TRAINING REPORT

PRESENTED BY PIYUSH KHANDELWAL

ECE-2

Roll no.: 1461502808 BASED ON TRAINING UNDERTAKEN IN RELIANCE COMMUNICATION LIMITED DURATION JUNE 3rd to JULY 18th

Department of Electronics and Communication MAHARAJA SURAJMAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY NEW DELHI- 110058 , 2011-2012

OPTICAL FIBER NETWORK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Being a part of RelianceCommunications was a pleasure indeed. The bond and the knowledge shared by the people there was heartening. I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards Mrs. Prachi Aran of RelianceCommunications, Delhi who mentored me during the entire training period. Her profound encouragement, cooperation, guidance and keen supervision were highly inspiring. I would also like to thank her team members Mr. Rajesh, Mr. Harsh and Mr. Bhuwan for being enthusiastic about demonstrating everything about optical fibre. I would also like to thank the HR Department of the company for their help without which this training would not have been possible. Piyush khandelwal

Date: 16th July 11

INDEX
1) Introduction
2) About RelianceCommunications

a) History b) Services provided c) Infrastructure

d) Reliancecommunications, Delhi

3) Optical fiber a) Functional Basics i) ii) Total internal reflection Factors causing attenuation

b) Uses and Advantages c) Difference between copper and cable and optical fiber d) Types of fiber i) ii) Single mode Multi mode

e) Optical fibre cable(OFC) f) Cable Installation i) ii) iii) iv) v) Digging Duct laying(coupling) Duct integrity Test Cable Jetting Splicing

g) Optical Time Domain Reflectometer(OTDR)

h) Connectors/attenuators/couplers 4) Synchronous Digital Hierarchy a) Introduction b) Synchronization of Digital Signals c) Basic SDH frame format d) Principles of SDH 5) WIMAX a) Definition b) Uses c) Wimax concept d) Wimax Protocols e) Multiplexing in Wimax

INTRODUCTION
The World is now a GLOBAL VILLAGE. Communication Technology has shortened the gap between remotest of places. Every continent and every country, every company and every home, every man, every woman and every child feels its dire need. Communication Industry in India and all over the world has grown exponentially over the past few years. Growing at the pace that it is, to understand its functionality was my basic objective.

To be able to be a part of a communication company was very exciting and knowledgeable. On site work gave me a better understanding of Communication Systems. Classroom acquired knowledge seemed insufficient and was given more meaning. Thus suddenly all theories and derivations seemed logical.

The fructifying telecom sector has seen a lot of new players which has changed the way people communicate. The number of vendors for telecom equipment and the large number of service providers is huge. The demand for better, faster and more data carrying technology helps innovation.

TRAINING:

The laying of fiber optic cable, the connection to each customer, the link between cities, the network spanning the country, the technology used for transmission, the equipments handling 1600 Gbps of data, breaking down of the network and testing each fiber is almost all I learnt during my training.

THE FUTURE:

Evolution is a necessity, thus the telecom sector will always grow, change and adapt to needs. The equipment and the technology will change again, to handle more amounts of data. The demands of the

customer and every individual will increase with time. The telecom industry will always be on its toes.

1) ABOUT

RELIANCECOMMUNICATIONS:

Reliance Communications Ltd. (commonly called RCOM) is an Indian broadband and telecommunications company headquartered in Navi Mumbai, India. RCOM is the world's 16th largest mobile phone operator with over 144 million subscribers. Established on 2004, a subsidiary of the Reliance Group. The company has five segments: Wireless segment includes wireless operations of the company; broadband segment includes broadband operations of the company; Global segment include national long distance and international long distance operations of the company and the wholesale operations of its subsidiaries; Investment segment includes investment activities of the Group companies, and Other segment is consists of the customer care activities and direct-to-home (DTH) activities. RelianceCommunications is the nodal agency for international communications from the country and has been the premier provider of international voice and data services. The company operates landing stations, undersea cables, ISP POPs, managed services, leased lines and data centres across India.

Vision: Deliver a new world of communications to advance the reach and leadership of our customers.

Commitment: Invest in building long-lasting relationships with customers and partners and lead the industry in responsiveness and flexibility.

Strategy: Build leading-edge IP-leveraged solutions advanced by our unmatched global infrastructure and leadership in emerging markets.

HISTORY:

It ranks among the top 5 telecommunications companies. Retrieved 2010-04-14. in the world by number of customers in a single country. Reliance Communications limitedclientele includes 2,100 Indian and multinational corporations and over 800 global, regional and domestic carriers. The company has established a pan-India, next-generation, integrated (wireless and wireline), convergent (voice, data and video)digital network that is capable of supporting services spanning the entire communications value chain, covering over 24,000 towns and 600,000 villages. Reliance Communications owns and operates the nextgeneration,IP-enabled connectivity infrastructure,comprising over 190,000 kilometers of fiber optic cable systems in India, USA, Europe, Middle East and the Asia Pacific region. Main subsidiaries Reliance Telecommunication Limited (RTL) In July 2007, the company announced it was buying US-based managed ethernet and application delivery services company Yipes Enterprise Limited for a cash amount of 1200 crore (the equivalent of US$300 million). The deal was announced of the overseas acquisition, the Reliance group has amalgamated the United States-based Flag Telecom for $210 million (roughly 950 crore). RTL operates in Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, Kolkata and Northeast, offering GSMservices. Reliance Globalcom RGL owns the worlds largest private undersea cable system, spanning 65,000 km seamlessly integrated with Reliance Communications. Over 110,000 km of domestic optic fiber provides a robust Global Service Delivery Platform, connecting 40 key business markets in India, the Middle East, Asia, Europe, and the U.S. Reliance Internet Data Center (RIDC) RIDC provides Internet Data center (IDC) services located In Mumbai ,Bangalore,Hyderabadand Chennai. Spread across 650,000 sq ft (60,000 m2) of hosting space, it offers IT infrastructure management services to large, medium and small enterprises. It is one of the leading data center service provider in India and provides services like colocation managed server hosting, virtual private server and data security. It has launched cloud computing services, offering product under its infrastructure as a server (Iaas) and software as a service (Saas) portfolio, which enables enterprises, mainly small and medium, a costeffective IT infrastructure and application on pay-per-user model. Reliance Digital TV Main article: Big Tv Reliance Big TV launched in August 2008 and thereafter acquired 1 million subscribers within 90 days of launch ,the fastest ramp-up ever achieved by any DTH operator in the

world. Reliance Big TV offers its 1.7 million customers DVD-quality pictures on over 200 channels using MPEG-4 technology. Acquisition

FLAG Telecom Yipes ethernet service Digicable

SERVICES PROVIDED:

RELIANCECommunications offers the following services to its customers can be divided into following categories: Personal Broadband Internet Access Dial-up Internet Access Wi-Fi Net Telephony Corporate International Private Leased Circuits (IPLC) National Private Leased Circuits (NPLC) Virtual Private Network (VPN) Video conferencing Internet Leased Line ISDN Bandwidth on demand

INFRASTRUCTURE: The state of the art infrastructure of the RCOMnetwork consists of 200,000 sq. km. global network connecting over 200 countries and territories

having 275 points of presence (PoP). RELIANCE has over 20 terabits of submarine capacity and over one million square feet of data center space. The domestic infrastructure of RCOMhas a NLD backbone of 35000km covering 300 major cities. It . For MPLS, there are 123 PoPs in 119 cities all over the country. RELIANCECommunications has 10 data centres in USA and Canada, 12 in Europe and another 12 in Asia including the 7 in India. The global MPLS network of RCOM also has undergone an up gradation and is well-spread over 4 continents. As far as the international cables are concerned, RCOM is the only carrier having a capacity on 5 out of 5 cables coming to India. It sends its data via:

FLAG Cable: It connects India to the North European and North African countries and is accessed via Mumbai.

SEA-ME-WE 2: It connects India with the Arab and south European countries. It is accessed via Mumbai.

SEA-ME-WE 3: It connects India with the Western Europe, parts of Africa, S.E.Asia, China, Japan, Russia and Australia. It is accessed via Mumbai & Cochin.

SAFE/SAT 3: This cable connects India with the South and West African countries and is accessed via Cochin

SEA-ME-WE 4: It connects India with Sri Lanka, Arab countries and South Asian countries. It can be accessed via Mumbai and Chennai.

RCOM has its own fiber laid between India and Singapore which has a capacity of 5.12Tbps and is maintained by RELIANCE.

MARKET SCENARIO:

The telecommunications sector is on a boom and is growing manifold every year. Hence, the no. of players entering the sector is also increasing rapidly and existing players are growing stronger. Hence, there

is a cut throat competition and to survive in this, one needs to grow constantly. RCOM with its growth over the past 5 years into various sectors of services, the quality standards and the customer base, can be called as Indias first telecom multinational.

International Market: In the international scenario, RCOM competes with the other international carriers such as AT&T, SingTel etc. As of now, RCOM is among the top 3 players in the field of wholesale voice transfer. It is undoubtedly, the largest supplier of submarine bandwidth. RCOM is also Global Tier 1 internet service provider.

Domestic Market: In India, RELIANCECommunications today faces fierce competition from Bharti and Tata,Vodafone. These service providers have a stronger hold on the NLD market and also have a more widespread network all over India. But in ILD, rcom is still the market leader with over 12% market share. In services like IPLC, it has a lions share of 60% in the market.

RELIANCECOMMUNICATIONS, BANGLA SAHIB ROAD, NEW DELHI:

The office at Bangla Sahib is the regional office of VSNL in Delhi. It consists of the following departments: HR Department Finance Department NLD Department ILD Department Voice Department Data Department Access Department MAN Department P&I Department

OSP Department

2) FIBER OPTIC:
a) FUNCTIONAL BASICS: The Optical Fiber is basically glass, made out of Silica. The Optical Fiber is constructed using two concentric layers. The inner layer is the Core and the outer layer is the Cladding. They have a refractive index of about 1.5. The core and the cladding have a difference in refractive index of less than 1%. Light is guided through the core, and the fiber acts as an optical waveguide.

Fig: Fiber Optic (Cross-section) Refractive Index= 1.467-1.468

i. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION: The Core has higher refractive index than the Cladding. The difference creates a denser and a rarer medium. Thus when a ray of light is passed in the core, it is reflected throughout the length of the fiber optic.

Refractive index of medium = speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium. Critical Angle= cos1 (n2/n1)

The light must enter the fiber optic within the acceptance angle, which is a function of the refractive index of the core and the cladding. There is a maximum angle at which the light can enter with respect to the fiber axis so that it will propagate in the core of the fiber optic cable. Fiber with large NA allows working and splicing with less precision.

Fig: Total Internal Reflection happens only when light is within Acceptance Cone. Numerical Aperture= sine (max. Angle allowed from acceptance cone).

Total Internal Reflection is almost lossless. The ray of light undergoes several reflections and simultaneously diminishes in energy, and after a certain distance dies off.

ii. FACTORS CAUSING ATTENUATION: Absorption, Scattering and bending of light are the three factors which cause attenuation in the transfer of light in fiber optic. 1. Absorption: It is caused due to the impurities and imperfections in the fiber. Intrinsic Absorption: it is caused due to fiber material and molecular resonance.

 Extrinsic Absorption: they are present due to OH ions. They are almost negligible. 2. Scattering: Collision of light with atom particles causes light to disperse in all directions, also causing some light to escape from the fiber. It causes 96% of the total attenuation in the fiber. 3. Bending: Macro Bending: Caused by light escaping the core due to imperfections at Core/clad boundary

Macro Bending: Caused due to Bending of the fibre.

Practical Attenuation Figures: Single Mode Fiber- Loss at 1550nm is 0.2dB/km Loss at 1310nm is 0.35dB/km. 0.05 dB for a Fusion Splice. 0.1 dB for a Mechanical Splice. 0.2 0.5 dB for a Connector pair.

b) USES AND ADVANTAGES:

Fiber Optic is used for networking and telecommunication, to transfer data, voice and video over short and long distances. Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service across national network and Local Exchange Carriers use it to transfer to cater directly to home. It is also used for reliable, secure and fast transmission of data by multinational firms. Its high bandwidth makes it perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts. It is used in transportation systems, such with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs. Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Other applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sector. It is also used by designers to make home decorative.

ADVANTAGES: Long distance signal transmissionThe low attenuation found in optical systems allows much longer intervals of signal transmission than metallic-based systems. This allows fewer no. of repeaters compared to the copper cable network. Large bandwidth, light weight, and small diameterThe fiber optic cables provide a bandwidth which is much greater than can be supported by the transmitting and receiving devices installed presently.

Fig: Decorative made of Fiber Optic

 Easy installation and upgradesLong lengths make optical cable installation much easier and less expensive. Optical fiber cables can be installed with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. The longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary. Non-conductivityAnother advantage of optical fiber is its dielectric nature. Since optical fiber has no metallic components, it can be installed in areas with electromagnetic interference (EMI), including radio frequency interference (RFI). Areas with high EMI include utility lines, power-carrying lines, and railroad tracks. All-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence. SecurityUnlike metallic-based systems, the dielectric nature of optical fiber makes it impossible to remotely detect the signal being transmitted within the cable. The signal in a fibre can, however be "tapped" by bending the fibre and detecting light that then leaks from its core. The resistance to remote signal interception makes fibre attractive to governmental bodies, banks, and others with security concerns. Designed for future applications' needsFiber optics is affordable today, as electronics prices fall and optical cable pricing remains low. In many cases, fiber solutions are less costly than copper. As bandwidth demands increase rapidly with technological advances, fiber will continue to play a vital role in the longterm success of telecommunications.

c) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COPPER CABLE AND FIBER OPTIC.

The main difference between copper cable is that copper cable transmits electrical signals while fiber optical signals. Optical signals provide more security. signals can have different voltage, optical signals can frequency and wavelength.

and fiber optic optic transmits Like electrical have different

Fig: Copper Cable (Twister Pair) The copper cable was initially used to transfer data, but with interference and slow rate of data transmission the fibre optic is preferred. The cable is twisted to lower the interference. The advantages of fiber optic over copper cable are given below. Speed: Fiber Optic networks operate at high speeds- up into the gigabits. Carrying Capacity: Fiber Optic has no limitations on Bandwidth, thus it has large carrying capacity. Fiber Optic is thinner thus more fibres can be bundled into a given diameter. Copper Cable has limited bandwidth. Less Expensive: Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and you money. Distance:

Signals over Fiber Optic have very little loss thus fewer no. of repeaters are required over long distances. While copper cable requires frequent repeaters to refresh the signal
Resistance:

Great resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radio, motors or other nearby cables allows transmission of a pure signal.

Maintenance:

Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain, and has no fire hazards since it works on optical signals.
Low power :

Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lowerpower transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money.
Lightweight :

An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground.

d) TYPES OF FIBERS. The basic difference in the fibers is created due to the dimensions of the core and the clad. Also a difference is between various fibers is their Refractive Index.

a.

SINGLE MODE FIBER:

It has a core diameter ranging from 5 to 10 m, while the cladding extends till 125 m and the coating till 250 m. It has a single refractive index through its length. Its small core avoids any distortion from overlapping of light pulses. Also since light pulse travels parallel to the axis there is very little dispersion. It is used for long distance transmission and works on LASER diode based fiber optic equipment. It also offers more data rate and transmission bandwidth.

b.

MULTIMODE FIBER:

It has a core diameter ranging from 50 to 100 m, while the cladding extends from 125 to 140 m and the coating till 250 m. Its Refractive Index changes with length. This type of a fiber is created using temperature difference while manufacturing the fiber. Light waves disperse into numerous (multiple) paths thus it is known as Multi Mode.

Fig: Multi Mode (Step Index and Graded Index) Fiber and Single Mode (SM) Fiber. It is used for short distance transmission and is capable of working on LED based fiber optic equipments. It offers high capacity (10 100 Mbps) over medium distances (200m to 2km). Step-index multimode fiber: The Refractive Index decreases sharply at the core and cladding interface. The diameter of the core is 100 m. Graded-index multimode fiber: The Refractive index reduces from the axis of the core to the cladding, but the least is still more than the refractive index of the cladding. Thus the light travels in a helical path. Thus there is less difference in speed between the straight and helically travelling light, thus reducing dispersion. e) OPTIC FIBER CABLE.

The Cable containing the Fiber has several layers. These layers vary for different applications, like in the case of underground and overhead cables. The underground cable is an armoured cable. This is to protect it from rats and other external factors which might bend or break the fibre. The underground cable also has other fibre type material to provide strength to the cable. The overhead cable has fewer fibres and does not contain the armoured layer, steel. These are easy to install and reduce time and cost. The basic structure of a Fiber Optic Cable has following layers beginning from the centre:

a) Core, b) Cladding: These two layers constitute the basic fiber. c) Buffer Coating: This is a gel used for coating the fiber to avoid brittleness of the fiber. This gel also repels water. d) Kevlar Strengthening Fibers: This is used for protection from external environment. e) Re-enforced Steel: It is used for providing strength and as protection from rats and other forceful factors Fig: Construction of Fibre Cable. which can damage the cable. f) Cable Jacket:

This is made out of PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride). This plastic material is also used for protection from external environment. It also protects it from catching fire easily. g) Centre Material Strength

Fig: Cross-section of fiber cable. A cable can contain fibers varying from 6 to 96. A cable can have 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72 and 96 fibers in it. The cable contains tubes which inside it contains fibers. The tubes inside the cable can vary, with a maximum of 8 tubes in a cable. Similarly, the number of fibers in a tube can vary, with 6 and 12 as minimum and maximum, respectively. The tubes and fiber are present as multiple of 2. Each fiber inside the cable can be numbered from 1 to N (if the Cable contains N number of fibers). This is made possible by the colour coding of tubes and fibers. Colour coding for both the tubes and the fibers is as given below

1. Blue, 2. Orange, 3. Green, 4. Brown, 5. Slate (grey), 6. White, 7. Red, 8. Black, 9. Yellow, 10. Violet, 11. Rose (pink),

12. Aqua (natural).

Let a 48 fiber cable have 6 tubes and each tube have 8 fibers. Thus blue fiber of the blue tube will be the 1st fiber of the cable, the orange fiber of orange tube will be the 8th fiber of the cable. The white fiber of the white tube will be the 48th fiber of the cable. This colour coding is required to map signals in FMS (Fiber Management System) and also for splicing two cables. The tube is also called Buffer.

Fig: Armoured Cable for burial. The above shown cable has a configuration of 6x6.

Also available are cables with no tubes, having a maximum of 48 cables. The coding here is done by winding sets of fibers with threads. These cables are used exclusively for high data transmission. These cables sometimes have in them TRUE WAVE fibres. These fibers are of the purest form and are capable of very high capacity. In a cable, never will all the fibers be true wave since normal fibers also provide a very high data. Thus usually a cable of 48 fibers will only have 6 true wave fibers. These are used for ILD (International Long Distance).

A cable with only 6 fibers is the one with minimum no. fibers. It is used to connect to end user as overhead cable, when much capacity is not required.

Fig: Distribution Cable

f) CABLE INSTALLATION (FIBER LAYING) 1) DIGGING: Open trench- It should be straight and of the same depth throughout. The route must be checked for road, soil, bridges and trees. Bending radius should be more than 20 times the outer diameter of the duct. Flags, rope with nails or chalk powder are used to mark the route. Moiling- Two holes are dug at a distance of 20mts and the cable is pushed from one to the other. It is a very cheap but unreliable method, since the cable might bend causing losses. HDD- It is the most expensive technique and is also known as trenchless. A JCB machine is put in the hole and is horizontally driven to the other hole 70-100mts apart. The machine has a sensor at its head which monitors and avoids obstructions as far as possible. It is usually used in metropolitans.

2) DUCT LAYING (COUPLING) :

Before laying the duct soil and stones must be checked. The ground must be levelled before laying. Minimum bending radius of the ground must not be more than 30 gradient. 3) DIT : This test is used to check the suitability of duct for optical fiber cable installation through jetting. It is the intermediate step between duct laying and cable jetting. The test is carried out to check damages, blockages, leakage, continuity, spiralling and mud, stone or water in the duct. Four duct integrity tests are carried out.

Fig: Bending radius not maintained, Damaged Coupler, Spiralling and Water filled in duct.

a. Air Blowing: Air is passed through one end and its pressure tested at the other. If the air flow is normal then the duct in continuous, else in the case of no air flow, low air pressure or back pressure a fault in the duct persists. No air flow would hint towards missing coupler or blockage. Back pressure would mean blockage and Low air pressure would mean a loose coupler or small blockage or leakage. b. Shuttle Blowing: It is used to check if the turning radius has been maintained and for any kinks or dents. Time for shuttle to come out of the other end is 1-1.5 min in a 1km long duct. c. Sponge Blowing: Sponge is used for the same purpose as shuttle blowing. d. Air Pressure:

Air at 5 bars is passed through the duct and the pressure is checked at the other end. Permissible pressure drop is 0.5 bar, i.e. the duct is normal. Else a leakage at the coupler or puncture in the duct can be concluded.

4) CABLE JETTING: Cable jetting is a technique to install cables in ducts. It is commonly used to install cables with optical fibers in underground polyethylene ducts. Cable jetting is the process of blowing a cable through a duct while simultaneously pushing the cable into the duct. Compressed air is injected at the duct inlet and flows through the duct and along the cable at high speed. The high speed air propels the cable due to drag forces and pressure drop. The friction of the cable against the duct is compensated locally by the distributed airflow and large forces that would generate high friction are avoided. Because of the expanding airflow, the air propelling forces are relatively small at the cable inlet and large at the air exhaust end of the duct. To compensate for this, an additional pushing force is applied to the cable by the jetting equipment. The pushing force, acting mainly near the cable inlet, adds synergistically with the airflow propelling forces, increasing the maximum jetting distance considerably. Special lubricants have been developed for cable jetting to further offset friction.

Fig: First prototype of cable jetting equipment

5) SPLICING: Splicing is a technique used to join two fibers, since cables are available in limited lengths from 1 to 6 km. Splicing can be

characterized as Fusion Splicing and Mechanical Splicing. Of all the above mentioned techniques Fusion Splicing is mostly used, since it offers minimum losses, which is the most important characteristic.

Fusion Splice: It is a permanent splicing technique with minimum losses, which are almost negligible, 0.02 dB. The equipment available for fusion splicing makes it extremely easy. Splicing Machine: FITEL S176: The machine makes fusion splicing extremely easy with its automatic alignment and fusion mechanism to offer minimum losses.

Fig: Splicing Machine (S176).

STEPS FOR SPLICING: Fiber Preparation:

The cable is stripped till the cladding with special tools. First the cable, strengthening fibre are removed to obtain the fiber. Then the coating on the fiber is cleaned using tissue soaked in Isopropyl (alcohol) solution or talcum powder. Fig: Cleaver (FITEL). The obtained fiber is then put in a cleaver to cut its end at 90. The cleaver also helps cut the fiber of a certain length as per the sleeve. Sleeve is slide into either of the two fibers before stripping. Set up the machine.

 Load the fiber into the machine making sure the end reaches the electrodes.

Splice: The splicing machine fuses the fiber with an Electric Arc which produces a temperature of about 2000 C in the range of melting point of glass.

Check Strength. Cover Spliced part with sleeve and heat it for reinforcement.

The process of splicing (including alignment of fibres) takes approx. 11 seconds. CAUSES FOR SPLICE LOSS: 1. INTRINSIC FACTORS

Core Diameter Mismatch. Cladding Diameter Mismatch. Numerical Aperture Mismatch. Concentricity Non-circularity: core might be elliptical. Refractive Index Mismatch

2. EXTRINSIC FACTORS

End Separation: fiber ends are at a distance. Angular Misalignment: ends of fiber might not be matching. Lateral Displacement: axis of core of the two fibers is not aligned. Fiber Cleaving Angle: end might not be at 90. Dust.

g) OTDR (OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER): Its operation consists of transmitting pulsed Laser signals in the fiber under test and detecting the scattered and reflections at different points in the fiber link. This can help detect the signal being received from the exact position in the fiber, i.e. the distance. D = c*t / 2N (D- Distance, c- speed of light, t- time and N is the refractive index)

The equation is divided by two because the total time is that of transmitting and receiving. The equipment provides a waveform which on its vertical axis displays amplitude/loss and on its horizontal axis it has the distance.

Fig: Graph Obtained from OTDR. OTDR thus can be used for various factors: Attenuation Characteristics can be obtained on a graph. Exact location determined. of broken optical fiber can be

 Loss caused by splicing. Measures Optical Return Loss (ORL) of the connector. Detect, locate and measure any event at any location of the fiber link.

OTDR specifies Dynamic Range for distance and loss, i.e. the maximum distance it can measure the optical fiber till and the minimum loss that it can differentiate from noise. This range is determined by the difference between the backscattered level at starting point and the noise floor after the far end of the fiber.

h) CONNECTORS/ATTENUATORS/COUPLERS:

Fiber is not endless and need to be joined to equipments at both the receiving and transmitting ends. They are also used during subsequent cable cuts.

i. CONNECTORS: They are used to join the fiber to the equipments at both the receiving and transmitting end. The benefit of using a connector is that the end can be removed and joined as needed. Care must be taken while removing or installing the connector that they are not exposed to dust. Thus all connectors come with caps. Some basic types of connectors are:

FC (Ferrule Connector): it is widely used for TELECOM and DATACOM. It is made of nickel plated brass and has a threaded locking system.

Fig: Ferrule Connector.

SC (Square Connector): It is used for DATACOM and CAPTV. It is made of moulded plastic and is square in shape. Clips on both sides allow for easy push in. Fig: Square Connector.

LC (Lucent Connector): It holds only one fiber and is half the size of SC. It also is made out of moulded plastic and has a square front. An RJ latch allows connecting it to the equipment.

Fig: Lucent Connector. MU (Miniature Unit) Connector: it is similar to LC but smaller. Its switch allows easy pull-pull latching connections. It is well suited for high density applications.

Fig: Miniature Unit. E2000 (Euro): It is the latest technology. It has a moulded plastic structure. Its most important feature is that it has a cover to protect it from dust. When removed the cover automatically covers the open front.

Fig: E2000.

ii)COUPLERS: They are used for compatibility between different types of connectors and equipments. Since equipment end and the fiber end might be of different types a Coupler is required.

iii. ATTENUATORS: They are used for attenuating the power of the signal. They diminish the power of the signal using a smaller sized hole. Attenuators of different configuration are available i.e. for different losses like 3, 5, 8 dB etc. These attenuators are available with all kinds of connector

configurations. Attenuators are used in DWDM applications, Test & measurement, Optical sensors and Telecommunications applications.

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard for telecommunications transport formulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), previously called the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). SDH was first introduced into the telecommunications network in 1992 and has been deployed at rapid rates since then. Its deployed at all levels of the network infrastructure, including the access network and the longdistance trunk network. Its based on overlaying a synchronous multiplexed signal onto a light stream transmitted over fibre-optic cable. SDH is also defined for use on radio relay links, satellite links, and at electrical interfaces between equipment. The comprehensive SDH standard is expected to provide the transport infrastructure for worldwide telecommunications for at least the next two or three decades.

The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH provides significant advantages over the older telecommunications system. These advantages include: A reduction in the amount of equipment and an increase in network reliability. The provision of overhead and payload bytes the overhead bytes permitting management of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating centralized fault sectionalisation. The definition of a synchronous multiplexing format for carrying lower-level digital signals (such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s) which greatly simplifies the interface to digital switches, digital cross-connects, and add-drop multiplexers. The availability of a set of generic standards, which enable multivendor interoperability. The definition of a flexible architecture capable of accommodating future applications, with a variety of transmission rates. In brief, SDH defines synchronous transport modules (STMs) for the fibre-optic based transmission hierarchy.

Synchronisation of Digital Signals

In a set of Synchronous signals, the digital transitions in the signals

occur at exactly the same rate. There may however be a phase difference between the transitions of the two signals, and this would lie within specified limits. These phase differences may be due to propagation time delays, or low-frequency wander introduced in the transmission network. In a synchronous network, all the clocks are traceable to one Stratum 1 Primary Reference Clock (PRC). The accuracy of the PRC is better than 1 in 10^11 and is derived from a cesium atomic standard.

If two digital signals are Plesiochronous, their transitions occur at

almost the same rate, with any variation being constrained within tight limits. These limits are set down in ITU-T recommendation G.811. For example, if two networks need to interwork, their clocks

may be derived from two different PRCs. Although these clocks are extremely accurate, theres a small frequency difference between one clock and the other. This is known as a plesiochronous difference.
In the case of Asynchronous signals, the transitions of the signals

dont necessarily occur at the same nominal rate. Asynchronous, in this case, means that the difference between two clocks is much greater than a plesiochronous difference. For example, if two clocks are derived from free-running quartz oscillators, they could be described as asynchronous. ADVANTAGES OF SDH TECHNIQUE ARE: i.Transmitting a multiplexed signal can be done from standardized equipment. ii. Redirection of channels is done internally using S/W commands.

iii. Compatibility between different vendors is possible. iv. Better network survivability. v. Individual channels can be easily added and dropped. vi. It accommodates both existing and future services. (ATM, BISDN).

vii. Backward compatible, i.e. it supports PDH traffic. viii.Unlike PDH, its payload is transparent. ix. It has consistent frame structure throughout the hierarchy. x. Changing from one level to the other does not require additional equipments, to provide certain signal to the customer then it can directly be given.

Basic SDH Signal The basic format of an SDH signal allows it to carry many different services in its Virtual Container (VC) because it is bandwidth-flexible. This capability allows for such things as the transmission of high-speed packet-

switched services, ATM, contribution video, and distribution video. However, SDH still permits transport and networking at the 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, and 140 Mbit/s levels, accommodating the existing digital hierarchy signals. In addition, SDH supports the transport of signals based on the 1.5 Mbit/s hierarchy.

STM-1 FRAME FORMAT:

The number of frames per second is 1 second / 125 s = 8000 Frames per second. Therefore the rate transmitted to line is: 8 bits x 2430 bytes x 8000 per second = 155,520,000 bps or 155 Mbps.

The STM-1 frame structure can be represented by the following diagram which has 270 columns and 9 rows. Each cell represents one byte; hence there are 270*9 = 2430 bytes.

There are three main areas of a STM-1 frame:

1.

2.

Section Overhead (SOH). Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH). Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH). Path Overhead (POH). Administrative Unit Pointer. 3. Information payload.

STM-1 Frame Structure

PRINCIPLES OF SDH

1. SDH defines a number of containers, each corresponding to an existing pleisynchronous rate. 2. Each container has a path overhead added to it. POH provides network management capability. 3. Container plus POH forms a Virtual Container. 4. All equipment is synchronized to a national clock. 5. Delay associated with the transmission link may vary slightly with time causing allocation of VC within the STM-1 frame to move. 6. Variations accommodated by use of a Pointer. Points to the beginning of VC. Pointer may be incremented or decremented. 7. When STM-1 payload is full, more network management capability is added to from the Section Overhead.

8. SOH remains with the payload for the fibre section between synchronous multiplexers.

WIMAX DEFINITION WiMAX, meaning Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access, is a telecommunications technology that provides wireless transmission of data using a variety of transmission modes, from point-to-multipoint links to portable and fully mobile internet access. The technology provides up to 3 Mbit/s broadband speeds without the need for cables. WiMAX is a wireless digital communications system, also known as IEEE 802.16, that is intended for wireless "metropolitan area networks". WiMAX can provide broadband wireless access (BWA) up to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations, and 3 - 10 miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations. In contrast, the WiFi/802.11 wireless local area network standard is limited in most cases to only 100 300 feet (30 100m). With WiMAX, WiFi-like data rates are easily supported, but the issue of interference is lessened. WiMAX operates on both licensed and non-licensed frequencies, providing a regulated environment and viable economic model for wireless carriers. WiMAX can be used for wireless networking in much the same way as the more common WiFi protocol. WiMAX is a second-generation protocol that allows for more efficient bandwidth use, interference avoidance, and is intended to allow higher data rates over longer distances. The IEEE 802.16 standard defines the technical features of the communications protocol. The WiMAX Forum offers a means of testing manufacturer's equipment for compatibility, as well as an industry group dedicated to fostering the development and commercialization of the technology. WiMax.com provides a focal point for consumers, service providers, manufacturers, analysts, and researchers who are interested in WiMAX technology, services, and products. Soon, WiMAX will be a very well recognized term to describe wireless Internet access throughout the world.

USES The bandwidth and range of WiMAX make it suitable for the following potential applications:

Connecting Wi-Fi hotspots to the Internet. Providing a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for "last mile" broadband access. Providing data and telecommunications services. Providing a source of Internet connectivity as part of a business continuity plan. That is, if a business has a fixed and a wireless Internet connection, especially from unrelated providers, they are unlikely to be affected by the same service outage. Providing portable connectivity.

WIMAX CONCEPT Fixed wireless is the base concept for the metropolitan area networking (MAN), given in the 802.16 standard. In fixed wireless, a backbone of base stations is connected to a public network. Each of these base stations supports many fixed subscriber stations, either public WiFi hot spots or fire walled enterprise networks. These base stations use the media access control (MAC) layer, and allocate uplink and downlink bandwidth to subscribers as per their individual needs. This is basically on a real-time need basis. The subscriber stations might also be mounted on rooftops of the users. The MAC layer is a common interface that makes the networks interoperable. In the future, one can look forward to 802.11 hotspots, hosted by 802.16 MANs. These would serve as wireless local area networks (LANs) and would serve the end users directly too. WiMax supporters are focusing on the broadband ~Slast mile~T in unwired areas, and on back-haul for WiFi hotspots. WiMax is expected to support mobile wireless technology too, wireless transmissions directly to mobile end users. WiMax changes the last mile problem for broadband in the same way as WiFi has changed the last one hundred feet of networking. WiMAX has a range of up to 31 miles, which can be used to provide both campus-level network connectivity and a wireless last-mile approach that can bring high-speed networking and Internet service directly to customers. This is especially useful in those areas that were not served by cable or DSL or in areas where the local telephone company may need a long time to deploy broadband service.

WIMAX PROTOCOL WiMax has two main topologies ~V namely Point to Point for backhaul and Point to Multi Point Base station for Subscriber station. In each of these situations, multiple input multiple output antennas are used. The protocol structure of IEEE 802.16 ~V Broadband wireless MAN standard is shown below: The above picture shows four layers ~V Convergence, MAC, Transmission and Physical. These layers map to two of the lowest layers ~V physical and data link layers of the OSI mo del. WiMax provides many user applications and interfaces like Ethernet, TDM, ATM, IP, and VLAN. The IEEE 802.16 standard is versatile enough to accommodate time division multiplexing (TDM) or frequency division duplexing (FDD) deployments and also allows for both full an d half-duplex terminals. 802.16 supports three physical layers. The mandatory physical mode is 256-point FFT OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing). The other modes are Single carrier (SC) and 2048 OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access) modes. The corresponding European standard - the ETSI Hiperman standard defines a single PHY mode identical to the 256 OFDM modes in the 802.16d standard. The MAC was developed for a point-to-multipoint wireless access environment and can accommodate protocols like ATM, Ethernet and IP (Internet Protocol). The MAC frame

structure dynamic uplink and downlink profiles of terminals as per the link conditions. This is to ensure a trade-off of capacity and real-time robustness. The MAC uses a protocol data unit of variable length, which increases the standards efficiency. Multiple MAC protocol data unit can be sent as a single physical stream to save overload. Also, multiple Service data units (SDU) can be sent together to save on MAC header overhead. By fragmenting, you can send large volumes of data (SDUs) across frame boundaries and can guarantee a QoS (Quality of Service) of competing services. The MAC uses a self-correcting bandwidth request scheme to avoid overhead and acknowledgement delays. This also allows better QoS handling than the traditional acknowledged schemes. The terminals have a variety of options to request for bandwidth depending on the QoS and other parameters. The signal requirement can be polled or a request can be piggybacked.

MULTIPLEXING IN WIMAX OFDM Support for OFDM (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing), which can continue to be implemented in various ways by different operators (the precise variant of OFDM can often be their key differentiator). OFDM is well established and is incorporated in some new generation carrier services as well as being fundamental to digital TV. It transmits multiple signals simultaneously across one cable or wireless transmission path, within separate frequencies, with the orthogonal element spacing these frequencies to avoid interference. It is also supported in the 802.11a WLAN standard. 802.16a has three PHY options: an OFDM with 256 sub-carriers the only option supported in Europe by the ETSI, whose rival HiperMAN standard is likely to be subsumed into WiMAX; OFDMA, with 2048 sub-carriers; and a single carrier option for vendors that think they can beat multipath problems in this mode. OFDM will almost certainly become dominant in all wireless technologies including cellular and its industry body, the OFDM Forum, is a founder member of WiMAX Forum.