Table Of Contents Sl. no.

Page no Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 HYDRODYNAMIC JOURNAL BEARINGS 1.2 HYDROSTATIC BEARING 1 3

1.3 HYBRID BEARING 1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

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4 8 10 15 31 32 33 34

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Chapter 3 Lubrication for Journal Bearings Chapter 4 Experimental Setup Chapter 5 Research Methodology Chapter 6 Future Scope Chapter 7 Reference

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ABSTRACT
Hydrodynamic journal bearings are critical power transmission components that are carrying increasingly high loads because of the increasing power density in various machines. Therefore, knowing the true operating conditions of hydrodynamic journal bearings is essential to machine design. Oil film pressure is one of the key operating parameters describing the operating conditions in hydrodynamic journal bearings. Measuring the oil film pressure in bearings has been a demanding task and therefore the subject has been studied mainly by mathematical means. The aim of this study was to determine the oil film pressure in real hydrodynamic journal bearings under realistic operating conditions. The study focused on engine bearings. Test rig experiments, simulations and calculations were carried out to determine the oil film pressure and to understand its relationship with other operating parameters. The main test apparatus was a versatile bearing test rig with a hydraulic loading system. The operating ranges of the bearings were determined by a novel method and the friction loss was determined by a heat flow analysis. The oil film pressure was measured by optical pressure sensors integrated in the bearings. The Author was a member of the research team that developed these sensors. The realistic oil film pressure was measured under hydrodynamic lubrication in realistic operating conditions. Significant differences between the measured and simulated oil film pressure distributions were found. Typically, the measured area of high pressure in the lubricating oil film was wider than the simulated one. The results can be used in the development and validation of mathematical methods for research into hydrodynamic journal bearing.

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTIINTRODUCTI ON

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

In todays world we are highly dependent upon the mechanical devices or machines for our daily works. The operation of these mechanical systems involves the relative motion of some machine elements. To protect the wear and tear of these relatively moving surfaces under various types of external loadings and to have better and smooth operation, we use bearings, which is the heart of every mechanical system/device or machine. Because of wide utility of bearing, continuous efforts are being carried out to improve the bearing mechanisms to have better relative motion of the parts by finding the suitably designed journal bearing with proper lubrication to get desired performance level. Fluid-film bearings play a key role in the design of turbo machinery systems. They are important components of turbines, compressors, and pumps that are widely used in aircraft, naval ship as well as petrochemical, power and petroleum industries. Because of wide application of bearing, continuous efforts are being carried out to improve the bearing mechanisms to have the proper relative motion of the parts by finding the suitably designed bearing with proper lubrication to get desired performance level. Generally, the lubricants used to lubricate the journal bearings are mineral oils and additives are added to them to enhance their performance. The following sections give the details of types of journal bearings.

1.1 HYDRODYNAMIC JOURNAL BEARINGS The journal bearings are mainly classified into two types namely, sliding journal bearing and roller element journal bearing. The sliding journal bearings are classified into three types namely: hydrodynamic, hydrostatic and hybrid journal bearing. In the hydrodynamic journal bearing (figure 1.1), the journal drags liquid by viscous force in to the converging gap region between the two bearing surfaces. The converging gap region occurs on one half of the bearing between the maximum gap on one side and the minimum gap on the other.

The result of the liquid being dragged in to a more confined region is to create a backpressure. This build up of pressure produce a bearing film force separating the two solid surfaces. The resultant of the bearing film forces, which act normally to the journal at each point around the bearing, will be equal and opposite of the externally applied force on the shaft. For given eccentricity of the journal within the bearing, the pressure force giving rise to the hydrodynamic load is primarily dependent upon speed (n), viscosity ( ) and bearing projected area (L D) .

Figure 1.1 Radial Pressure Distributions on the Journal in Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing System

1.2 HYDROSTATIC BEARING

Hydrostatic bearings are of prime importance to the engineers as the machine parts supported on these bearings operate with incomparable smoothness. High load carrying capacity, increased minimum fluid film thickness, long life and increased support damping make them attractive of various precision applications such as turbo machinery, machine tool spindles and precision grinder spindles etc. The basic principle of hydrostatic bearing is to supply lubricant at high pressure to recesses in the bearing via restrictors/flow control devices such as capillary, orifice, and constant flow valve, which lifts the journal against the load applied on it. In the hydrostatic journal-bearing example shown in figure 1.2, liquid is introduced to four recesses through the separate entry ports. If the centre of the shaft were concentric with journal bearing, the pressure would be almost constant around the shaft. Restrictors are placed in the supply lines from the pump to each recess so that the magnitude of the recess pressure will normally be some value less than the pump supply pressure. The reason for this is to provide for varying recess pressure with the applied load on the bearing. The effect in the journal bearing may be demonstrated from the centre of the bearing. On the side where there is a reduction in the gap the flow from the recess is restricted and the recess pressure on this side rises. On the opposite side where the gap is increased the restriction to flow from the recess is reduced and hence pressure is reduced. It means the pressure on the opposite sides of the shaft is no longer in balance. Thus both side of the bearing contribute to the net bearing film force, and bearing film force must be equal and opposite of externally applied force. The main parameter, which governs the hydrostatic load, is the supply pressure and the projected bearing area.

Figure 1.2 Hydrostatic Bearing System

1.3 HYBRID BEARING

The past conventional hydrostatic journal bearing were restricted to support heavy load at zero or low speed and also at low eccentricity required for precision machine. And also limitation of poor performance of hydrodynamic bearings at low speed compelled the designers to improve the performance of hydrostatic journal bearings and to develop alternative configurations in order to meet expanding industrial demands at different speeds. Therefore the hybrid journal bearings have been developed and used successfully in machines, which operates under high speed and heavy load conditions. A hybrid bearing combines the physical mechanisms of both hydrodynamic and hydrostatic bearings. The hybrid journal bearings can be classified into two types, namely: recessed bearing and non-recessed bearings. In the hybrid mode of operation the conventional hydrostatic/ hybrid bearings contribute very less towards hydrodynamic action on account of two reasons. First in the recess bearing, the recesses/ pockets occupy considerable portion of bearing land and thus the hydrodynamic action generated is not substantial when operating under high speed.

Secondly the restrictors may allow the backward flow from a recess, which detracts from possible load support. Thus the recessed bearings when operating in hybrid mode at higher speed are not suitable for heavy loaded applications. A typical four pockets hydrostatic journal bearing is shown in figure 1.3 below.

Figure 1.3 Symmetric Recessed Hole-Entry Journal Bearing Configuration with Four Square Recesss

Non-recessed bearings do not have any recess and they are preferred over recessed bearings because more hydrodynamic effect at high speeds as compared to recessed bearings can be generated because of higher bearing land area. In non-recessed bearings when operating under load, the developed fluid film pressure causes deformation of the bearing shell and consequently alters the fluid film profile. Nonrecessed bearings used for hybrid operation to gain maximum advantage of both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic affects in a more efficient way. These types of bearings give better performance and these are easy to manufacture and have reduced manufacturing cost as compared to conventional recessed journal bearings.

Figure 1.4 Symmetric Non-Recessed Hole-Entry Journal Bearing Configuration with 24 Holes

Hence these can be used as an alternative for recessed bearings. A typical nonrecessed 24 holes symmetric hybrid journal bearing is shown in above figure 1.4. In non- recessed bearings, the different recess shapes can be used depending upon the requirements, which are, mainly circular, rectangular, elliptical, and triangular recesses. In symmetric hybrid journal bearing holes are placed symmetrically and in case of asymmetric hybrid journal bearing the position of holes is not symmetric as shown in figure 1.5 and figure 1.6 respectively. The asymmetric configuration has an advantage of having higher load carrying capacity even at zero eccentricity as compared to symmetric configuration.

Figure 1.5 Symmetric Hole-Entry Journal Bearing There can also be other hybrid journal bearing configurations having number of rows of holes and their positions.

Figure 1.6 Asymmetric Hole-Entry Journal Bearing 6

1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

There are two types of performance characteristics of journal bearings. 1.4.1 STATIC PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS These characteristics include load carrying capacity, eccentricity ratio and attitude angle. Load carrying capacity is the capacity to carry the load by bearing. During operation of the journal bearing, the centre of the journal is offset from the centre of the bearing (bushing) by a distance e, called the eccentricity. The difference in radii, c = R2 R1, is called the clearance and the ratio = e/c is the eccentricity ratio. The angular distance between the load line and the position of minimum thickness is known as attitude angle.

1.4.2 DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Dynamic performance characteristics of a journal bearing system are expressed in terms of stiffness and damping coefficients. In fluid film bearings, the thin film separates the moving surfaces and supports the rotor load; it acts like a spring and provides the damping effect due to squeeze film effect. The stiffness and damping properties of the oil film significantly alter the critical speeds and out of balance response of rotor. Therefore, stiffness and damping coefficients plays a significant role in the analysis of journal bearing.

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
In order to theoretically simulate the journal motion, the related literature is studied. The following section details the literature available and relevant to the present study. M.O.A. Mokhtar et al [1] investigated experimentally, the behavior of plain hydrodynamic journal bearings during starting and stopping. They observed and analyzed the effects of load, speed, and bearing clearance on the journal movements. They concluded that during the starting a rapid buildup of hydrodynamic forces occurred in all cases. A hydrodynamic film was formed in a very short time, after which the shaft moved in a spiral shaped whirling locus to the steady state operating position. Prior to separation of the shaft and bearing surfaces, the contact was mainly a sliding situation with little or no initial rolling. At stopping, the shaft followed a typical hydrodynamic locus until rotation ceased and then a squeeze film trajectory to the final resting position. Shangxian Xu [2] set up a new bearing test rig for static and dynamic tests of oil-film journal bearings. Micro pressure and displacement transducers contained in shaft measure the distribution of oil film pressure and thickness, and two electromagnetic exciters are located under and behind the test bearing to excite the test bearing in order to obtain its eight dynamic stiffness and damping coefficients. A misalignment jig was re- employed to align or misalign the test bearing with respect to the axis of the shaft. Valuable performance results were obtained for a recessed hydrostatic bearing, a slot- entry hybrid bearing, and a hole-entry hybrid bearing. The results of the test bearing are basically in agreement with the theoretical analysis values at low eccentricity, but deviation at high eccentricity ratio might be due to the simplicity of the mathematical model in theoretical analysis and a number of factors which caused the test deviation.

Ronald d. Flack et al [3] developed a bearing test rig to characterize the static and dynamic properties of hydrodynamic journal bearings. Static measurement capabilities include operating eccentricity, pressure and thermal boundary conditions, and continuous circumferential pressure and film thickness profiles at multiple axial planes. Dynamic stiffness and damping coefficient measurements are achieved using steady state harmonic excitations generated by a two-axis shaker system. All essential data for a complete understanding of one particular bearing can be collected simultaneously. To ensure high quality results, the rig was designed to minimize the influence of measurement uncertainties on the derived dynamic coefficients. They described complete details. Consistent results were attributed to the use of a comprehensive uncertainty analysis in the design process and to a good match between the actual implementation of the test and the assumed linear bearing model. Guangyan Shen et al [4] presented a model to calculate the fluid film forces of a fluid-film bearing with the Reynolds boundary condition by using the free boundary theory and the variational method. This paper presents a fast and accurate model to calculate the fluid-film forces of a fluid film bearing. Since the model is semianalytical, it can be applied to many kinds of bearings, such as cylindrical bearings, partial arc bearings and multilobe bearings. It is not only applicable for short bearings and long bearings, but for finite length bearings as well. Both the balanced and unbalanced rotors are taken into consideration. The model is applied to the nonlinear dynamical behavior analysis of a rigid rotor in the elliptical bearing support. The balanced rotor undergoes a supercritical Hopf bifurcation as the rotor spin speed increases. The investigation of the unbalanced rotor indicates that the motion can be a synchronous motion, sub harmonic motion, quasi-period motion, or chaotic motion at different rotor spin speeds. M. Malik et al [5] theoretically investigated the transient response of plane hydrodynamic journal bearing system during acceleration and deceleration periods. The nature of theoretically predicted journal response during starting and stopping is found to be similar to the experimental behavior reported by other authors. The motion of an accelerating or decelerating journal shows concurrence with the linearized stabilily charts. 10

An interesting finding is that, beginning from an equilibrium state, a journal can be accelerated only to a limiting value so that it may return to its original state on being decelerated from the accelerated speed.

G. Grau et al [6] presented a numerical analysis of the static and dynamic performance of a compliant journal gas bearing. The common approach found in foil bearing literature consists in calculating the carrying capacity for a given shaft position. In this study the external load is fixed (magnitude and direction) and the related shaft position is investigated. Nevertheless, a rigid profile, able to support high imposed loads, is no longer valid if one considers that the bearing becomes compliant. An original calculation method of the initial profile considering rigid surfaces is proposed to overcome this problem. The prediction of nonlinear dynamic behavior, i.e., stability and response to external excitation, is investigated. Finally, a viscous damping model is introduced into the dynamic model in order to obtain the amount of structural damping necessary to increase the stability of the compliant journal gas bearing. D.V. Singh et al [7] solved the fluid film lubrication equation for hydrostatic journal bearing by finite element method for determining its steady state performance and stiffness and damping coefficients. They determined motion trajectories of the journal centre by discritizing time using Runge-Kutta method, for a small arbitrary disturbance. S.K. Bhargava and M. Malik [8] presented an assessment of the stability margin of plane hydrodynamic journal bearing system mounted on flexible damped pedestals. They expressed stability margin in term of critical speed (or critical mass) of journal. The assessment investigations were carried out by delineating the motion of an accelerating or decelerating journal. Hiromu Hashimoto at el [9] theoretically examined the relations between journal centre motion trajectories and the variation in corresponding pressure distribution in rotor bearing system supported by two-lobe hydrodynamic journal bearings based on a nonlinear analysis. In order to obtain the values for the oil film forces used in the equations of motion for rotor bearing systems, they solved the Reynolds equation using the semi analytical finite element method at each time step. 11

They concluded that the stability journal centre motion trajectory is strongly related to the variation in pressure distribution. L U'Yan-jun et al [10] investigated the nonlinear dynamic behaviors of a rotor dynamical system with finite hydrodynamic bearing supports. They presented a method consisting of a predictor-corrector mechanism and Newton-Raphson method to calculate equilibrium position and critical speed corresponding to Hopf bifurcation point of the bearing-rotor system. The local stability and bifurcation behaviors of periodic motions are analyzed by the Flequet theory. F. K. Choy et al [11] presented a simulation of a hydrodynamic journal bearing under various loading conditions. The procedure for the fluid film pressure solution involves an iterative scheme that solves the Reynolds equation. The pressure curve was integrated to calculate bearing supporting forces. Newton-Raphson iteration method was used to locate the journal equilibrium position from which both linear and nonlinear bearing stiffness are evaluated by means of the small perturbation technique. They analyzed effects of load on the linear/nonlinear plain journal bearing characteristics. B. S. Prabhu et al [12] studied various design criteria for hydrodynamic bearings. They presented Results for unbalance response, dissipation coefficient, maximum transmitted force, stress amplitudes and fatigue life in the case of an industrial electric molar rotor supported on partial journal bearings using the transfer matrix method.

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Chapter 3 Lubrication for Journal Bearings

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Chapter 3 Lubrication for Journal Bearings Introduction

The objective of lubrication is to reduce friction, wear and heating of machine parts that move relative to each other.

Types of lubrication
Five distinct form of lubrication may be identified:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic Elastohydrodynamic Boundary Solid film

Hydrodynamic lubrication suggests that the load-carrying surfaces of the bearing are separated by a relatively thick film of lubricant, so as to prevent metal to metal contact, and the stability thus obtained can be explained by the laws of fluid mechanics. Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the existence of an adequate supply of lubrication at all times rather than having lubrication under pressure. The film pressure is created by moving surface itself pulling the lubricant into a wedge-shaped zone at a velocity sufficiently high to create the pressure necessary to separate the surfaces against the load on the bearing. Hydrostatic lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant (can be air, water) into the load-bearing area at a pressure high enough to separate the surfaces with a relatively thick film of lubricant. In contrast to hydrodynamic lubrication, this kind of lubrication does not require motion of one surface relative to another (applicable when velocities are small or zero, where the frictional resistance is absolute zero).

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Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is the phenomenon that occurs when a lubricant is introduced between surfaces that are in rolling contact, such as mating gears or rolling bearings. (Uses Hertizian theory of contact stress and fluid mechanics). A decrease in viscosity may due to: Insufficient area A drop in the velocity of the moving surface A lessening in the quantity of lubricant delivered to a bearing An increase in the bearing load An increase in lubricant temperature

This may prevent the buildup of a film thick enough for full-film lubrication, which results in boundary lubrication. The change from hydrodynamic to boundary is quite slow. When bearing must be operated at extreme temperature, a solid-film lubricant such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide must be used because the ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory. One important measure to ensure that conditions for appropriate lubrication regimes are met is through defining and calculating the dimensionless film parameter , given the minimum film thickness (the method of calculating minimum film thickness is shown in the journal bearing section) and surface roughness of say plain bearing (refer to ISO 12129-2:1995). The equation to determine (between shaft and bearing) is as follows : Ra = rms surface roughness of surface a Rb = rms surface roughness of surface b

The range of lubrication regime is defined as: Hydrodynamic lubrication: 5 100 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication: 3 10 Partial lubrication: 1 5 Boundary lubrication: < 1

15 Lubrication in journal bearing

Journal bearings can operate in any of three lubrication regimes: thick-film lubrication, thin-film lubrication, or boundary lubrication. Generally thick-film operation is preferred. Table below illustrates characteristics of the lubrication regimes (Theo, 2004): = dynamic viscosity, N = revolution per unit time, W = load, L= bearing width, D = diameter Lubrication Contact of regime Thick film Range of Coefficient of 0.01 0.005 Degree of wear None Light-loading highspeed regime Friction coefficient proportional to N/[W/(LD)] Comment

bearing surfaces film Only during start up or stopping 10-3- 10-4

thickness, in friction

Thin film

Intermittent; Dependent on surface

10-4 to 0.5*10-4 0.5*10-4 to molecular thickness

0.005 0.05

Mild

High operating temperature

Boundary

roughness Surface to Surface

0.05 0.15

Large

Heat generation and friction no dependent lubricant viscosity on

Explanation of thick film lubrication relative to journal operating speed At rest or at slow shaft speed, the journal will contact the lower face of the bearing. This condition is known as boundary lubrication, considerable wear can occur in this period. As shaft speed increase, oil dragged around by the shaft penetrates the gap between the shaft and the bearing so that the shaft begins to float on a film of oil. 16

This is called thin film lubrication. The journal may occasionally contact the bearing particularly when shock load occurs. Moderate wear may occur at speed, oil film thickness increases until there comes a point where the contact the bearing at all. This is known as thick lubrication and no wear/damage will occur at this point (Tafe, 2000). One can show these events in terms of a graph (shown below): these times. At high journal does not

The most desirable region is around the onset of thick film lubrication. Below this point, wear occurs, above this point, friction torque is high. A general guide to bearing performance can be obtained by calculating the bearing modulus M, which is defined as

A design thumb of rule is that the onset of thick film lubrication occurs at a bearing modulus 17 of 75 (Tafe,2000).

Oil lubrication Oils are used in journal bearings when cooling is required (or when debris need to be flushed away from bearing). High speed journal bearing are always lubricated with oil rather Viscosity for journal bearing can range between 20 1500 cSt (Lansdown, 2004). Viscosity grade is dependent upon bearing RPM (of shaft), oil temperature and load. The following table provides a general guideline in selecting the correct ISO viscosity grade (Noria, 2005). Bearing Speed (rpm) 300 to 1,500 ~1,800 ~3,600 ~10,000 ISO VISCOSITY GRADE (ISO VG) 2 3 5 7 10 15 22 32 46 68 100 150 220 320 0 to 50 32 32 32 Bearing / Oil Temperature (C) 60 75 68 100 to 150 32 to 46 68 to 100 32 46 to 68 32 32 90 100 68 to 100 32 t0 46

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY 40C (mm /s) Minimum Maximum Mid-piont 1.98 2.42 2.20 2.88 3.52 3.20 4.14 5.06 4.60 6.12 7.48 6.80 9.0 11.0 10.0 13.5 16.5 15.0 19.8 24.2 22.0 28.8 35.2 32.0 41.4 50.6 46.0 61.2 74.8 68.0 90.0 110 100 135 165 150 198 242 220 288 352 320

The ISO grade number indicated is the preferred grade for speed and temperature range. ISO 68- and 100-grade oils are commonly used in indoor, heated applications, with 32-grade oils being used for high- speed (10,000 RPM) units and some outdoor low-temperature 18 applications. Note in the table that the higher the bearing speed, the lower the oil viscosity required; and that the higher the operating temperature of the unit, the higher the oil viscosity that is required. If vibration or minor shock loading is possible, a higher grade of oil than the

one indicated in Table 1 should be considered. Another method of determining the proper viscosity grade is by applying minimum and optimum viscosity criteria to a viscosity to temperature plot. A generally accepted minimum viscosity of the oil at the operating temperature for journal bearing is 13 cSt (CentiStokes), although some designs allow for an oil as thin as 7 or 8 cSt at the operating temperature. The optimum viscosity at the operating temperature is 22 35 cS viscosity maybe as high as 95 cSt for low speed, heavy loaded or shock loaded journal bearings. An example of the chart is shown below (Klassen Specialty Hydraulics, 2003).

Using the above method requires some knowledge of the oil temperature within the bearing under operating condition. It is common to determine the temperature of the outer surface of the pipes carrying oil to and away from the bearing. The temperature of the oil inside of the pipes will generally be higher (5 to 10C, 10 to 18F) than the outer metal surface of the pipe. The oil temperature within the bearing can be taken as the average of the oil 19 entering versus the temperature exiting the bearing. A third and more complex method is to calculate the oil viscosity needed to obtain a satisfactory oil film thickness. This method is

demonstrated in the database (refer to journal bearing section). It is important to the keep viscosity of the oil within the desired range. If it is too low, heat will be generated due to insufficient film thickness and some metal to metal contact will occur. If it is too high, heat will again be generated, but due to the internal fluid friction created within the oil. High viscosity can also increase likelihood of cavitations. In terms of additives, a rust and oxidation (R&O) inhibited system is used in the oils. Antifoam and pour point depressant additives may also be present. Antiwear (AW) hydraulic oils may also be used as long as the high-temperature limit of the zinc AW component is not exceeded and excessive water is not present. R&O oils tend to have better water separation characteristics, which is beneficial, and the AW properties of a hydraulic oil would be beneficial only during startup and shutdown, assuming a properly operating bearing. Viscosity in oil is also affected by the soot content and level of oxidation, which could have implications for oil film thicknesses and pumping losses. The soot and particulate contents have a major effect on wear of the cast iron at and less of an effect on the ring for the materials studied here. Although the particulate content is important, it is a difficult quantity to measure using optical particle counting techniques in used oil (Truhan, Qu, & Blau, 2005). A typical lubricant specification requirement is shown by the table below (Lansdown, 2004).

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TEST Viscosity, kinematic: cSt at 40C cSt at 100C Flash point, closed cup (C) Pour Point (*C) Total acid number (mg KOH/g) Copper corrosion, classification

LIMITS 60-75 8.3-8.5 Min. 190 Max. -10 Max. 0.1 Max. 1

METHOD IP71/97* IP71/97 IP34/99 IP15/95 IP177/96 IP154/2000

*The second number indicates the most recent revision. This date often be omitted in general use, but in specification it should always be quoted.

Regarding the lubricant standards: you can refer to BS4475 a specification for straight mineral lubricating oil. BS4231 classification for viscosity grade of industrial liquid lubricants or guides to recommended practice. (These need to be purchased through website if you think it is necessary, please let me know). It is highly recommended for you to read through the text book: Grease lubrication Grease is used to lubricate journal bearings when cooling of the bearing is not a factor, typically if the bearing operates at relatively low speeds. Grease is also beneficial if shock loading occurs or if the bearing frequently starts and stops or reverses direction. Grease is almost always used to lubricate pins and bushings because it provides a thicker lubricant than oil to support static loads and to protect against vibration and shock-loading that are common in many of these applications.

A table illustrating composition of the grease is listed below (Lansdown, 2004): Base Oils Mineral oils Thickeners Sodium soap Additives Anti-oxidants

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Synthetic hydrocarbons Calcium soap Anti-wear additives Di-esters Lithium soap EP additives Silicones Aluminum soap Corrosion inhibitors Phosphate esters Lithium complex Molybdenum disulphide Perfluoropolyethers Calcium complex Friction modifiers Fluorinated silicones Aluminum complex Metal deactivators Chlorinated silicones Bentonite elay VI improvers Polyglycols Silica Pour-point depressants Lithium soap or lithium complex thickeners are the most common thickeners used in greases and are excellent for most journal bearing applications. Greases are classified by their stiffness or consistency (relative hardness or softness) (the most important property of grease) according to NLGI (US national lubricating grease institute). These classifications are based on the degree of penetration achieved when a standard cone is allowed to sink into the grease at a temperature of 77F (25C) for a period of five seconds. Consistency is assessed by measuring the distance in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard metal cone penetrates the grease under a standard load; the result is known as the penetration (NLGI classification). NLGI number 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Worked Penetration at 25C 445-475 400-430 355-385 310-340 265-295 220-250 175-205 130-160 85-115

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The consistency of grease varies with temperature, and there is generally an irregular increase in penetration (softening) as the temperature increases. Eventually a temperature is reached at which the grease is soft enough for a drop to fall away or flow from the bulk of the grease; this is called the drop point. The drop point is usually taken to be the maximum temperature at which the grease can be used in service.The grade of grease used is typically an NLGI grade #2 with a base oil viscosity of approximately 150 to 220 cSt at 40C (also refer to document: Viscosity classification for grease grade). Greases for low-speed, high-load, high temperatures and for pins and bushings may use a higher viscosity base oil and be formulated with EP and solid additives. Greases for improved water resistance may be formulated with heavier base oils, different thickeners and special additive formulations. Greases for better low- temperature dispensing may incorporate a lower viscosity base oil manufactured to an NLGI #1 specification. Bearings lubricated by a centralized grease dispensing systems typically use a #1, 0 or 00 grade of grease. The apparent viscosity of grease changes with shear (pressure, load and speed) that is, greases are non- Newtonian or thixotropic. Within a rotating journal bearing, as the bearing rotates faster (shear rate increases), the apparent viscosity of the grease decreases and approaches the viscosity of the base oil used in grease. At both ends of the bearing shell, the pressure is lower and therefore the apparent viscosity remains higher. The resulting thicker grease at the bearing ends acts as a built-in seal to reduce the ingression of contaminants.

Lubricating greases are not simply very viscous oils. They consist of lubricating oils, often of quite lowviscosity, which have been thickened by means of finely dispersed solids called thickeners. The effect of the thickeners is to produce a semi rigid structure in which the dispersion of thickener particles is stabilized by electric charges. The liquid phase is firmly held by a combination of opposite electric charges, adsorption, and mechanical trapping. As a result, the whole grease behaves as a more or less soft solid, and there is only a very slight tendency for the oil to flow out of the grease.

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The table lists some compatible and incompatible materials for different oil types:

Sl.no. Oil Type 1 Natural oils

Rubbers and plastics Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Most rubbers, including natural SBR rubber,highly rubber, most plastics plasticized Polyethylene and polypropylene. Natural rubber; SBR: Highly Plasticized Plastics Natural rubber; SBR: Natural rubber,Silicone

Mineral oils

Nitrile rubber, neofrene,Viton,EPR. Most unplasticized Plastics High Nirile,viton:nylons PPS High Nirile,viton:nylons PPS

3 4

Esters Silicones

The selection of grease for a specific application depends on five factors: speed, load, size, temperature range, and any grease feed system. For average conditions of speed, load, and size with no feed system, NLGI no. 2 grease would be the normal choice, and such grease with a mineral-oil base is sometimes known as multipurpose grease. 1. Speed - For high speeds, stiffer grease, NLGI no. 3, should be used except in plain bearings, where no. 2 would usually be hard enough. For lower speeds, softer grease such as no. 1 or no.0 should be used. 2. Load - For high loads, it may be advantageous to use EP additives or molybdenum disulfide. Because higher loads will lead to higher power consumption and therefore higher temperature, a stiffer grease such as no. 3 or a synthetic-base oil may help. 3. Size - For large systems, use a stiffer grease, no. 3 or no. 4. For very small systems, use softer grease, such as no. 1 or no. 0. 4. Temperature range - The drop point should be higher than the maximum predicted operating temperature. For sustained operation at higher temperatures, synthetic-base oil may be necessary. For very high temperatures, about 230C, one of the very expensive fluorocarbon greases may be required.

5. Feed systems - If the grease is to be supplied through a centralized system, usually24 is it desirable to use one grade softer than would otherwise be chosen (i.e., use a no. 0 instead of a no. 1 or a no. 00 instead of a no. 0). Occasionally a particular grease will be

found unsuitable for a centralized feed because separation occurs and the lines become plugged with thickener, but this problem is now becoming less common. Objective of lubricating oil The primary function of lubricating oil is to separate surfaces, reduce friction and absorb heat. Secondary responsibilities include regulating temperature, flushing contaminants, controlling corrosion and providing hydromechanical performance. Improper lubricating oil type, contaminated oil, poor equipment operation, poor maintenance or poor component manufacturing reduce the ability of the lubricating oil to function. These factors can disrupt the hydrodynamic or elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubrication film between the metal surfaces leading to premature wear of the metal surfaces and high overall operating costs. When metal-to-metal or particle-to-metal contact exists because of a loss or interference in the lubricating film, adhesive and abrasive wear occurs. This generates more friction, heat and wear particles that further contaminate the oil. Even under ideal conditions of manufacturing, operation and maintenance, other contaminants, such as dirt and moisture, can get into lubricating oil. If dirt or silica particles are large enough they can cause interferences between metal contact surfaces. Moisture, on the other hand, breaks down viscosity and alters the chemical properties of the oil (Weiksner, 2000). Analysis of lubricating oil will identify the source of a contaminant, whether the chemical properties of the oil are intact and if machine wear is occurring. It is important to be able to relate results of a lubrication analysis to the oil chemical properties, the various types of metals used in manufacturing the rotating elements, and the operating conditions of a machine. Controlling oil cleanliness minimizes the effects solid particle contamination can have on interfering with the lubricating oil film. It also maintains separation of the metal surfaces.

When the size of the particulate is greater than the clearance between metal rotating surfaces, abrasion and fretting of the metal surfaces occurs. Once abrasion or fretting starts, the lubricant functions are adversely affected and additional surface damage will result. The 25 continuous contact between particulate and metal generates additional wear debris and larger particulate. To quantify the amount and size of solid particulate contamination in oil, ISO

4406:1999 was developed, shown in table below: Particles per ml More than 160,000 80,000 40,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 2,500 1,300 640 320 160 80 40 20 10 5 Up to and including 320,000 160,000 80,000 40,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 2,500 1,300 640 320 160 80 40 20 10 Scale number(R) 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

The standard provides the method for coding oil cleanliness based on the solid particulate micron size and the amount of that size particulate present in the oil. Oil cleanliness standards established by ISO in 1999 correlate to the identification of solid particulate measuring 4, 6 and 14 microns in size (represented as R4/R6/R14) according to the quantity of these solid particles found per each milliliter of oil. 26 The ISO particulate size classification R4/R6/R14 can be compared to tolerances (fits) or clearances between machined components. Table below provides the typical clearances in

microns for various shaft size and shaft/housing combinations and for various machine fit classifications.

Shaft size (inches) 1 1.5 2 3 6

Class 1 (RC8-Loose) 63 to 191 83 to 228 101 to 260 132 to 315 211 to 439

Class 2 (RC7-Free) 35 to 102 45 to 122 55 to 142 73 to 170 117 to 239

Class 3 (RC5/RC6Medium) 22 to 64 30 to 76 35 to 86 48 to 124 76 to 150

Class (RC4-Snug) 0 to 25 0 to 30 0 to 32 0 to 37 0 to 45

The table below provides normal static unmounted manufacturer internal clearances for a typical deep groove ball bearing and a polyoxymethylene (POM) composite journal bearing for the same shaft sizes as shown in the table above.

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Bearing Size (inches) 1 1.5 2 3 6

Deep Grove Ball Bearings (microns) 5 to 20 6 to20 8 to 28 10 to 30 18 to 53

POM Journal Bearing (microns) 50 to 164 50 to 174 80 to 239 100 to 306 100 to 333

Table 3: bearing component micro clearances Whilst it appears that both tables above provides sufficient separation of metal surfaces for particles in R4/R6/R14 size classification, when rolling element bearings are installed properly, the clearance is reduced to approximately half the values listed in table 3 above. For example, a one-inch rolling element bearing installed on a Class 2 or Class 3 machined one-inch shaft will have an operating or running clearance between 2.5 and 10 microns when installed properly. If the installed one-inch bearing is lubricated with oil containing solid contamination of any source that is equal to or greater than 2.5 microns, abrasive or fretting wear may occur. An operating or running clearance would typically be between these values except for the highly loaded areas of the rotating components. A significant amount of particulate contamination in lubricating oil that is greater than the clearance between contact surfaces will generate noise and vibration, and raise operating temperature due to the heat caused by increased friction. It is therefore important to have good maintenance, good operating practices, trained mechanics and oil free of solid particulate contamination.

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Other characteristics of oil The single most important property of lubricant oil is its viscosity. It often directly relates to the requirements of the operating equipment (e.g. pump) and condition. Other important characteristic the lubricating oils are (Chevron, 2008): Oxidation stability (or oxidation products): enable operation of the oil during long period of time Rust Prevention: Protects vital system parts against corrosion in the presence of water Demulsibility: Rapidly separates any water from the oil Antiwear: Provides adequate lubrication of moving parts, even under boundary lubrication conditions Air Release: Readily releases entrained air Antifoam: Prevents buildup of a stable foam layer, especially in the reservoir Low Pour Point: Permits low temperature operations High Viscosity Index: Minimizes viscosity changes with temperature and allows a wider operating temperature range

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Experimental Setup
Softwares to be used: Ansys 12.0 (CFX) NX5 FLUENT

Journal Bearing Setup: Diameter of shaft: 48.00mm Diameter of bearing:50.00mm Length of bearing : 70mm Central load acting on the shaft : 2.90kg Coefficient of viscocity (): 0.040 Ns/m at 60C Speed(N): 400 rpm Clearance (c): 0.025mm Journal speed (n):1000rpm Eccentricity (e):0.6mm

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Research Methodology
The database required for the design of full journal bearing for the maximum load(w),and the minimum friction (f) is collected from references. Based on the SAE oil grade, density , viscosity and other parameter were set to define the boundary condition. The complete modeling of hydrodynamic journal bearing will be made with the help of CFX, FLUENT and the pressure variation will be found out, and journal circumferential parameter are to be changed and its effects are to be examined on fluid film lubrication.

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Future Scope

Pressure distribution around the journal bearing varies with the change in fluid viscosity. So with the change in fluid i.e. bingham plastic, pseudoplastic , and other nonnewtonian fluid can be used for finding out the wear , pressure distribution , bearing life and all other parameters.

Reference

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1. Mokhtar, M. O. A., Howarth, R. B. and Davies, P. B., 1977, The Behavior of Plain Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings during Starting and Stopping, Transactions, Vol.20(3), pp. 183-190. 2. Xu Shangxian, 1994, Experimental Investigation of Hybrid Bearings, Tribology Transactions, Vol. 37(2), pp. 285-292. 3. Flack R. D., Kostrzewsky, G. J. and Taylor D. V., 1993, A Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing Test Rig with Dynamic Measurement Capabilities, Tribology Transactions, Vol.36(4), pp. 497-512. 4. Shen, G., Xiao, Z., Zhang, W. and Zheng, T.,2006 , Nonlinear Behavior Analysis of a Rotor Supported on Fluid-Film Bearings, Journal of Vibration and Acoustics, Vol. 128, pp. 35-40. 5. Malik, M., Bhargava , S. K. and Sinhasan, R., 1989 ,The Transient Response of a Journal in Plane Hydrodynamic Bearing during Acceleration and Deceleration Periods, Tribology Transactions, Vol.32 (1), pp. 61-69. 6. Grau, G., Iordanoff, I., Said, B. B. and Berthier, Y., 2004, An Original Definition of the Profile of Compliant Foil Journal Gas Bearings: Static and Dynamic Analysis, Tribology Transactions, Vol.47 (2), pp. 248-256. 7. Singh, D. V., Sinhasan, R. and Ghai, R. C., 1979, Static and Dynamic Performance Characteristics of an Orifice-Compensated Hydrostatic Journal Bearing, Tribology Transactions, Vol.22 (2), pp. 162-170. 8. Bhargava, S. K. and Malik, M., 1991, The Transient Response of a Journal in Plane Hydrodynamic Bearing with Flexible Damped Supports During Acceleration and Deceleration Periods, Tribology Transactions, Vol.34(1), pp.63 69. Tribology

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9. Wongrojn,

M.

M.,

Prabkaew,

C.

and

Hashimoto,

H.,

1995,

Theoretical

Prediction of Journal Centre Motion Trajectory in Two-Lobe Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings, JSME International Journal, Vol. 38(2), pp. 319- 325. 10. Yan-jun, L. U., Lie, Y. U., Heng, L.I.U. and Yong-fang, Z., 2006, Complex Nonlinear Behavior of a Rotor dynamical System with Non-Analytical Journal Bearing Supports, Journal of shanghai University, Vol. 10(3), pp. 247-255 11. Choy, F. K., Braun, M. J., Hu, Y., 1991, Nonlinear Effects in a Plain Journal Bearing: Part 1- Analytical Study, Journal of Tribology, Vol.113, pp. 555-561. 12. Prabhu, B. S., Bhat, R. B. and Sankar, T. S., 1990 Analytical Methods for Rotors Supported on Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings, Tribology Transactions, Vol.33(1), pp. 60 66.

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