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Volume 4 Issue 1
late the mass of flammable gas within the flammable portion of the vapor cloud (i.e., within that portion of the cloud bounded by the LFL and UFL isoconcentration contours). of the vapor cloud is multiplied by the heat of combustion of the gas to obtain the total available combustion energy. assumed yield or efficiency factor (typically from 1 to 10%) to account for the inefficiency of VCEs.
The mass of flammable gas within the flammable portion The total available combustion energy is multiplied by an The resultant energy is divided by the heat of combustion
of TNT in order to determine the equivalent mass of TNT (i.e., the mass of TNT that would produce the same explosive power as the VCE). (Wgas ) (Hc (gas) ) (Y) (Hd (TNT) ) equivalent mass of TNT, kg mass of gas involved in VCE, kg heat of combustion of gas, J/kg yield (efficiency factor), dimensionless heat of detonation of TNT, J/kg
R = Z = WTNT =
For any given overpressure, there is a corresponding value of scaled distance, which is obtained from an empirical chart (see Figure 1) of scaled distance versus overpressure. (This graph is based on the results of numerous experimental programs involving high explosives.)
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Figure 1 Peak Side-on Overpressure versus Scaled Distance for TNT Explosions. [Brasie and Simpson, 1968; Baker, et al., 1996]
Figure 2 Dimensionless Overpressure versus Energy Scaled Distance TNO Multi-Energy Model. [van den Berg, 1989]
TESTING
TNO MULTI-ENERGY MODEL This model is based on the premise that a vapor cloud explosion can occur only within that portion of a flammable vapor cloud that is partially confined. Thus, the amount of energy released during a VCE is limited either by the volume of the partially-confined portion of the flammable vapor cloud (if the flammable vapor cloud is larger than the partially-confined region) or by the volume of the vapor cloud (if the vapor cloud is smaller than the volume of the partially-confined space). In either case, the user converts the volume of the cloud within the partially-confined space to a hemisphere of equal volume. The model treats the hemispherical cloud as a homogenous, stoichiometric mixture of flammable gas and air, with a combustion energy of 3.5 million Joules per cubic meter (the average heat of combustion of a stoichiometric mixture of hydrocarbon gas and air). TNO has used a flux-corrected transport code to numerically simulate the explosion of a hemispherical, homogeneous, stoichiometric cloud, with constant flame speed. TNO presents the results of this modeling as the family of curves illustrated in Figure 2. These curves relate dimensionless overpressure (overpressure divided by atmospheric pressure) to combustion energy scaled distance (which is calculated as follows). Equation 3: R where: R R Po E Equation 4: Ps = Ps / Po dimensionless peak overpressure peak side-on overpressure, N/m2 ambient atmospheric pressure, N/m2 = = = = = R (Po / E)1/3 combustion energy scaled distance, dimensionless distance from the center of the hemisphere, m ambient atmospheric pressure, J/m3 (i.e., N/m2) total available energy, J
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RISK/HAZARDS ANALYSIS
where: Ps = Ps = Po =
-3-
To use this model, the user must perform the following steps.
the flammable vapor cloud by 3.5 million Joules per cubic meter to determine the total available energy (E ).
Specify the initial blast strength of the VCE by select Find where the combustion energy scaled distance (R)
The major difference between the Multi-Energy Model and the Baker-Strehlow Model is the method used to construct the graphical relationship between dimensionless overpressure (Ps ) and combustion energy scaled distance (R). The curves used in the Baker-Strehlow model (presented in Figure 3) are based on numerical modeling of constant velocity flames and accelerating flames spreading through spherical vapor clouds. With this method, the strength of the blast wave is proportional to the maximum flame speed achieved within the cloud. Thus, each curve in Figure 3 is marked with a flame velocity, which is presented in the form of a Mach number. To use this model, the user must perform the following steps.
intersects the appropriate curve in Figure 2, then find the corresponding value of dimensionless overpressure (Ps ) .
atmospheric pressure (P0 ) to obtain the peak side-on overpressure (Ps ) of the blast wave at the distance of interest (R).
fined portion of the flammable vapor cloud by 3.5 million Joules per cubic meter to determine the total available energy (E). any given distance (R) from the center of the explosion, using Equation 3.
BAKER-STREHLOW MODEL This model has some similarities with the TNO Multi-Energy Model. Both models are based on the premise that a vapor cloud explosion can occur only within that portion of a flammable vapor cloud that is congested or partially confined, and both models use the same method for determining the total energy available (E) within a flammable vapor cloud. In addition, each model uses a family of curves to relate Ps to (R) , and both models use Equation 3 to calculate (R) .
Calculate the combustion energy scaled distance (R) for Select the appropriate flame speed (Mach number) for
the specific situation being modeled, based on the values listed in Table 1 [Baker, et al., 1996]. intersects the appropriate curve in Figure 2, then find the corresponding value of dimensionless overpressure (Ps ) . atmospheric pressure (P0 ) to obtain the peak side-on overpressure (Ps ) of the blast wave at the distance of interest (R).
Table 1 Flame Speed in Mach Numbers (Mw) for Soft Ignition Sources
Flame Expansion
Fuel Reactivity High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low
Obstacle Density High 5.2 2.27 2.27 1.77 1.24 0.662 0.588 0.206 0.147 Medium 5.2 1.77 1.03 1.03 0.662 0.471 0.153 0.100 0.100 Low 5.2 1.03 0.294 0.588 0.118 0.079 0.071 0.037 0.037
ID
2D
Figure 3 Dimensionless Overpressure versus Energy Scaled Distance Baker-Strehlow Model. [Baker, et al., 1996]
3D
DISTRIBUTED-SOURCE TNT MODEL This model, like the Point-Source TNT Model, is based on the concept of TNT equivalence and the cube root scaling law, but instead of treating a vapor cloud explosion as a single point-source explosion, it treats it as an aggregate of numerous point-source explosions. That portion of a flammable vapor cloud in which the concentration of flammable gas is between the LFL and UFL is divided into numerous cells. The mass of flammable gas within each of these cells is predicted by a vapor dispersion model. For each cell, the mass of gas is converted to an equivalent mass of TNT, using the same method as is used in the Point-Source TNT Model. All cells are assumed to release their explosive energy simultaneously. The blast wave generated by the VCE is a composite of the blast waves generated by each of the cells. Thus, the strength of the blast wave at any given location outside the vapor cloud is influenced by the distance to each of the cells and the explosive energy released by each cell.
REFERENCES:
Brasie, W.C., and D.W. Simpson, "Guidelines for Estimating Damage from Chemical Explosions," paper presented at the Symposium on Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 63rd National AIChE Meeting, St. Louis, MO, February, 1968. van den Berg, A.C., "The Multi-Energy Method: A Framework for Vapour Cloud Explosion Blast Prediction," Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 12, 1989, pp. 1-10. Baker, Q.A., M.J. Tang, E.A. Scheier, and G.J. Silva, "Vapor Cloud Explosion Analysis," Process Safety Progress, Vol., 15, No. 2, 1996, pp. 106-109.
In the next issue, well discuss the similarities and differences among the models, and examine predictions from these models in order to demonstrate just how different (or similar) the models are.
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