm,aprofundidadedafibrade1mmdentrodomsculo.Dois valoresdeespessuradacamadadegordura(H1)foramsimuladas. (A)representaoesquemticadafibrasimuladosedospontosde deteco,(b)Ossinaisdetectadosaolongodafibra,(c)Ossinais detectadosem25mmparaosladosdafibra,e(d)ossinais detectadosem75mmparaosladosdafibra.Oseletrodosesto alinhadoscomasfibrasmusculares;h1=espessuradacamadade gordura.(From[26]compermisso) Comoossinaiscrosstalktemapenascomponentesde baixofreqnciaespacial,seriadepensarqueousodealtopass filtragemespacial(vercaptulos2e7)podeajudarareduzilos, commaiorreduoaserpossvelatravsdefiltrosmaisseletivos. Noentanto,asfunesdetransfernciaterica,nodomnio espacial,dosfiltrosespaciaissobaseadosnospressupostosde propagaodesinaiscomamesmaformaaolongodadireodo filtro.evidentequeacorrespondnciaentreotempoeoespaono vlidoquandoossinaisconsideradosnoviajamcomamesma formaaolongodadireodefibra.Assim,afunode transfernciapassaaltatericadosfiltrosespaciaisnopodem,em geral,seraplicadasaossinaisdetectadoslongedafonte. Considerandooscomponentesnontravelingcomosinaisnodomnio dotempoquepodeserdiferentequandodetectadoemdiferentes locaisaolongodasfibrasmusculares,aaplicaodeumfiltro espacialcomeletrodosaicompesosfornecerosinalseguinte:

(17) Sincethe(monopolar)signalsRi(t)dependsonanumber ofanatomicalandphysicalfactors,thereisnopossibilitytopredict theltereffectonthesignalapriori.Equation(17)providesthe generalexpressionofanontravelingsignalasdetectedbyaspatial ltercomprisedofpointelectrodes.ItisnotpossibletowriteEq. (17)asalinearlteringoperationand,thus,toderivethetransfer Desdeo(monopolar)sinaisRi(t)dependedeumasriede fatoresanatmicosefsicos,nohpossibilidadedepreveroefeito defiltrosobreosinalapriori.Equao(17)forneceaexpresso geraldeumsinalnontravelingdetectadoporumfiltroespacial compostoporeletrodosponto.NopossvelescreveraEq..(17) comoumaoperaodefiltragemlineare,portanto,derivarafuno

functioninspacedomainforcomponentswhicharenottraveling alongtheberdirection.Inparticular,theeffectofspecicspatial ltertransferfunctiononthesignalsRi(t)cannotbepredicted,as indicatedinFigure4.9.Figure4.10showsthedecreaseofsignal amplitudewithincreasingdistancefromthesourcefordifferent detectionsystems.Boththepropagatingandthenonpropagating componentsofthesignaldecreasewiththedistancedependingon thespatiallters.Fasterdecreaseofthepropagatingsignal componentdoesnotimplyalsofasterdecreaseofthe nonpropagatingsignalcomponents,however.Selectivitywith respecttothesecomponentsshouldbeaddressedseparately(see alsoChapter7).

detransferncianodomniodoespaoparacomponentesqueno estoviajandoaolongodadireodefibra.Emparticular,oefeito dafunodetransfernciadofiltroespacialespecficasobreos sinaisRi(t)nopodeserprevisto,talcomoindicadonafigura4.9. Figura4.10mostraareduodaamplitudedosinalcomo aumentodadistnciadafonteparadiferentessistemasdedeteco. Tantoapropagaoeoscomponentesnonpropagatingda diminuiodosinalcomadistncia,dependendodosfiltros espaciais.Declniomaisacentuadodacomponentedepropagao dosinalnoimplicatambmmaisrpidadiminuiodos componentesdesinalnonpropagating,noentanto.Seletividadecom relaoaessescomponentesdevemsertratadasseparadamente(ver tambmoCaptulo7).

Figure4.9.Examplesofmonopolarsignalsdetectedwithsquare(1 1mm)electrodesinthelongitudinal,transversal,anddiagonal direction.Thewaveformlteredbythedoubledifferential(DD), Laplacian(NDD),andinversebinomiallterofthesecondorder (IB2)lters([17],Chapter7)arealsoshown.Thesignalsare generatedbythesameberwithequalsemilengthsof35mm,ata depthof7mmwithinthemuscle.Thicknessofthefatandskin layeris4.5mmand1mm,respectively.(From[22]with permission)

Figura4.9.Exemplosdesinaismonopolardetectadocomum quadrado(11mm)eletrodosnalongitudinal,transversale diagonal.Aformadeondafiltradapelodiferencialduplo(DD), Laplaciano(NDD),einversabinomialfiltrodesegundaordem (IB2),filtros([17],ocaptulo7)tambmsomostrados.Ossinais sogeradosporumamesmafibracomsemilengthsiguaisde35 mm,aumaprofundidadede7mmdentrodomsculo.Espessura dacamadadegorduraepelede4,5mme1mm,respectivamente. (From[22]compermisso)

4.4RelationshipsBetweenSurfaceEmgFeaturesAnd DevelopedForce

4.4.1EmgAmplitudeAndForce Forceproductioninamuscleisregulatedbytwomainmechanisms (seealsoChapter1):therecruitmentofadditionalMUsandthe increaseofringrateofthealreadyactiveMUs. Foradeproduoemummsculoreguladapordoismecanismos principais(vertambmCaptulo1):orecrutamentodeUMs adicionaisedoaumentodataxadedisparodasUMsativasj.

Figure4.10.Simulatedsingleberpotentialsdetectedwithlinear arrayswith14longitudinaldetectionpointsseparatedby5mm. Monopolar,singledifferential(SD),doubledifferential(DD), Laplacian(NDD),andinversebinomiallterofthesecondorder (IB2)signals([17],Chapter7)areshown.Signalsdetectedata lateraldistancefromtheberinthehorizontalplanefrom0to10 mmatstepsof2.5mmareshown(labeledbynumbersfrom1to5). Allsignalsaregeneratedbythesameberwithequalsemilengths of35mm,atadepthof7mmwithinthemuscle.Thicknessofthe fatandskinlayeris4.5mmand1mm,respectively.(From[22] withpermission) Thesetwomechanismsarepresentindifferent proportionsindifferentmuscles.Insomemusclestherecruitment stopsatabout50%ofthemaximalforce,whileinothers recruitmenthasbeenobservedalmostuntilthemaximalvoluntary contractionforce[39].Asforthedevelopedforce,alsothe amplitudeofthesurfaceEMGsignaldependsonboththenumber ofactiveMUsandtheirringrates.SincebothEMGamplitude

Figura4.10.nicopotencialdefibraSimuladodetectadoscom arrayslineares,com14pontosdedetecolongitudinalseparadas por5mm.Monopolar,diferencialnica(SD),diferencialduplo (DD),Laplaciano(NDD),einversabinomialfiltrodesegunda ordem(IB2),sinais([17],Captulo7)somostradas.Sinais detectadosaumadistncialateraldefibraemrelaoaoplano horizontal010mmempassosde2,5mmsomostradas(rotulado pornmerosde1a5).Todosossinaissogeradosporumamesma fibracomsemilengthsiguaisde35mm,aumaprofundidadede7 mmdentrodomsculo.Espessuradacamadadegorduraepele de4,5mme1mm,respectivamente.(From[22]compermisso) Estesdoismecanismosestopresentesemdiferentes proporesnosdiferentesmsculos.Emalgunsmsculosdo recrutamentopraemcercade50%daforamxima,enquantoque osoutrosnosprocessosderecrutamentotemsidoobservadoquase atacontraovoluntriamximafora[39].Quantofora desenvolvida,tambmaamplitudedosinalEMGdesuperfcie dependetantodonmerodeMUsativaequeimasuastaxas.Uma

(estimatedinoneofthewayspresentedinChapter6)andforce increaseasaconsequenceofthesamemechanisms,itisexpected thatmuscleforcecanbeestimatedfromsurfaceEMGanalysis. ThepossibilityofestimatingmuscleforcefromtheEMG signalisattractiveasitallowstheassessmentofthecontributions ofsinglemusclestothetotalforceexertedbyamusclegroup.This isthemainreasonwhyEMGisandprobablyalwayswillbethe methodofchoiceforforceestimationinkinesiologicalstudies.The problemhasbeenaddressedexperimentallybymanyresearchers inthepast(e.g.,[48]).Insomemuscles,suchasthosecontrolling thengers,therelationshipbetweenforceandEMGamplitudewas foundtobelinear[6,72],whileinotherstherelationisclosertoa parabolicshape[41,72].Differencesinthepercentageof recruitmentandratecodinghavebeenconsideredthemostlikely explanationforthesedifferentrelations.Itshouldbenoted, however,thatevenalinearrelationbetweenEMGandforce cannotbeexplainedwhenstartingstraightforwardlyfromthe neuraldrivetoamuscle.Asamatteroffact,boththeforceandthe EMGamplitudeareinmostcircumstancesnonlinearlyrelatedto theneuraldrive.Forinstance,doublingthenumberofrecruited MUsordoublingtheringrateofanalreadyactivepopulationof MUswill,underthesimplestsignaltheoreticalassumptions,lead toanEMGincreasebyafactorof2.AdoublinginMUringrate alsodoesleadtolessthanadoublingoftheforceofthatMU. Apparentlybothnonlinearitiesintherelationbetweenneuraldrive andEMG,ontheonehand,anddriveandforce,ontheotherhand, balanceeachother,leadingtoanoftenclosetolinearrelation betweenEMGandforce.

vezquetantoaamplitudeEMG(estimadoemumadasformas apresentadasnoCaptulo6)eaumentarafora,comoconsequncia dosmesmosmecanismos,esperasequeaforamuscularpodeser estimadaapartirdaanlisedaEMGdesuperfcie. Apossibilidadedeestimaraforamuscularapartirdo sinalEMGatraente,poispermiteaavaliaodascontribuies dosmsculosnicoparaaforatotalexercidaporumgrupo muscular.EstaaprincipalrazoEMGeprovavelmentesempre seromtododeescolhaparaaestimativavigoremestudos cinesiolgicos.Oproblematemsidoabordadoexperimentalmente porvriospesquisadoresnopassado(porexemplo,[48]).Emalguns msculos,comoosquecontrolamosdedos,arelaoentrea amplitudedaforaeEMGfoiencontradoparaserlinear[6,72], enquantoemoutrosarelaomaisprximadeumaforma parablica[41,72].Asdiferenasnopercentualderecrutamentoe taxadecodificaotemsidoconsideradooprovvelexplicaopara amaioriadessasrelaesdiferentes.Devesenotar,entretanto,que mesmoumarelaolinearentreoEMGeaforanopodeser explicadoquandoseiniciadiretadaunidadeneuralparaum msculo.Porumaquestodefato,tantoaforaeaamplitudeEMG sonamaioriadascircunstnciasnolinearmenterelacionada comaunidadeneural.Porexemplo,aduplicaodonmerode UMsrecrutadasoudobrandoataxadedisparodeumapopulao activadeMUsjser,emsinaldepressupostostericosmais simples,levaraumaumentoEMGporumfatorde2.Aduplicao noMUtaxadeestmulotambmlevaamenosdoqueodobroda foradoqueMU.Aparentemente,ambasasnolinearidadesna relaoentreosimpulsosneuraiseEMG,porumlado,eaunidade efora,poroutrolado,oequilbrioentresi,levandoaumfimde relao,muitasvezeslinearentreoEMGefora. Estudosdesimulaoaquitambmrelevantesna quantificaodessasrelaes.Fuglevandetal.[29]realizaramum estudodesimulao,queincluiuumasriedemodalidadesde recrutamento.ArelaoentreEMGamplitude(valorretificado mdia)eforavarioudependendodaestratgiaderecrutamentoe uniformidadeentreastaxasdequeimadepicodaMUsdiferente (Fig.4.11). Aodiscutiraquestodarelaoentreaamplitudedo EMGedafora,umasriedeoutrosfatoresdevemserlevadosem conta.Emprimeirolugar,aamplitudeEMGdesuperfciedepende fortementedalocalizaodoeletrodo.Paralocaisemqueamplitude EMGmuitosensvelapequenosdeslocamentoseletrododese esperarquearelaoentreEMGeforapodeserpiordoqueem outroslocais[27].Jensenetal.[36]elegantementeabordoua questodalocalizaodoeletrodoemrelaoaoEMG/ caractersticadeforaparaomsculotrapziosuperior.Esses autoresmostraramque,enquantoumarelaoquaselinearentreo EMGeaforapoderiaserobservadoparaoeletrodolocaislongeda zonadeinervao,arelaoestavalongedeserlinearquandose consideraalocalizaodoeletrodoresultandonaamplitudeEMG mnimo(sobreoventremuscular,nocasodotrapziosuperior). Considerandoum"eletrodomelhorposicionamento",a relaoentreforaeEMGpodedependerdacamadadeespessura degordurasubcutnea,ainclinaodasfibrasemrelaoao sistemadedeteco,adistribuiodasvelocidadesdeconduodo Musativa,adistnciaintereletrodos,oespaciaisfiltroaplicado paraEMGdegravao,apresenadecrosstalk,eograude sincronizaodosMUsativo.Almdisso,humfactor fundamentaldevariabilidadeentreindivduosdiferentes,sendoa localizaodosMUsdentrodomsculo.Aestratgiadecontrole mesmopodegerarsinaiscomtendnciadeamplitudediferentes devidoaosdiferenteslocaisdoMUsdentrodomsculo[23].claro quetodosessesfatorestornamimpossvelconsiderarqualquer relaoEMGforaespecficavlidaemgeral.Essarelaodeveser identificadoemumassuntoporassuntoemuscularporbase musculareprovvelquesejapoucorepetitivoemdiferentessesses experimentais,mesmosobreosmsculosdomesmoassunto.A construoexperimentaldetalrelaopodeser,noentanto,difcil,

Simulationstudiesareherealsorelevantinquantifying theserelations.Fuglevandetal.[29]performedasimulationstudy thatincludedanumberofrecruitmentmodalities.Therelationship betweenEMGamplitude(averagerectiedvalue)andforcevaried dependingontherecruitmentstrategyandtheuniformityamong thepeakringratesofthedifferentMUs(Fig.4.11). WhendiscussingtheissueoftherelationbetweenEMG amplitudeandforce,anumberofotherfactorsshouldbetakeninto account.First,thesurfaceEMGamplitudedependsstronglyonthe electrodelocation.ForlocationsinwhichEMGamplitudeisvery sensitivetosmallelectrodedisplacementsitisexpectedthatthe relationbetweenEMGandforcemaybepoorerthaninother locations[27].Jensenetal.[36]elegantlyaddressedtheissueof electrodelocationinrelationtotheEMG/forcecharacteristicforthe uppertrapeziusmuscle.Theseauthorsshowedthatwhilean almostlinearrelationshipbetweenEMGandforcecouldbe observedforelectrodelocationsfarfromtheinnervationzone,the relationshipwasfarfromlinearwhenconsideringtheelectrode locationresultingintheminimalEMGamplitude(overthemuscle bellyinthecaseoftheuppertrapezius). Consideringanoptimalelectrodeplacement,the relationbetweenforceandEMGmaydependonthesubcutaneous fatlayerthickness,theinclinationoftheberswithrespecttothe detectionsystem,thedistributionofconductionvelocitiesofthe activeMus,theinterelectrodedistance,thespatiallterappliedfor EMGrecording,thepresenceofcrosstalk,andthedegreeof synchronizationoftheactiveMUs.Moreoverthereisabasicfactor ofvariabilityamongdifferentsubjects,beingthelocationofthe MUswithinthemuscle.Thesamecontrolstrategymaygenerate signalswithdifferentamplitudetrendduetothedifferentlocations oftheMUswithinthemuscle[23].Itisclearthatallthesefactors makeitimpossibletoconsideranyspecicEMGforcerelation valid,ingeneral.Thisrelationshouldbeidentiedonasubjectby subjectandmusclebymusclebasisandislikelytobepoorly repeatableindifferentexperimentalsessions,evenonmusclesof thesamesubject.Theexperimentalconstructionofsucharelation maybe,however,difcult,ifnotimpossible,whenselective

activationofaspecicmuscleofagroupisproblematicandother muscles(agonistsorantagonists)contributetoforcebutnotto EMG. Importantly,inadditiontoalltheselimitations,the relationship(ifany)betweenforceandamplitudeshouldbe adaptedtothemusclecondition,includingmusclelength(joint angle),muscletemperature,fatigue,andsoon.Inparticular,under submaximalcontractions,thefatiguedmusclegeneratesEMG signalswithlargeramplitudecomparedtotheunfatigued condition,althoughmaintainingaconstantforce(seeChapter9). GiventhelargevariabilityofbehaviorofEMGamplitude dependingonthesefactors,anadaptiverelationEMGforceis currentlynotpossible,anditwillhardlybecomefeasibleinthe nearfuture.EMGamplitudewilllikelyremainanindicatorof muscleactivationandaqualitativeindexofactivationchangewith respecttoareferencecondition.

senoimpossvel,quandoaativaoseletivadeummsculo especficodeumgrupoproblemticoeoutrosmsculos(agonistas eantagonistas)contribuemparaafora,masnoEMG. Importante,paraalmdetodasestaslimitaes,arelao (sehouver)entreaforaeaamplitudedevemseradaptados condiomuscular,incluindoocomprimentodomsculo(ngulo daarticulao),atemperaturamuscular,fadiga,eassimpor diante.Emparticular,pormeiodecontraessubmximas,o msculofatigadogerasinaisEMGcommaioramplitudeem relaocondiounfatigued,emboramantendoumafora constante(vercaptulo9).Dadaagrandevariabilidadedo comportamentodaamplitudeEMGemfunodessesfatores,uma adaptaorelaoEMGforademomentonopossvel,eque dificilmenteirsetornarvivelemumfuturoprximo.amplitude EMGprovavelmentecontinuarsendoumindicadordeativao musculareumndicequalitativodemudanadeativaoem relaoaumacondiodereferncia.

Figure4.11.EMGamplitudeforcerelationshipinsimulated signalsfornarrow(AandB)andbroad(CandD)recruitment rangeconditions.Peakringrateswereinverselyrelatedtothe motorunitrecruitmentthresholdandrangedfrom35to45pps(A andC)andfrom45to55pps(BandD).Arrowsonforceaxesshow theforceatwhichlastunitwasrecruitedforeachcondition.When recruitmentoperatedoveranarrowrange(AandB),theEMG forcerelationwasnonlinear.Whenrecruitmentoperatedovera broadrange(CandD),therelationshipbetweenEMGandforce waslinear.(From[29]withpermission)

Figura4.11.EMGrelaoforaeamplitudeemsinaissimulados paraoestreito(AeB)elargo(CeD)condiesgamade recrutamento.taxasdequeimadepicoforaminversamente relacionadoscomorecrutamentolimiarmotorevarioude3545 pps(AeC)e4555pps(BeD).Assetasnoseixosvigormostrama foraquealtimaunidadefoirecrutadoparacadacondio. Quandoorecrutamentooperadoemumaestreitafaixa(AeB),a forarelaoEMGfoinolinear.Quandoorecrutamentooperado emumaamplafaixa(CeD),arelaoentreEMGeforafoilinear. (From[29]compermisso)

4.4.2EstimatedConductionVelocityAndForce UnderisometricconditionstherecruitmentofMUsproceedsfrom thesmallest(slowtwitch)tothelargest(fasttwitch)andfromthe lowesttothehighestCV[1],althoughindynamiccircumstances thissimpleschemedoesnotalwayshold[66].TheestimationofCV isideallynotaffectedbytheMUdepthincaseofinnitelength bers.However,fornitebers,thedeepertheMUis,thelarger therelativeinuenceoftheendofbercomponentsisonCV SobcondiesisomtricasorecrutamentoderecursosMUsdo menor(contraolenta)paraomaior(contraorpida)edomais baixoaomaisaltoCV[1],emboraemsituaesdinmicasdeste regimesimplesnemsempresemantm[66].AestimativadoCV idealmentenoafetadospelaprofundidadeMUnocasodefibrasde comprimentoinfinito.Noentanto,paraasfibrasdefinito,omais

estimation.ThisphenomenonmightpositivelybiasCVestimation incaseoftheinhomogeneousrecruitmentofMUsinthemuscle, suchasfromdeeptosupercialMUs.MoreovertheCVofamuscle berisafunctionoftheringrateofthatber;thereforetheglobal CVestimatesdependontheringratesoftheactiveMus,which caneasilybevisualizedwithdirectmuscleberstimulation techniques[73].Thusduringanisometricincreasingforce contractiontheglobalCVestimatesusuallyincreasethroughthe entirecontraction.AtthebeginningofarampcontractionCV estimatereectstheCVofthelowthresholdMUs,whereasatthe enditisanaveragedvaluewhichdependsonthecharacteristics (depthofthebers,ringrate,size)ofalltheactiveMUs.

profundooMU,amaioremrelaoainflunciadoscomponentes definaldafibraaestimativadaCV.Estefenmenopode positivamentevisdeestimaoCVnocasodorecrutamento heterogneadaMUsnomsculo,comodeprofundoMUs superficial.Almdisso,oCVdeumafibramuscularumafuno dataxadequeimadequeafibra,porissooCVestimativasglobais dependemdataxadedisparodeMusativo,quepodeserfacilmente visualizadocomtcnicasdeestimulaodiretadomsculodafibra [73].Assim,duranteumaforadecontraoisomtricaaumentodo CVglobalestimativasgeralmenteaumentamcomacontrao inteiro.NoinciodeumarampaCVestimativadecontraoreflete ocurriculumvitaedaMUsbaixolimiar,enquantoquenofinal umvalormdioquedependedascaractersticas(profundidadedas fibras,taxadedisparo,otamanho)detodososMUsativo.

4.4.3EmgSpectralFrequenciesAndForce ThepowerspectraldensityoftheinterferenceEMGsignalfor independentMUringpatternsisthesummationofthespectral densitiesoftheMUactionpotentialtrainsgeneratingthesignals. Itcanbeshown(seealsoChapter6)thatthepowerspectrumofa MUactionpotentialtrainisnotinuencedsignicantlybythe trainofimpulsesdeningtheinstantsofactivationoftheMUs. Rather,itdependsmainlyontheshapeofthepotentialsofthe activeMUs. Manypaststudiesinvestigatedtherelationshipbetween characteristicfrequenciesofthesurfaceEMGsignalandforce [4,5,7,30,68].Inparticular,insomeitwashypothesizedthatmean andmedianpowerspectralfrequencies(MNFandMDF;Chapter6) doreecttherecruitmentofnew,progressivelylargerandfaster MUsandthereforeincreaseuntiltheendoftherecruitment process.Theyshouldthenreachaconstantvalue(orslightly decrease)whenonlyratecodingisusedtotrackthedesiredtarget forcelevel[5].Thelatterhypothesisisbasedontwotheoretical considerations:(1)theCVofasingleMUactionpotentialscalesthe powerspectrumofthatMUactionpotential[10,43,63,65](seealso Chapter2),and(2)theMUringratesdonotaffectsignicantly thefrequencycontentofthesurfaceEMGsignal[40].Both observationsaresimplicationsoftherealsituation.However, observation1wasexperimentallyvalidatedwithinreasonable approximationsincaseofisometricconstantforcefatiguing contractions[2,46].UsingintramuscularEMGdetection, Solomonowetal.[60]showedexperimentallythatboth observationsheldwhencontrolledphysiologicalMUrecruitment wasobtainedbyaparticularstimulationtechnique.However,as indicatedbytheseauthors,extrapolationoftheseresultstosurface EMGwasnotimpliedsincethedetectionwasveryselective.The volumeconductorhas,indeed,alargeinuencebothonthe amplitudeandonthefrequencycontentofsurfacedetected MUAPs. AdensidadeespectraldepotnciadosinalEMGdeinterferncia paradispararpadresMUindependentesasomadasdensidades espectraisdopotencialdeaotrensMUgerarossinais.Podeser mostrado(vertambmoCaptulo6)queoespectrodepotnciade umMUpotencialdeaotremnoinfluenciado significativamentepelotremdeimpulsosdefinirosinstantesde activaodosMUs.Pelocontrrio,eladependeessencialmenteda formadaspotencialidadesdoMUsativo. Muitosestudosanterioresinvestigaramarelaoentreas freqnciascaractersticodosinalEMGdesuperfcieefora [4,5,7,30,68].Emparticular,emalgunshipotetizousequea potnciamdiaemedianafreqnciasespectrais(MNFeMDF; Captulo6)refletemorecrutamentodenovos,maioresemais rpidosMUsprogressivamentee,consequentemente,aumentarato finaldoprocessoderecrutamento.Elesdevem,ento,atingirum valorconstante(oudiminuirligeiramente)quandoataxanicade codificaousadoparacontrolaraforadenvelalvodesejado [5].Altimahiptesebaseadaemdoisalicerces:(1)oCVdeuma aonicaMUescalaspotencialdoespectrodepotnciadoquea aoMUpotencial[10,43,63,65](vertambmCaptulo2),e(2)as taxasdequeimaMUnoafetamsignificativamenteocontedode freqnciadosinalEMGdesuperfcie[40].Ambasasobservaes sosimplificaesdasituaoreal.Noentanto,umaobservaofoi validadoexperimentalmentedentrodeaproximaesrazoveis,em casodeforaconstantecontraesisomtricasfatigantes[2,46]. UsandoadetecodeEMGintramuscular,Solomonowetal.[60] demonstraramexperimentalmentequetantoasobservaes realizadasquandocontroladarecrutamentoMUfisiolgicofoi obtidoporumatcnicadeestimulaoespecfica.Noentanto,como indicadoporessesautores,aextrapolaodessesresultadosparaa EMGdesuperfcienoestavaimplcitodesdeadetecofoimuito seletiva.Ovolumecondutortem,defato,umagrandeinfluncia tantonaamplitudeenocontedodefreqnciadasuperfcie detectadoMUAPs. Ateoriadovolumecondutorindicaquequalquerrelao entrerecrutamentoecaractersticasespectraispodemser mascaradosporfatoresanatmicosougeomtrica.QuandoumMU profundarecrutadocontribuirparaaregiodebaixafreqncia doespectrodepotnciaEMGmesmoqueoseuCVmaiorquea mdiadosCVMUsrecrutadosanteriormente.Assim,umaformade recrutamentodolentoaorpidoMUsnoimplicanecessariamente umaumentodefreqnciascaractersticasespectrais.Como consequncia,ocomportamentodoMNFouMDFcomforapode alterarsignificativamenteentreosdiferentessujeitosemsculos [23]. Namesmalinha,nosurpreendentequeostrabalhos comfoconainvestigaodesuperfcieespectrodepotnciaEMG durantecontraesramparelatadoresultadosmuitodiferentes. Algunsautoresencontraramumaumentodevariveisespectrais comoaumentodonveldefora[30,49],outrosnomostraram nenhumaumentodestasvariveiscomnveldefora[53,68],e

Thevolumeconductortheoryindicatesthatany relationshipbetweenrecruitmentandspectralfeaturescanbe maskedbyanatomicalorgeometricalfactors.WhenadeepMUis recruiteditwillcontributetothelowfrequencyregionoftheEMG powerspectrumevenifitsCVishigherthanthemeanCVofthe previouslyrecruitedMUs.Thusarecruitmentorderfromtheslow tothefastMUsdoesnotnecessarilyimplyanincreaseof characteristicspectralfrequencies.Asaconsequencethebehavior ofMNForMDFwithforcemaychangesignicantlyamong differentsubjectsandmuscles[23]. Alongthesamelineitisnotsurprisingthattheworks focusingontheinvestigationofsurfaceEMGpowerspectrum duringrampcontractionsreportedverydifferentresults.Some authorsfoundanincreaseofspectralvariableswithincreasing forcelevel[30,49],othersshowednoincreaseofthesevariables withforcelevel[53,68],andstillothersobservedadecreaseofMNF

withincreasingforce[70].Adependenceofspectralfeatureson electrodelocationhasalsotobeconsideredwhendiscussing informationextractionfromcharacteristicsurfaceEMG frequencies.

outrosaindaobservadoumdecrscimodeMNFcomoaumentoda fora[70].Adependnciadascaractersticasespectraisda localizaodoeletrodotambmdeveserconsideradoquandose discuteextraodeinformaesdefreqnciasdeEMGde superfciecaractersticos.

4.5Conclusions TheIAPhasashapethatdependsonthemusclestatusandthat changeswithfatigue.TheIAPsarethesourcesofEMGsignals, andtheypropagatewithoutshapechangesalongthemusclebers. AttheendplateandtendontheIAPoriginatesandextinguishes, sothatthetotalcurrentdensityovertheentiremuscleberlength iszeroatalltimes.ThegenerationandextinctionoftheIAP producesthesocalledendplateandendofbereffects,whichare simultaneouslydetectedovertheentiremusclelength (nonpropagating)anddenethedistancebeyondwhichtheEMG signalcannolongerbedetected.Thisdistanceisrelatedtothe selectivityofthedetection,althoughcareshouldbetakenwhen discussingselectivitywithrespecttodifferent(propagatingand nonpropagating)signalsources.Therateofdecreaseofsignal amplitudewithobservationdistanceforthepropagatingandthe nonpropagatingcomponents(thetwomainsignalcomponents)of theEMGsignalcanbeverydifferent.Theseconsiderationsareof paramountimportancewhentheissueofcrosstalkisdiscussed. Consideringallthefactorsrelatedtothevolume conductorandthesignalsourcesthataffectthecharacteristicsof theEMGsignal,itisnotsurprisingthatsomerelationships betweenEMGsignalvariablesandmuscleforcearecriticaland shouldbecarefullyconsideredinpracticalapplications. References 1.Andreassen,S.,andL.ArendtNielsen,Muscleberconductionvelocityinmotorunitsofthehumananteriortibialmuscle:Anewsize principleparameter,JPhysiol391,561571(1987). 2.ArendtNielsen,L.,andK.R.Mills,TherelationshipbetweenmeanpowerfrequencyoftheEMGspectrumandmusclebreconduction velocity,ElectroencephalogrClinNeurophysiol60,130134(1985). 3.Basmajian,J.V.,andC.J.DeLuca,Musclealive,WilliamsandWilkins,Baltimore,1985. 4.Bernardi,M.,F.Felici,M.Marchetti,F.Montellanico,M.F.Piacentini,andM.Solomonow,Forcegenerationperformanceandmotorunit recruitmentstrategyinmusclesofcontralaterallimbs,JElectromyogrKinesiol9,121130(1999). 5.Bernardi,M.,M.Solomonow,G.Nguyen,A.Smith,andR.Baratta,Motorunitrecruitmentstrategieschangeswithskillacquisition,Eur JApplPhysiol74,5259(1996). 6.Bigland,B.,andO.C.J.Lippold,Therelationbetweenforce,velocityandintegratedelectricalactivityinhumanmuscles,JPhysiol123, 214224(1954). 7.Bilodeau,M.,A.B.Arsenault,D.Gravel,andD.Bourbonnais,EMGpowerspectraofelbowextensorsduringrampandstepisometric contractions,EurJApplPhysiol63,2428(1991). 8.Blijham,P.J.,B.G.M.VanEngelen,andM.J.Zwarts,Correlationbetweenmuscleberconductionvelocityandberdiameterinvivo, ClinNeurophysiol113,39(2002). 9.Blok,J.H.,D.F.Stegeman,andA.vanOosterom,Threelayervolumeconductormodelandsoftwarepackageforapplicationsinsurface electromyography,AnBiomedEng30,566577(2002). 10.DeLuca,C.J.,Physiologyandmathematicsofmyoelectricsignals,IEEETransBME26,313325(1979). 11.DeLuca,C.J.,andR.Merletti,Surfacemyoelectricsignalcrosstalkamongmusclesoftheleg,ElectroencephalogrClinNeurophysiol69, 568575(1988). 12.Dimitrov,G.V.,Changesintheextracellularpotentialsproducedbyunmyelinatednervebreresultingfromalterationsinthe propagationvelocityorthedurationoftheactionpotential,ElectromyogrClinNeurophysiol27,243249(1987). 13.Dimitrov,G.V.,andN.A.Dimitrova,Preciseandfastcalculationofthemotorunitpotentialsdetectedbyapointandrectangularplate electrode,MedEngPhys20,374381(1998). 14.Dimitrova,N.A.,A.G.Dimitrov,andG.V.Dimitrov,Calculationofextracellularpotentialsproducedbyaninclinedmuscleberata rectangularplateelectrode,MedEngPhys21,583588(1999). 15.Dimitrova,N.A.,G.V.Dimitrov,andV.N.Chihman,Effectofelectrodedimensionsonmotorunitpotentials,MedEngPhys21,479 486(1999). 16.Dimitrova,N.A.,G.V.Dimitrov,andO.A.Nikitin,NeitherhighpasslteringnormathematicaldifferentiationoftheEMGsignalscan considerablyreducecrosstalk,JElectromyogrKinesiol12,235246(2002). 17.DisselhorstKlug,C.,J.Silny,andG.Rau,ImprovementofspatialresolutioninsurfaceEMG:atheoreticalandexperimentalcomparison OIAPtemumaformaquedependedoestadodomsculoeque mudacomafadiga.OsIAPssoasfontesdesinaisdeEMG,eque sepropagamsemasmudanasdeformaaolongodasfibras musculares.NofinaldaplacaedotendodoIAPoriginaese extingue,demodoqueadensidadedecorrentetotalsobreo comprimentototaldafibramuscularzeroemtodososmomentos. AgeraoeextinodoIAPproduzochamadoefeitoplacaloede efeitosdafibrafinal,quesosimultaneamentedetectadasaolongo detodoocomprimentodomsculo(nonpropagating)edefinira distnciaalmdaqualosinalEMGnopodemaisserdetectado. Essadistnciaestrelacionadacomaseletividadedadeteco, mascuidadosdevemsertomadosquandosediscuteaseletividade emrelaoaodiferente(depropagaoenonpropagating)fontesde sinal.Ataxadediminuiodaamplitudedosinalcomadistncia deobservaoparaapropagaoeoscomponentesnonpropagating (osdoisprincipaiscomponentesdesinal)dosinalEMGpodeser muitodiferente.Estasconsideraessodeextremaimportncia quandooassuntodiscutidodecrosstalk. Considerandotodososfatoresrelacionadoscomovolume condutoreasfontesdesinalqueafetamascaractersticasdosinal EMG,nosurpreendentequealgumasrelaesentreasvariveis dosinalEMGeforamuscularsofundamentaisedevemser cuidadosamenteconsideradosemaplicaesprticas.

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