THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM The real number system evolved over time by expanding the notion of what

we mean by the word number. At first, number meant something you could count, like how many sheep a farmer owns. These are called the natural numbers, or sometimes the counting numbers. NATURAL NUMBERS OR COUNTING NUMBERS 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . The use of three dots at the end of the list is a common mathematical notation to indicate that the list keeps going forever. At some point, the idea of zero came to be considered as a number. If the farmer does not have any sheep, then the number of sheep that the farmer owns is zero. We call the set of natural numbers plus the number zero the whole numbers. WHOLE NUMBERS Natural Numbers together with zero 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . About the Number Zero What is zero? Is it a number? How can the number of nothing be a number? Is zero nothing, or is it something? Well, before this starts to sound like a Zen koan, lets look at how we use the numeral 0. Arab and Indian scholars were the first to use zero to develop the place-value number system that we use today. When we write a number, we use only the ten numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These numerals can stand for ones, tens, hundreds, or whatever depending on their position in the number. In order for this to work, we have to have a way to mark an empty place in a number, or the place values wont come out right. This is what the numeral 0 does. Think of it as an empty container, signifying that that place is empty. For example, the number 302 has 3 hundreds, no tens, and 2 ones. So is zero a number? Well, that is a matter of definition, but in mathematics we tend to call it a duck if it acts like a duck, or at least if its behavior is mostly ducklike. The number zero obeys most of the same rules of arithmetic that ordinary numbers do, so we call it a number. It is a rather special number, though, because it doesnt quite obey all the same laws as other numbersyou cant divide by zero, for example. Note for math purists: In the strict axiomatic field development of the real numbers, both 0 and 1 are singled out for special treatment. Zero is the additive identity, because adding zero to a number does not change the number. Similarly, 1 is the multiplicative identity because multiplying a number by 1 does not change it.

Even more abstract than zero is the idea of negative numbers. If, in addition to not having any sheep, the farmer owes someone 3 sheep, you could say that the number of sheep that the farmer owns is negative 3. It took longer for the idea of negative numbers to be accepted, but eventually they came to be seen as something we could call numbers. The expanded set of numbers that we get by including negative versions of the counting numbers is called the integers. INTEGERS Whole numbers plus negatives . . . 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . About Negative Numbers How can you have less than zero? Well, do you have a checking account? Having less than zero means that you have to add some to it just to get it up to zero. And if you take more out of it, it will be even further less than zero, meaning that you will have to add even more just to get it up to zero. The strict mathematical definition goes something like this: For every real number n, there exists its opposite, denoted n, such that the sum of n and n is zero, or n + ( n) = 0 Note that the negative sign in front of a number is part of the symbol for that number: The symbol 3 is one object it stands for negative three, the name of the number that is three units less than zero. The number zero is its own opposite, and zero is considered to be neither negative nor positive. Read the discussion of subtraction for more about the meanings of the symbol . The next generalization that we can make is to include the idea of fractions. While it is unlikely that a farmer owns a fractional number of sheep, many other things in real life are measured in fractions, like a half-cup of sugar. If we add fractions to the set of integers, we get the set of rational numbers. RATIONAL NUMBERS All numbers of the form , where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero)

Rational numbers include what we usually call fractions Notice that the word rational contains the word ratio, which should remind you of fractions. The bottom of the fraction is called the denominator. Think of it as the denominationit tells you what size fraction we are talking about: fourths, fifths, etc.

The top of the fraction is called the numerator. It tells you how many fourths, fifths, or whatever. RESTRICTION: The denominator cannot be zero! (But the numerator can) If the numerator is zero, then the whole fraction is just equal to zero. If I have zero thirds or zero fourths, than I dont have anything. However, it makes no sense at all to talk about a fraction measured in zeroths. Fractions can be numbers smaller than 1, like 1/2 or 3/4 (called proper fractions), or they can be numbers bigger than 1 (called improper fractions), like two-and-a-half, which we could also write as 5/2 All integers can also be thought of as rational numbers, with a denominator of 1:

This means that all the previous sets of numbers (natural numbers, whole numbers, and integers) are subsets of the rational numbers. Now it might seem as though the set of rational numbers would cover every possible case, but that is not so. There are numbers that cannot be expressed as a fraction, and these numbers are called irrational because they are not rational. Irrational Numbers Cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers. As decimals they never repeat or terminate (rationals always do one or the other) Examples: Rational (terminates) Rational (repeats) Rational (repeats) Rational (repeats) Irrational (never repeats or terminates) Irrational (never repeats or terminates)

More on Irrational Numbers It might seem that the rational numbers would cover any possible number. After all, if I measure a length with a ruler, it is going to come out to some fraction

maybe 2 and 3/4 inches. Suppose I then measure it with more precision. I will get something like 2 and 5/8 inches, or maybe 2 and 23/32 inches. It seems that however close I look it is going to be some fraction. However, this is not always the case. Imagine a line segment exactly one unit long: Now draw another line one unit long, perpendicular to the first one, like this:

Now draw the diagonal connecting the two ends: Congratulations! You have just drawn a length that cannot be measured by any rational number. According to the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of this diagonal is the square root of 2; that is, the number which when multiplied by itself gives 2. According to my calculator, But my calculator only stops at eleven decimal places because it can hold no more. This number actually goes on forever past the decimal point, without the pattern ever terminating or repeating.

This is because if the pattern ever stopped or repeated, you could write the number as a fractionand it can be proven that the square root of 2 can never be written as

for any choice of integers for a and b. The proof of this was considered quite shocking when it was first demonstrated by the followers of Pythagoras 26

centuries ago. THE REAL NUMBERS Rationals + Irrationals All points on the number line Or all possible distances on the number line When we put the irrational numbers together with the rational numbers, we finally have the complete set of real numbers. Any number that represents an amount of something, such as a weight, a volume, or the distance between two points, will always be a real number. The following diagram illustrates the relationships of the sets that make up the real numbers.

AN ORDERED SET The real numbers have the property that they are ordered, which means that given any two different numbers we can always say that one is greater or less than the other. A more formal way of saying this is: For any two real numbers a and b, one and only one of the following three statements is true: 1. a is less than b, (expressed as a < b) 2. a is equal to b, (expressed as a = b) 3. a is greater than b, (expressed as a > b) The Number Line The ordered nature of the real numbers lets us arrange them along a line (imagine that the line is made up of an infinite number of points all packed so closely together that they form a solid line). The points are ordered so that points to the right are greater than points to the left: Every real number corresponds to a distance on the number line, starting at the center (zero). Negative numbers represent distances to the left of zero, and positive numbers are distances to the right.

The arrows on the end indicate that it keeps going forever in both directions. Absolute Value When we want to talk about how large a number is without regard as to whether it is positive or negative, we use the absolute value function. The absolute value of a number is the distance from that number to the origin (zero) on the number line. That distance is always given as a non-negative number. In short: If a number is positive (or zero), the absolute value function does nothing to it: If a number is negative, the absolute value function makes it positive: WARNING: If there is arithmetic to do inside the absolute value sign, you must do it before taking the absolute valuethe absolute value function acts on the result of whatever is inside it. For example, a common error is (WRONG) The correct result is

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF REAL NUMBERS All the basic operations of arithmetic can be defined in terms of addition, so we will take it as understood that you have a concept of what addition means, at least when we are talking about positive numbers. Addition on the Number Line A positive number represents a distance to the right on the number line, starting from zero (zero is also called the origin since it is the starting point). When we add another positive number, we visualize it as taking another step to the right by that amount. For example, we all know that 2 + 3 = 5. On the number line we would imagine that we start at zero, take two steps to the right, and then take three more steps to the right, which causes us to land on positive 5.

ADDITION OF NEGATIVE NUMBERS What does it mean to add negative numbers? We view a negative number as a displacement to the left on the number line, so we follow the same procedure as before but when we add a negative number we take that many steps to the left instead of the right. Examples: 2 + (3) = 1 First we move two steps to the right, and then three steps to the left:

(2) + 3 = 1 We move two steps to the left, and then three steps to the right:

(2) + (3) = 5 Two steps to the left, and then three more steps to the left:

From these examples, we can make the following observations: 1. If we add two positive numbers together, the result will be positive 2. If we add two negative numbers together, the result will be negative 3. If we add a positive and a negative number together, the result could be positive or negative, depending on which number represents the biggest step. Subtraction There are two ways to define subtraction: by a related addition statement, or as adding the opposite. Subtraction as Related Addition a b = c if and only if a = b + c Subtraction as Adding the Opposite For every real number b there exists its opposite b, and we can define subtraction as adding the opposite: a b = a + ( b) In algebra it usually best to always think of subtraction as adding the opposite Distinction Between Subtraction and Negation The symbol means two different things in math. If it is between two numbers it means subtraction, but if it is in front of one number it means the opposite (or negative) of that number. Subtraction is binary (acts on two numbers), but negation is unary (acts on only one number). Calculators have two different keys to perform these functions. The key with a plain minus sign is only for subtraction:

Negation is performed by a key that looks like one of these:

Remember that subtraction can always be thought of as adding the opposite. In fact, we could get along just fine without ever using subtraction. Subtraction on the Number Line Addition of a positive number moves to the right, and adding a negative moves to the left. Subtraction is just the opposite: Subtraction of a positive number moves to the left, and subtracting a negative moves to the right. Notice that subtracting a negative is the same thing as adding a positive.

Fractions Fractions, also called rational numbers, are numbers of the form , where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero). The bottom number is called the denominator. Think of it as the denomination: it tells you what size units you are talking aboutfourths, fifths, or whatever. The top number is the numerator. It tells you how many of those units you have. For example, if I have 3 quarters in my pocket, then I have three-fourths of a dollar. The denomination is quarters (fourths), and I have three of them: 3/4. Improper Fractions Ordinarily we think of fractions as being between zero and one, like 3/4 or 2/3. These are called proper fractions. In these fractions, the numerator is smaller than the denominator but there is no reason why we can not have a numerator bigger than the denominator. Such fractions are called improper. What does an improper fraction like 5/4 mean? Well, if we have 5 quarters of something then we have more than one whole of that something. In fact, we have one whole plus one more quarter (if you have 5 quarters in change, you have a dollar and a quarter). Mixed Number Notation One way of expressing the improper fraction 5/4 is as the mixed number , which is read as one and one-fourth. This notation is potentially confusing and is not advised in algebra. One cause of confusion is that in algebra we use the convention that multiplication is implied when two quantities are written next to each other with no symbols in between. However, the mixed number notation implies addition, not multiplication. For example, means 1 plus one-quarter, and 3 1/2 = 3 + 1/2. It is possible to do arithmetic with mixed numbers by treating the whole number parts and the fractional parts separately, but it is generally more convenient in algebra to always write improper fractions. When you encounter a problem with mixed numbers, the first thing you should do is convert them to improper fractions. Conversion Mixed Number to Improper Fraction

A. Multiply the integer part with the bottom of the fraction part. B. Add the result to the top of the fraction. The general formula is

Improper Fraction to Mixed Number Do the division to get the integer part Put the remainder over the old denominator to get the fractional part. Multiplying, Reducing, and Dividing Fractions Equivalent Fractions Equivalent fractions are fractions that have the same value, for example

etc. Although all these fractions are written differently, they all represent the same quantity. You can measure a half-cup of sugar or two quarter-cups of sugar, or even four eighthcups of sugar, and you will still have the same amount of sugar. Multiply by a form of One A fraction can be converted into an equivalent fraction by multiplying it by a form of 1. The number 1 can be represented as a fraction because any number divided by itself is equal to 1 (remember that the fraction notation means the same thing as division). In other words, etc. Now if you multiply a number by 1 it does not change its value, so if we multiply a fraction by another fraction that is equal to 1, we will not be changing the value of the original fraction. For example,

In this case, 2/3 represents exactly the same quantity as 4/6, because all we did was to multiply 2/3 by the number 1, represented as the fraction 2/2. Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number to produce an equivalent fraction is called building up the fraction.

Reduced Form Numerator and Denominator Have No Common Factors Procedure: 1. Write out prime factorization of Numerator and Denominator 2. Cancel all common factors This procedure is just the opposite of building up a fraction by multiplying it by a fraction equivalent to 1. Prime Factors A number is prime if it has no whole number factors other than 1 times itself, that is, the number cannot be written as a product of two whole numbers (except 1 times itself). Example: 6 is not prime because it can be written as 2 3 Example: 7 is prime because the only way to write it as a product of whole numbers is 1 7 The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, . . . There are an infinite number of prime numbers (the list goes on forever). Any non-prime number can be decomposed into a product of prime numbers Example: 4 = 2 2 Example: 12 = 2 2 3 The Branching Method This method works well for larger numbers that might have many factors. All you need to do is think of any two numbers that multiply to give your original number, and write them below it. Continue this process for each number until each branch ends in a prime number. The factors of the original number are the prime numbers on the ends of all the branches. Example: Factor the number 60 60 = 2 2 3 5

Notes Notice how I started with the smallest numbers: first 2s, then 3s, and so on. This is not required but it keeps the result nicely in order. If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2. If a number ends in 0 or 5, then it is divisible by 5. If the digits of a number add up to a number divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3. In this example 15 gives 1 + 5 = 6, which is divisible by 3, and therefore 15 is divisible by 3. Large numbers with large prime factors are notoriously hard to factorit is

mainly just a matter of trial and error. The public-key encryption system for sending secure computer data uses very large numbers that need to be factored in order to break the code. The code is essentially unbreakable because it would take an enormous amount of computer time to try every possible prime factor. Multiplying Fractions Multiply Numerators and Denominators Example:

And reduce result if needed

Canceling common factors first makes multiplication easier If you dont reduce the factors before multiplying, the answer will have to be reduced. Example:

Remember that canceling always leaves a 1 behind, because you are really dividing the numerator and the denominator by the same number. Adding and Subtracting Fractions Add Numerators when Denominators Are the Same If the denominators are not the same, make them the same by building up the fractions so that they both have a common denominator. Any common denominator will work, but the answer will have to be reduced if it is not the Least Common Denominator. The product of all the denominators is always a common denominator (but not necessarily the Least Common Denominator). Least Common Denominator (LCD) By Inspection The smallest number that is evenly divisible by all the denominators In General The LCD is the product of all the prime factors of all the denominators, each factor taken the greatest number of times that it appears in any single denominator. Example:

Factor the denominators:

Assemble LCD: Note that the three only appears once, because it is only needed once to make either the 12 or the 15:

Now that you have found the LCD, multiply each fraction (top and bottom) by whatever is needed to build up the denominator to the LCD:

Then add the numerators and reduce if needed (using the LCD does not guarantee that you wont have to reduce):

Properties of Real Numbers The following table lists the defining properties of the real numbers (technically called the field axioms). These laws define how the things we call numbers should behave. Addition Commutative For all real a, b a+b=b+a Associative For all real a, b, c a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c Identity There exists a real number 0 such that for every real a Multiplication Commutative For all real a, b ab = ba Associative For all real a, b, c (ab)c = a(bc) Identity There exists a real number 1 such that for every real a

a+0=a Additive Inverse (Opposite) For every real number a there exist a real number, denoted ( a), such that a + ( = 0 a)

a 1=a Multiplicative Inverse (Reciprocal) For every real number a except 0 there exist a real number, denoted , such that

a =1 Distributive Law For all real a, b, c a(b + c) = ab + ac, and (a + b)c = ac + bc The commutative and associative laws do not hold for subtraction or division: a b is not equal to b a a b is not equal to b a a (b c) is not equal to (a b) c a (b c) is not equal to (a b) c Try some examples with numbers and you will see that they do not work. What these laws mean is that order and grouping don't matter for addition and multiplication, but they certainly do matter for subtraction and division. In this way, addition and multiplication are cleaner than subtraction and division. This will become important when we start talking about algebraic expressions. Often what we will want to do with an algebraic expression will involve rearranging it somehow. If the operations are all addition and multiplication, we don't have to worry so much that we might be changing the value of an expression by rearranging its terms or factors. Fortunately, we can always think of subtraction as an addition problem (adding the opposite), and we can always think of division as a multiplication (multiplying by the reciprocal). You may have noticed that the commutative and associative laws read exactly the same way for addition and multiplication, as if there was no difference between them other than notation. The law that makes them behave differently is the distributive law, because multiplication distributes over addition, not vice-versa.. The distributive law is extremely important, and it is impossible to understand algebra without being thoroughly familiar with this law. Example: 2(3 + 4) According to the order of operations rules, we should evaluate this expression by first doing the addition inside the parentheses, giving us 2(3 + 4) = 2(7) = 14 But we can also look at this problem with the distributive law, and of course still get the same answer. The distributive law says that

SURDS Surds are numbers left in 'square root form' (or 'cube root form' etc). They are therefore irrational numbers. The reason we leave them as surds is because in decimal form they would go on forever and so this is a very clumsy way of writing them. Addition and Subtraction of Surds

Adding and subtracting surds are simple- however we need the numbers being square rooted (or cube rooted etc) to be the same. 47 - 27 = 27. 52 + 82 = 132 Note: 52 + 33 cannot be manipulated because the surds are different (one is 2 and one is 3). Multiplication 5 15 = 75 (= 15 5) = 25 3 = 53. (1 + 3) (2 - 8) [The brackets are expanded as usual] = 2 - 8 + 23 - 24 = 2 - 22 + 23 - 26 Rationalising the Denominator It is untidy to have a fraction which has a surd denominator. This can be 'tidied up' by multiplying the top and bottom of the fraction by a particular expression. This is known as rationalising the denominator, since surds are irrational numbers and so you are changing the denominator from an irrational to a rational number. Example Rationalise the denominator of: a) 1 2 . b) 1 + 2 1 - 2 a) Multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by 2. The top will become 2 and the bottom will become 2 (2 times 2 = 2). b) In situations like this, look at the bottom of the fraction (the denominator) and change the sign (in this case change the plus into minus). Now multiply the top and bottom of the fraction by this. Therefore: 1 + 2 = (1 + 2)(1 + 2) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 22 = 3 + 32 -1 1 - 2 (1 - 2)(1 + 2) 1 + 2 - 2 - 2 = -3(1 + 2) Factorising Expanding Brackets Brackets should be expanded in the following ways: For an expression of the form a(b + c), the expanded version is ab + ac, i.e., multiply the term outside the bracket by everything inside the bracket (e.g. 2x(x + 3) = 2x + 6x

[remember x x is x]). For an expression of the form (a + b)(c + d), the expanded version is ac + ad + bc + bd, in other words everything in the first bracket should be multiplied by everything in the second. Example Expand (2x + 3)(x - 1): (2x + 3)(x - 1) = 2x - 2x + 3x - 3 = 2x + x - 3 Factorising Factorising is the reverse of expanding brackets, so it is, for example, putting 2x + x - 3 into the form (2x + 3)(x - 1). This is an important way of solving quadratic equations. The first step of factorising an expression is to 'take out' any common factors which the terms have. So if you were asked to factorise x + x, since x goes into both terms, you would write x(x + 1) . Factorising Quadratics There is no simple method of factorising a quadratic expression, but with a little practise it becomes easier. One systematic method, however, is as follows: Example Factorise 12y - 20y + 3 = 12y - 18y - 2y + 3 [here the 20y has been split up into two numbers whose multiple is 36. 36 was chosen because this is the product of 12 and 3, the other two numbers]. The first two terms, 12y and -18y both divide by 6y, so 'take out' this factor of 6y. 6y(2y - 3) - 2y + 3 [we can do this because 6y(2y - 3) is the same as 12y - 18y] Now, make the last two expressions look like the expression in the bracket: 6y(2y - 3) -1(2y - 3) The answer is (2y - 3)(6y - 1) Example Factorise x + 2x - 8 We need to split the 2x into two numbers which multiply to give -8. This has to be 4 and -2. x + 4x - 2x - 8 x(x + 4) - 2x - 8 x(x + 4)- 2(x + 4) (x + 4)(x - 2) Once you work out what is going on, this method makes factorising any expression easy. It is worth studying these examples further if you do not understand what is happening. Unfortunately, the only other method of factorising is by trial and error. The Difference of Two Squares If you are asked to factorise an expression which is one square number minus another, you can factorise it immediately. This is because a - b = (a + b)(a - b) . Example Factorise 25 - x = (5 + x)(5 - x) [imagine that a = 5 and b = x Algebraic Fractions

Algebraic Fractions Algebraic fractions are simply fractions with algebraic expressions on the top and/or bottom. When adding or subtracting algebraic fractions, the first thing to do is to put them onto a common denominator (by cross multiplying). e.g. 1 + 4 (x + 1) (x + 6)

= 1(x + 6) + 4(x + 1) (x + 1)(x + 6) = x + 6 + 4x + 4 (x + 1)(x + 6) = 5x + 10 (x + 1)(x + 6) Solving equations When solving equations containing algebraic fractions, first multiply both sides by a number/expression which removes the fractions. Example Solve 10 -2 = 1 (x + 3) x multiply both sides by x(x + 3): 10x(x + 3) - 2x(x + 3) = x(x + 3) (x + 3) x 10x - 2(x + 3) = x2 + 3x [after cancelling] 10x - 2x - 6 = x2 + 3x x2 - 5x + 6 = 0 (x - 3)(x - 2) = 0 either x = 3 or x = 2 Solving Equations See Also: Quadratic Equations and Simultaneous Equations Trial and Improvement Any equation can be solved by trial and improvement (/error). However, this is a tedious procedure. Start by estimating the solution (you may be given this estimate). Then substitute this into the equation to determine whether your estimate is too high or too low. Refine your estimate and repeat the process. Example Solve t + t = 17 by trial and improvement. Firstly, select a value of t to try in the equation. I have selected t = 2. Put this value into the equation. We are trying to get the answer of 17. If t = 2, then t + t = 2 + 2 = 10 . This is lower than 17, so we try a higher value for t.

If t = 2.5, t + t = 18.125 (too high) If t = 2.4, t + t = 16.224 (too low) If t = 2.45, t + t = 17.156 (too high) If t = 2.44, t + t = 16.966 (too low) If t = 2.445, t + t = 17.061 (too high) So we know that t is between 2.44 and 2.445. So to 2 decimal places, t = 2.44. Iteration This is a way of solving equations. It involves rearranging the equation you are trying to solve to give an iteration formula. This is then used repeatedly (using an estimate to start with) to get closer and closer to the answer. An iteration formula might look like the following (this is for the equation x2 = 2x + 1): xn+1 = 2 + 1 xn You are usually given a starting value, which is called 0. If x0 = 3, substitute 3 into the original equation where it says xn. This will give you x1. (This is because if n = 0, x1 = 2 + 1/x0 and x0 = 3). x1 = 2 + 1/3 = 2.333 333 (by substituting in 3). To find x2, substitute the value you found for x1. x2 = 2 + 1/(2.333 333) = 2.428 571 Repeat this until you get an answer to a suitable degree of accuracy. This may be about the 5th value for an answer correct to 3s.f. In this example, x5 = 2.414... Example a) Show that x = 1 + 11 x-3 is a rearrangement of the equation x - 4x - 8 = 0. b) Use the iterative formula: xn+1 = 1 + 11 xn - 3 together with a starting value of x1 = -2 to obtain a root of the equation x - 4x - 8 = 0 accurate to one decimal place. a) multiply everything by (x - 3): x(x - 3) = 1(x - 3) + 11 so x - 3x = x + 8 so x - 4x - 8 = 0 b) x1 = -2 x2 = 1 + 11 (substitute -2 into the iteration formula) -2 - 3 = -1.2

x3 = 1 +

11 (substitute -1.2 into the above formula) -1.2 - 3 = -1.619 x4 = -1.381 x5 = -1.511 x6 = -1.439 x7 = -1.478 therefore, to one decimal place, x = 1.5 . Quadratic Equations A quadratic equation is an equation where the highest power of x is x2. There are various methods of solving quadratic equations, as shown below. Important point about square roots: 62 = 36. But also (-6)2 = 36 because -6 -6 = + 36 (a minus a minus = a plus). Therefore there are two square roots of 36: +6 and -6. We call 6 the positive square root of 36 and -6 is called the negative square root of 36. So if x2 = 36, then x = +6 or -6 (since squaring either of these numbers will give 36). However, the square root sign means "positive square root". So 36 = + 6 (only). Completing the Square 9 and 25 can be written as 32 and 52 whereas 7 and 11 cannot be written as the square of another exact number. 9 and 25 are called perfect squares. Another example is (9/4) = (3/2)2. In a similar way, x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2. To make x2 + 6x into a perfect square, we add (62/4) = 9. The resulting expression, x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2 and so is a perfect square. This is known as completing the square. To complete the square in this way, we take the number before the x, square it, and divide it by 4. This technique can be used to solve quadratic equations, as demonstrated in the following example. Example Solve x2 - 6x + 2 = 0 by completing the square x2 - 6x = -2 [To complete the square on the LHS (left hand side), we must add 62/4 = 9. We must, of course, do this to the RHS also]. x2 - 6x + 9 = 7 (x - 3)2 = 7 [Now take the square root of each side] x - 3 = 2.646 (the square root of 7 is +2.646 or -2.646) x = 5.646 or 0.354 Completing the square can also be used to find the maximum or minimum point on a graph. Example Find the minimum of the graph y = 3x2 - 6x - 3 . In this case, the x2 has a '3' in front of it, so we start by taking the three out: y = 3(x2 - 2x -1) . [This is the same since multiplying it out gives 3x2 - 6x - 3] Now complete the square for the bit in the bracket: y = 3[(x - 1)2 - 2]

Multiply out the big bracket: y = 3(x - 1)2 - 6 We are trying to find the minimum value that this graph can be. (x - 1)2 must be zero or positive, since squaring a number always gives a positive answer. So the minimum value will occur when (x - 1)2 = 0, which is when x = 1. When x = 1, y = -6 . So the minimum point is at (1, -6). Some people don't like the method of completing the square to solve equations and an alternative is to use the quadratic formula. This is actually derived by completing the square. The Quadratic Formula

Where the equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0 Example Solve 3x2 + 5x - 8 = 0 x = -5 ( 52 - 43(-8)) 6 = -5 (25 + 96) 6 = -5 (121) 6 = -5 + 11 or -5 - 11 6 6 x = 1 or -2.67 Factorising Sometimes, quadratic equations can be solved by factorising. In this case, factorising is probably the easiest way to solve the equation. Example Solve x2 + 2x - 8 = 0 (x - 2)(x + 4) = 0 either x - 2 = 0 or x + 4 = 0 x = 2 or x = - 4 If you do not understand the third line, remember that for (x - 2)(x + 4) to equal zero, then one of the two brackets must be zero. Sin, Cos and Tan

A right-angled triangle is a triangle in which one of the angles is a right-angle. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is the longest side, which is the one opposite the right angle. The adjacent side is the side which is between the angle in question and the right angle. The opposite side is opposite the angle in question. In any right angled triangle, for any angle: The sine of the angle = the length of the opposite side the length of the hypotenuse The cosine of the angle = the length of the adjacent side the length of the hypotenuse The tangent of the angle = the length of the opposite side the length of the adjacent side So in shorthand notation: sin = o/h cos = a/h tan = o/a Often remembered by: soh cah toa Example Find the length of side x in the diagram below:

The angle is 60 degrees. We are given the hypotenuse and need to find the adjacent side. This formula which connects these three is: cos(angle) = adjacent / hypotenuse therefore, cos60 = x / 13 therefore, x = 13 cos60 = 6.5 therefore the length of side x is 6.5cm. The Graphs of Sin, Cos and Tan The following graphs show the value of sin, cos and tan against ( represents an angle). From the sin graph we can see that sin = 0 when = 0 degrees, 180 degrees and 360 degrees.

Note that the graph of tan has asymptotes (lines which the graph gets close to, but never crosses). These are the red lines (they aren't actually part of the graph). Also notice that the graphs of sin, cos and tan are periodic. This means that they repeat themselves. Therefore sin() = sin(360 + ), for example.

Notice also the symmetry of the graphs. For example, cos is symmetrical in the y-axis, which means that cos = cos(-). So, for example, cos(30) = cos(-30). Also, sin x = sin (180 - x) because of the symmetry of sin in the line = 90. Summary of trigonometric identities You have seen quite a few trigonometric identities in the past few pages. It is convenient to have a summary of them for reference. These identities mostly refer to one angle denoted t, but there are a few of them involving two angles, and for those, the other angle is denoted s.. More important identities You don't have to know all the identities off the top of your head. But these you should. Defining relations for tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant in terms of sine and cosine. sin t 1 cos t tan t = cot t = = cos t tan t sin t 1 1 sec t = csc t = cos t sin t The Pythagorean formula for sines and cosines. sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 Identities expressing trig functions in terms of their complements cos t = sin( /2 t) sin t = cos( /2 t) cot t = tan( /2 t) tan t = cot( /2 t) csc t = sec( /2 t) sec t = csc( /2 t) Periodicity of trig functions. Sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant have period 2 while tangent and cotangent have period . sin (t + 2 ) = sin t cos (t + 2 ) = cos t tan (t + ) = tan t Identities for negative angles. Sine, tangent, cotangent, and cosecant are odd functions while cosine and secant are even functions. sin t = sin t cos t = cos t tan t = tan t Sum formulas for sine and cosine sin (s + t) = sin s cos t + cos s sin t cos (s + t) = cos s cos t sin s sin t Double angle formulas for sine and cosine sin 2t = 2 sin t cos t cos 2t = cos2 t sin2 t = 2 cos2 t 1 = 1 2 sin2 t Less important identities You should know that there are these identities, but they are not as important as those mentioned above. They can all be derived from those above, but sometimes it takes a bit of work to do so. The Pythagorean formula for tangents and secants.

sec2 t = 1 + tan2 t Identities expressing trig functions in terms of their supplements sin( t) = sin t cos( t) = cos t tan( t) = tan t Difference formulas for sine and cosine sin (s t) = sin s cos t cos s sin t cos (s t) = cos s cos t + sin s sin t Sum, difference, and double angle formulas for tangent tan s + tan t tan (s + t) = 1 tan s tan t tan s tan t tan (s t) = 1 + tan s tan t 2 tan t tan 2t = 1 tan2 t Half-angle formulas sin t/2 = ((1 cos t) / 2) cos t/2 = ((1 + cos t) / 2) sin t 1 cos t tan t/2 = = 1 + cos t sin t Truly obscure identities These are just here for perversity. Yes, of course, they have some applications, but they're usually narrow applications, and they could just as well be forgotten until, if ever, needed. Product-sum identities s+t st sin s + sin t = 2 sin cos 2 2 s+t st sin s sin t = 2 cos sin 2 2 s+t st cos s + cos t = 2 cos cos 2 2 s+t st cos s cos t = 2 sin sin 2 2 Product identities sin (s + t) + sin (s t Aside: weirdly enough, these product identities were used before logarithms to sin s cos t = ) perform multiplication. Here's how you 2 cos (s + t) + cos (s could use the second one. If you want to multiply x times y, use a table to look up the cos s cos t = t) angle s whose cosine is x and the angle t 2 cos (s t) cos (s + whose cosine is y. Look up the cosines of the sum s + t, and the difference s t. Average sin s sin t = t) those two cosines. You get the product xy! 2 Three table look-ups, and computing a sum, a difference, and an average rather than one

multiplication. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), among others, used this algorithm known as prosthaphaeresis. Triple angle formulas. You can easily reconstruct these from the addition and double angle formulas. sin 3t = 3 sin t 4 sin3 t cos 3t = 4 cos3 t 3 cos t 3 tan t tan3t tan 3t = 1 3 tan2t More half-angle formulas. (These are used in calculus for a particular kind of substitution in integrals sometimes called the Weierstrass t-substitution.) 2 tan t/2 1 tan2 t/2 2 tan t/2 sin t = cos t = tan t = 2 2 1 + tan t/2 1 + tan t/2 1 tan2 t/2

Top of Form Bottom of Form

1996, 1997. David E. Joyce Department of Mathematics and Computer Science Clark University Worcester, MA 01610 Dave's Short Trig Course is located at http://www.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/trig

Variables
What is a variable? It is a box, and it exists to contain a value. Sometimes the value is already inside the box, and you have to figure out what that value is. Other times, the box is empty, and you get to pick the value to put inside. More about that later. First... Remember when you were in elementary school, and you were learning your addition? The teacher would hand you worksheets that said things like: ; fill in the box. Variables are the same thing. Now we say: x + 2 = 5 ; solve for x. Why did we switch from boxes to letters? Because letters are better. Boxes come in only a few shapes, but letters come in many varieties, and letters can stand for something. For instance, the formula from geometry for finding a circle's circumference is: This formula makes more sense than, say: The two formulae say exactly the same thing, but using "C" for "circumference" and "r" for "radius" is more useful than using "square" and "triangle, respectively. Boxes are fine, but letters are better. In the above discussion, I illustrated both uses of variables. In the equation "x + 2 = 5", x can only have a value of 3. The statement (the equation) is not true for any other value. That is to say, the value of x is "fixed"; we just have to figure out what it is.

On the other hand, in the equation " ", the radius r can be any non-negative number we choose we get to pick! and then we get to figure out what the circumference C is. In the first case, we had to open the box to see what was already inside; in the second, we got to put the value in ourselves. Now that we have variables, what do we do with them? Go back in your mind again to elementary school: Your teacher would have you add "2 apples plus 6 apples is 8 apples". The same rules apply to variables: "2 boxes plus 6 boxes is 8 boxes", or, using variables, "2x + 6x = 8x". "A box and another box is two boxes", or "x + x = 2x". "Two dollars, less the ten that you owe to your friend, means that you're eight dollars in the red", or "2x 10x = 8x". But note: "2 apples plus 6 oranges" is just 2 apples and 6 oranges; they might make a nice fruit salad, but they're not 8 of anything. In the same way, "2x + 6y" is just 2x + 6y; you can't combine the two variables into one. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2009 All Rights Reserved When multiplying, we use exponents. For instance, (5)(5) = 52. Of course, we can simplify this as 52 = 25. Similarly, (x)(x) = x2. But, until we know what value to put in for x, we cannot simplify this. Don't confuse multiplication and addition: (x)(x) does not equal 2x, just as (5)(5) does not equal (2)(5); instead, (x)(x) equals x2. (Note the technique I just used: If you're not sure what to do with the variables, put in numbers, where you know what to do. Then, whatever you did with the numbers, do that with the variables.)

Exponents: Basic Rules (page 1 of 5)

Sections: Basics, Negative exponents, Scientific notation, Engineering notation, Fractional exponents Exponents are shorthand for repeated multiplication of the same thing by itself. For instance, the shorthand for multiplying three copies of the number 5 three is shown on the right-hand side of of the "equals" sign in (5)(5)(5) = 53. The "exponent", being 3 in this example, stands for however many times the value is being multiplied. The thing that's being multiplied, being 5 in this example, is called the "base". This process of using exponents is called "raising to a power", where the exponent is the "power". The expression "53" is pronounced as "five, raised to the third power" or "five to the third". There are two specially-named powers: "to the second power" is generally pronounced as "squared", and "to the third power" is generally pronounced as "cubed". So "53" is commonly pronounced as "five cubed". When we deal with numbers, we usually just simplify; we'd rather deal with "27" than with "33". But with variables, we need the exponents, because we'd rather deal with "x6" than with "xxxxxx". Exponents have a few rules that we can use for simplifying expressions. Simplify (x3)(x4) Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2009 All Rights Reserved To simplify this, I can think in terms of what those exponents mean. "To the third" means "multiplying three copies" and "to the fourth" means "multiplying four copies". Using this fact, I can "expand" the two factors, and then work backwards to the simplified form:

(x3)(x4) = (xxx)(xxxx) = xxxxxxx = x7 Note that x7 also equals x(3+4). This demonstrates the first basic exponent rule: Whenever you
multiply two terms with the same base, you can add the exponents: ( x m ) ( x n ) = x( m + n ) However, we can NOT simplify (x4)(y3), because the bases are different: (x4)(y3) (x4)(y3). Nothing combines. Simplify (x2)4

= xxxxyyy =

Just as with the previous exercise, I can think in terms of what the exponents mean. The "to the fourth" means that I'm multiplying four copies of x2:

(x2)4 = (x2)(x2)(x2)(x2) = (xx)(xx)(xx)(xx) = xxxxxxxx = x8 Note that x(8 also equals x( 24 ). This demonstrates the second exponent rule: Whenever you
have an exponent expression that is raised to a power, you can multiply the exponent and power: ( xm ) n = x m n If you have a product inside parentheses, and a power on the parentheses, then the power goes on each element inside. For instance, (xy2)3 = (xy2)(xy2)(xy2) = (xxx)(y2y2y2) = (xxx) (yyyyyy) = x3y6 = (x)3(y2)3. Another example would be:

Warning: This rule does NOT work if you have a sum or difference within the parentheses. Exponents, unlike mulitiplication, do NOT "distribute" over addition. For instance, given (3 + 4)2, do NOT succumb to the temptation to say "This equals 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 25", because this is wrong. Actually, (3 + 4)2 = (7)2 = 49, not 25. When in doubt, write out the expression according to the definition of the power. Given (x 2)2, don't try to do this in your head. Instead, write it out: "squared" means "times itself", so (x 2)2 = (x 2)(x 2) = xx 2x 2x + 4 = x2 4x + 4. The mistake of erroneously trying to "distribute" the exponent is most often made when the student is trying to do everything in his head, instead of showing his work. Do things neatly, and you won't be as likely to make this mistake. There is one other rule that may or may not be covered at this stage: Anything to the power zero is just "1". This rule is explained on the next page. In practice, though, this rule means that some exercises may be a lot easier than they may at first appear: Simplify [(3x4y7z12)5 (5x9y3z4)2]0 Who cares about that stuff inside the square brackets? I don't, because the zero power on the outside means that the value of the entire thing is just 1. Sections: Polynomial basics, Combining "like terms" By now, you should be familiar with variables and exponents, and you may have dealt with expressions like 3x4 or 6x. Polynomials are sums of these "variables and exponents" expressions. Each piece of the polynomial, each part that is being added, is called a "term". Polynomial terms have variables which are raised to whole-number exponents (or else the terms are just plain numbers); there are no square roots of variables, no fractional powers, and no variables in the denominator of any fractions. Here are some examples:

6x 2
1

This is NOT a polynomial term... This is NOT a polynomial term... This is NOT a polynomial term... This IS a polynomial term...

...because the variable has a negative exponent. ...because the variable is in the denominator. ...because the variable is inside a radical. ...because it obeys all the rules.

/x2

sqrt(x) 4x2

Here is a typical polynomial:

Notice the exponents on the terms. The first term has an exponent of 2; the second term has an "understood" exponent of 1; and the last term doesn't have any variable at all. Polynomials are usually written this way, with the terms written in "decreasing" order; that is, with the largest exponent first, the next highest next, and so forth, until you get down to the plain old number. Any term that doesn't have a variable in it is called a "constant" term because, no matter what value you may put in for the variable x, that constant term will never change. In the picture above, no matter what x might be, 7 will always be just 7. The first term in the polynomial, when it is written in decreasing order, is also the term with the biggest exponent, and is called the "leading term". The exponent on a term tells you the "degree" of the term. For instance, the leading term in the above polynomial is a "second-degree term" or "a term of degree two". The second term is a "first degree" term. The degree of the leading term tells you the degree of the whole polynomial; the polynomial above is a "second-degree polynomial". Here are a couple more examples: Give the degree of the following polynomial: 2x5 5x3 10x + 9 This polynomial has four terms, including a fifth-degree term, a third-degree term, a first-degree term, and a constant term. This is a fifth-degree polynomial. Give the degree of the following polynomial: 7x4 + 6x2 + x This polynomial has three terms, including a fourth-degree term, a second-degree term, and a first-degree term. There is no constant term. This is a fourth-degree polynomial. When a term contains both a number and a variable part, the number part is called the "coefficient". The coefficient on the leading term is called the "leading" coefficient.

In the above example, the coefficient of the leading term is 4; the coefficient of the second term is 3; the constant term doesn't have a coefficient. Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2008 All Rights Reserved The "poly" in "polynomial" means "many". I suppose, technically, the term "polynomial" should only refer to sums of many terms, but the term is used to refer to anything from one term to the sum of a zillion terms. However, the shorter polynomials do have their own names: a one-term polynomial, such as 2x or 4x2, may also be called a "monomial" ("mono" meaning "one") a two-term polynomial, such as 2x + y or x2 4, may also be called a "binomial" ("bi" meaning "two")

a three-term polynomial, such as 2x + y + z or x4 + 4x2 4, may also be called a "trinomial" ("tri" meaning "three") I don't know if there are names for polynomials with a greater numbers of terms; I've never heard of any names other than what I've listed. Polynomials are also sometimes named for their degree: a second-degree polynomial, such as 4x2, x2 9, or ax2 + bx + c, is also called a "quadratic" a third-degree polynomial, such as 6x3 or x3 27, is also called a "cubic" a fourth-degree polynomial, such as x4 or 2x4 3x2 + 9, is sometimes called a "quartic" a fifth-degree polynomial, such as 2x5 or x5 4x3 x + 7, is sometimes called a "quintic" There are names for some of the higher degrees, but I've never heard of any names being used other than the ones I've listed. By the way, yes, "quad" generally refers to "four", as when an ATV is referred to as a "quad bike". For polynomials, however, the "quad" from "quadratic" is derived from the Latin for "making square". As in, if you multiply length by width (of, say, a room) to find the area in "square" units, the units will be raised to the second power. The area of a room that is 6 meters by 8 meters is 48 m2. So the "quad" refers to the four corners of a square, from the geometrical origins of parabolas and early polynomials.

Evaluation
"Evaluating" a polynomial is the same as evaluating anything else: you plug in the given value of x, and figure out what y is supposed to be. For instance: Evaluate 2x3 x2 4x + 2 at x = 3 I need to plug in "3" for the "x", remembering to be careful with my parentheses and the negatives:

2(3)3 (3)2 4(3) + 2 = 2(27) (9) + 12 + 2 = 54 9 + 14 = 63 + 14 = 49

Polynomials: Combining "Like Terms"

(page 2 of 2) Sections: Polynomial basics, Combining "like terms" Probably the most common thing you will be doing with polynomials is "combining like terms". This is the process of adding together whatever terms you can, but not overdoing it by trying to add together terms that can't actually be combined. Terms can be combined ONLY IF they have the exact same variable part. Here is a rundown of what's what:

4x and 3 4x and 3y

NOT like terms NOT like terms

The second term has no variable The second term now has a variable, but it doesn't match the variable of the first term The second term now has the same variable, but the degree is different Now the variables match and the degrees match

4x and 3x2 NOT like terms 4x and 3x

LIKE TERMS

Once you have determined that two terms are indeed "like" terms and can indeed therefore be combined, you can then deal with them in a manner similar to what you did in grammar school. When you were first learning to add, you would do "five apples and six apples is eleven apples". You have since learned that, as they say, "you can't add apples and oranges". That is, "five apples and six oranges" is just a big pile of fruit; it isn't something like "eleven applanges". Combining like terms works much the same way.

Simplify 3x + 4x These are like terms since they have the same variable part, so I can combine the terms: three x's and four x's makes seven x's: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2006-2008 All Rights Reserved

3x + 4x = 7x Simplify 2x2 + 3x 4 x2 + x + 9
It is often best to group like terms together first, and then simplify:

2x2 + 3x 4 x2 + x + 9 = (2x2 x2) + (3x + x) + (4 + 9) = x2 + 4x + 5

In the second line, many students find it helpful to write in the understood coefficient of 1 in front of variable expressions with no written coefficient, as is shown in red below:

(2x2 x2) + (3x + x) + (4 + 9) = (2x2 1x2) + (3x + 1x) + (4 + 9) = 1x2 + 4x + 5 = x2 + 4x + 5 It is not required that the understood 1 be written in when simplifying expressions like this, but
many students find this technique to be very helpful. Whatever method helps you consistently complete the simplification is the method you should use. Simplify 10x3 14x2 + 3x 4x3 + 4x 6

10x3 14x2 + 3x 4x3 + 4x 6 = (10x3 4x3) + (14x2) + (3x + 4x) 6 = 6x3 14x2 + 7x 6
Warning: When moving the terms around, remember that the terms' signs move with them. Don't mess yourself up by leaving orphaned "plus" and "minus" signs behind. Simplify 25 (x + 3 x2) The first thing I need to do is take the negative through the parentheses:

25 (x + 3 x2) = 25 x 3 + x2 = x2 x + 25 3 = x2 x + 22
If it helps you to keep track of the negative sign, put the understood 1 in front of the parentheses:

25 (x + 3 x2) = 25 1(x + 3 x2) = 25 1x 3 + 1x2 = 1x2 1x + 25 3 = 1x2 1x + 22 = x2 1x + 22

While the first format (without the 1's being written in) is the more "standard" format, either format should be acceptable (but check with your instructor). You should use the format that works most successfully for you. Simplify x + 2(x [3x 8] + 3) Warning: This is the kind of problem that us math teachers love to put on tests (yes, we're cruel people), so you should expect to need to be able to do this. This is just an order of operations problem with a variable in it. If I work carefully from the inside out, paying careful attention to my "minus" signs, then I should be fine:

x + 2(x [3x 8] + 3) = x + 2(x 1[3x 8] + 3) = x + 2(x 3x + 8 + 3) = x + 2(2x + 11)

= x 4x + 22 = 3x + 22 Simplify [(6x 8) 2x] [(12x 7) (4x 5)]

I'll work from the inside out:

[(6x 8) 2x] [(12x 7) (4x 5)] = [6x 8 2x] [12x 7 4x + 5] = [4x 8] [8x 2] = 4x 8 8x + 2 = 4x 6 Simplify 4y [3x + (3y 2x + {2y 7} ) 4x + 5] 4y [3x + (3y 2x + {2y 7} ) - 4x + 5] = 4y [3x + (3y 2x + 2y 7) - 4x + 5] = 4y [3x + (2x + 5y 7) 4x + 5] = 4y [3x 2x + 5y 7 4x + 5] = 4y [3x 2x 4x + 5y 7 + 5] = 4y [3x + 5y 2] = 4y + 3x 5y + 2 = 3x 4y 5y + 2 = 3x 9y + 2
If you think you need more practice with this last type of problem (with all the brackets and the negatives and the parentheses, then review the "Simplifying with Parentheses" lesson.) Warning: Don't get careless and confuse multiplication and addition. This may sound like a silly thing to say, but it is the most commonly-made mistake (after messing up the order of operations): (x)(x) = x2 (multiplication) x + x = 2x (addition) " x2 " DOES NOT EQUAL " 2x " So if you have something like x3 + x2, DO NOT try to say that this somehow equals something like x5 or 5x. If you have something like 2x + x, DO NOT say that this somehow equals something like 2x2. There are two cases for dividing polynomials: either the "division" is really just a simplification and you're just reducting a fraction, or else you need to do long polynomial division (which is covered on the next page). Simplify This is just a simplification problem, because there is only one term in the polynomial that you're dividing by. And, in this case, there is a common factor in the numerator (top) and denominator (bottom), so it's easy to reduce this fraction. There are two ways of proceeding. I can split the division into two fractions, each with only one term on top, and then reduce:

...or else I can factor out the common factor from the top and bottom, and then cancel off:

Either way, the answer is the same: x

+2

Simplify Again, I can solve this in either of two ways: by splitting up the sum and simplifying each fraction separately: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 1999-2009 All Rights Reserved

...or else by taking the common factor out front and canceling it off:

Either way, the answer is the same:

3x2 5x

Simplify I can split the sum and reduce each fraction separately:

The numerator (top) does indeed have a common factor; it's just a rather large one. Since both terms contain the factor "x + 3", then this is a common factor, and may be factored out front:

Either way, the answer is the same: x