University College London Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering Notes on the Preparation of Full Laboratory Reports

1. Introduction Report writing is a method of communication and needs to have an appropriate style and layout. If you are writing to a close friend you might adopt, intuitively, a particular style of writing that may contain colloquialisms, slang terms and abbreviations such as didnt, couldnt and so on: if you are writing, say, a formal letter to your bank manager, your letter will contain none of these. Similarly, a report is a formal document that requires formal prose. A report needs to have not only a formal style of writing but also a standard layout: we will use the recommendations give by the British Standards Institution (BSI)1 for the presentation of research and developmental reports. For undergraduates, these recommendations will have to be modified slightly (there might be no history of experimental work for the current investigation). Grammatical rules for the English language provide the necessary framework in which authors produce their work: the framework for the presentation of reports should be seen in a similar way. 2. Voice and Tense Writing will be in the third person (meter readings were taken) and not in the first person (we took meter readings). Experimental work will be referred to in the past tense (the rise time of the pulse was recorded); contents of the report will be referred to in the present tense (Fig. 4 shows the frequency response of the amplifier); apparatus that will continue to exist for some time after the experimental work could be referred to in the present tense (The test system comprises a data recorder, oscilloscope, frequency counter .....), but apparatus constructed only for the purpose of the work and subsequently dismantled will be referred to in the past tense (There was a pulse generator and oscilloscope...). Planning the Work A five-point plan for the basis of a successful planning procedure for reports is: 4. define objective gather information analyse information draw conclusions draft the Abstract

3.

Layout of the Report The plan as defined in Section 3 will provide the essential material for the preparation of a report that may include the following numbered sections, preferably in the order listed. Front cover Title page Abstract (written beneath the title) Table of Contents Introduction Theory Experimental procedure Discussion Conclusions References Appendices

1 2 3 4 5 6

Tables Figures These can be included in the main body of the text
Text shall be typed single side with a margin of approximately 30 mm down the left-hand edge of the paper. Nothing, not even section numbers, shall be written in the margin because the binding of any document will either prevent or make difficult the reading of any text in the area of this width.

4.1

Title Page For Part 1 reports, the following information shall be written on the title page to be seen through the front cover window (if any): Project (experiment) title Project (experiment) number Authors name Date on which project (experiment) performed Beneath this shall be written the Abstract. The Abstract shall be an informative precis of the entire work. It shall give a description of the methods, results and main conclusions. The Abstract shall be a stand-alone piece of text which the reader can understand without having to refer to the report.

4.2

Table of Contents Each line shall give the report section number or sub-section number, the section or sub-section and only the start page number. An example is: Page No. 1. 2. Introduction Theory 2.1 The Nyquist criterion 2.2 The Phase Shift Oscillator Experimental procedure and results 3.1 Experimental procedure 3.2 Results Discussion 1 2

3.

4.

Only in long reports (Part III design reports, for example) will it be appropriate to give start-page numbering for sub-sections. On this topic, BSI1 recommends that sub-division of sections be made on a number basis up to subsub sections and beyond that by letter. For example: 2. Oscillator theory 2.1 Oscillator types 2.1.1 R-C Oscillators 2.1.1 a 3.1.1 b 2.1.2 L-C Oscillators 2.1.2 a 2.1.2 b Experimental procedure and results

Wien Bridge Phase shift Hartley Colpitts

3. 4.3

Introduction BSI1 clearly stated the requirements of an introductory section: Every report shall have an introductory section which should include in the first paragraph a succinct statement of the objective of the work ...... The introduction should bring out the salient features of the work in a concise manner ...... It should not anticipate what is to be said in later section of the report ...... and, in particular, it should not include:

(1) (2) (3)

detailed experimental procedure and/or theoretical reasoning; detailed discussion of the results as a repetition of the Discussion section; simple repetition of the contents of the Abstract

Essentially your first paragraph shall inform the reader of the purpose of your work. Do not start the paragraph with the words: The object of this experiment is to ...... (it is better to use the adjective experimental with nouns such as work, programme etc.) For industrial reports, the paragraph(s) that follow would give the background to the experimental work and would include statements and citations to referenced work on what has been obtained before. In the 1st year undergraduate laboratory work a background of experimental work does not usually exist but you could place the work in context and refer briefly to underlying theoretical analysis. One or two paragraphs should be sufficient at this level but write more if you think it necessary. 4.4 Theory Instead of copying out a rigorous theoretical analysis, you could start with the basic, governing equations, give a statement on the assumptions (if any) made in the theory and then state the result(s). It would be helpful if you gave a citation (in the text) to a reference (bibliographic details in your references section), by finding a book in the library that covers the analysis. Experimental Procedure Results The procedure and results obtained from the work might fall naturally into sub-sections, in which case give the sub-sections titles and numbers. For example: 3.1.1 The phase shift oscillator 3.1.2 The Wien bridge oscillator Appendix 1 will be reserved for the nomenclature for all symbols you use in the text of your report. For Part 1 reports, Appendix 2 will give the values (raw data) you recorded in the laboratory. For example a column heading in a table might be pulse rise time or frequency. A statement of these values is necessary for the marker to check any unusual results. The appendix will also give one specimen calculation for each set of similar results. The results that appear in this section will be those on which the discussions will be based and from which the graphical plots will be represented. Results will normally be those on which the discussions will be based and from which graphical plots will be presented. Results will normally have the units of the SI, although some may have traditional units, e.g. motor speed/rpm. Each table of results shall have a table number and a title beneath each table. For example: Table 2 Amplifier gain as a function of frequency

4.5

Each table shall have a citation in the text. For example: from the measurements of input signal amplitude and output signal amplitude the voltage gain has been calculated as shown in Table 2 Each set of tabulated values shall have a heading giving: quantity, symbol (if used)/units;

Note the use of the solidus / so that the tabulated numbers are dimensionless when the / is considered as a divide sign. For example: if velocity =3m/s then velocity/m.s-1 =3 (the 3 is dimensionless) Examples of table headings are: Input voltage, v/mv Input resistance, R/k Voltage Gain,/dB Temperature, T/K For units that appear at the top of the tables or along axes in figures, the use of the x sign is unacceptable and shall not be used. Do not use, for example: Input voltage/V x 10-3 Input voltage x 10-3 V as column headings. Both these forms are unacceptable. If, for example, the logarithm of the value of the quantity is taken then only the magnitude of the quantity may be used. For example, if the logarithm to the base 10 of the voltage is to be tabulated, and v is measured in mv, the column heading will be: log(v/mv) Or, if it is quoted in the text, log(v/mv) = 1.7 Otherwise it is quoted as: log v = 1.7 with v measured in mv. Other examples of column headings are: exp(T/K) Sin(/radians) 4.6 Figures Figures shall be drawn on plain paper with a margin of 30 mm down the left-hand side. This margin is reserved solely for the binding and no text shall be written in this area. Each figure, whether it is a graphical plot or a diagram showing a drawing of equipment or circuit, shall be accompanied by a figure number and title at the bottom of the figure. An example is: Figure 7 Closed and open loop voltage gain as a function of frequency

Whenever possible, the figure should be presented in the portrait format with the dependent variable being plotted on an axis parallel to the long edge of the paper. Axes shall not have arrow heads at their ends, and division marks on an axis shall not be closer than 20 mm. Data points should preferably be shown by small circles, squares or triangles with a dot in the centre; crosses, either vertical or inclined, may be used when all other options have been exhausted. Do not use colour to differentiate between curves on the same figure; use different legends (e.g. circle and square) and perhaps different line types (e.g. continuous and broken). Give a legend key to describe the curves. Keep a figure free from extraneous text and lines, such as a right angle and a calculation to determine a slope. It would also help to show a thin lined grid. 4.7 Discussion BSI1 states in part: The discussion is the interpretation of and/or commentary on the results and the reasoning on which the conclusions are founded. For example, in a figure showing the variation of voltage gain of an amplifier with frequency might exhibit a slight increase in gain at high frequency before the main fall off in gain. Your text in the discussion should give reasons for this behaviour. It is in the Discussion section that an estimate of the precision of your results should be given. 4.8 Conclusion A clear description of what should appear in this section is stated in BSI1: The conclusions represents a clear and orderly presentation of the deductions made after full consideration of the results of the work. ........ the details of an involved argument or result should not be included. 4.9 References BSI2 gives recommendations for references to published material and states: Relations between statements in the text (citations) should be linked to bibliographic details of the documents that support these statements in one of three ways. 1 2 3 Name and date system (Harvard system) Numeric system Running notes

We will use the numeric system which is described as: Numerals in the text, in parenthesis, square brackets or superscripts refer to the documents in the order in which they are first cited. Subsequent citations of a particular document receive the same number as the first. As examples, in the text a citation could be presented as: the equations for the frequency of oscillation are given by Aardvark6 ...... or ......given by Aardvark (6)......

or

given by Aardvark [6] ......

References to the documents will be set out in a numbered list in the order in which they arise. The elements of a reference are: originator title production (publisher or equivalent) date numeration within the system (volume, issue number in that volume and start and finish page numbers in journals) and in this Reference section a list of bibliographical details will be presented, for example: 6. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... Aardvark, A., Relaxation Oscillators, McAnt Hill, 1st edition 1992 .......... ..........

4 . 1 0 Appendices 4.10.1 Appendix 1 - Nomenclature A list of all the symbols used for the physical quantities in the report shall be given in Appendix 1. It is traditional to use Greek letters as symbols for some quantities and Arabic letters for others. Present the list of symbols in alphabetical order for each alphabet. You may also give the SI units for the quantities. An example is: Symbol Quantity Transistor current gain Permittivity of free space Wavelength Angular frequency Small signal a.c. current d.c resistance d.c. voltage SI unit(s) F.m-1 m radians.s-1 A

0
i R V

4.10.2 Appendix 2 - Raw Data This Appendix shall present the data as you recorded them in the laboratory, solely for the benefit of the marker who will then be able to check the source of any unusual result or calculation. For each set of tabulated data there shall be a specimen calculation showing how you have calculated the values given in the Experimental procedure and Results section. 4.10.3 Other Appendices One or more may be necessary to include sections of theory or analysis that might interrupt the flow of the report if they were included in the main body of the text. 5. Units The raw data might be recorded in a mixture of SI and Imperial units, and they shall be presented in their recorded form, in Appendix 2. But any results processed from these or repeated in the main body of the report will have the units of the SI. Recommendations for the use of the SI units and their multiples are given in the British Standards Institution3. 5.1 Base Units The seven base units are listed in table 1 Quantity length mass time electric current Thermodynamic temperature amount of substance luminous intensity Name of base unit metre kilogram second ampere kelvin mole candela Table 1. SI base units 5.2 Supplementary Units The two supplementary units are listed in table 2. Symbol m kg s A K mol cd

Quantity plane angle solid angle

Name of supplementary SI unit radian steradian Table 2. SI supplementary units

Symbol rad sr

5.3

Derived Units Derived units are expressed algebraically in terms of the base units and/or supplementary units. Their symbols are obtained by means of the mathematical signs for multiplication (.) and division (/). For some of the derived SI units, special approved names and symbols exist. These are given in table 3. Quantity frequency force pressure, stress energy, work, quantity of heat power electric charge, quantity of electricity electric potential, potential difference, electromotive force electric capacitance electric resistance electric conductance flux of magnet induction, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density inductance Celsius temperature luminous flux illuminance Special Name hertz newton pascal joule watt coulomb volt farad ohm siemen weber tesla henry degree Celsius lumen lux Symbol Hz N Pa J W C V F S Wb T H 0C lm lx 1 Hz = 1 s-1 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 1 J = 1 N.m 1 W = 1 J/s 1 C = 1 A.s 1 V = 1 J/C 1 F = 1 C/V 1 = 1 V/A 1 S = 1 -1 1 Wb = 1 V.s 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 1 H = 1 Wb/A 10 C = 1 K 1 lm = 1 cd.sr 1 lx = 1lm/m2

Table 3. Names and symbols for base and derived units

5.4

Proper Names Proper names have been used for the names of some of the base and derived units; for example, Dr. Hertz and Sir Isaac Newton have been so honoured. For these units, the name of the unit shall be written with a lower case initial letter, but the symbol shall be written with an upper case letter. table 4 lists these units: Name of base or derived unit ampere kelvin hertz newton pascal joule Symbol A K Hz N Pa J

watt coulomb volt farad siemen weber tesla henry

W C V F S Wb T H

Table 4. Units with proper names 5.5 Compound Units When a compound unit is formed by the multiplication of two or more units, this may be indicated in one of the following ways: N.m, N.m or N m The last form may also be written without a space. Special care needs to be taken with m since this can indicate the scale of a unit (milli) or the metre unit. For example mV might be read as millivolt; if the compound unit is metre volt then the multiplication dot (.) will prevent confusion, m.V. When a compound unit is formed by dividing one unit by another, this may be indicated in one of the following ways:

m , m/s or by writing the product of m and s-1, s

5.6 for example m.s-1 Temperature In addition to the thermodynamic temperature (symbol T), expressed in kelvins, use is also made of Celsius temperature (symbol t) defined by the equation: t = T - T0 where T0 = 273.15 by definition. The unit degree Celsius is equal to the unit kelvin, but degree Celsius is a special name in place of kelvin for expressing Celsius temperature. A temperature interval or a temperature difference can be expressed in degrees Celsius as well as in kelvins. Because of the unit degree Celsius, there might be a temptation to refer to the unit kelvin as degree kelvin and write the symbol as 0K. Both are incorrect; the unit is kelvin and the symbol is K. 5.7 Multiples of SI units Names are given to the decimal multiples and decimal sub-multiples of the SI units over the range 10-18 to 1018. Those that frequently appear in engineering are listed in table 5. Factor 109 106 103 102 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 Prefix giga mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli Symbol G M k h ) use only da ) for d ) special c ) cases m

10-6 10-9

micro nano

Table 5. Multiples of SI units The symbol of a prefix is considered to be combined with the single unit symbol (a base unit, supplementary unit or a derived unit with a special name) to which it is directly attached, forming with it a new symbol which can be raised to a positive or negative power, and which can be combined with other unit symbols to form symbols for compound units. Examples 1 km2 = (103 m)2 = 106 m2 1 s-1 = (10-6s)-1 = 106 s-1 1 mm2/s = (10-3 m)2/s = 10-6 m2/s Note that ms-1 could be ambiguous since the m could refer to milli or to the metre unit. If the later is intended, it should be written as m.s-1, m.s-1 or m s-1 (with a space). Choice of appropriate multiple The choice of multiple is governed by convenience so that numerical values will be between 0.1 and 1 000. It is recommended that for tabular presentation multiples should be used in multiples of 103: giga, mega, kilo, milli, micro, although provisions have been made for tabulated values of second moments of area, I, and section moduli, Z, of steel sections where the cm is used: cm4 for I and cm3 for Z. Examples 0.000 123 m = 123 m 0.001 23 m = 1.23 mm 12 300 m = 12.3 km 210 000 000 000 N/m2 = 210 GN/m2 1.2 X 104 N = 12 kN NOTES 1: There shall be a space between groups of three numbers given in decimal form: for example 123 456.789 876 The comma shall not be used for this purpose because of confusion with the use of the comma as a decimal marker in some countries. 2: Because the name of the base unit for mass, kilogram, contains the name of the SI prefix kilo he names of the decimal multiples and decimal sub-multiples are formed by adding the prefixes to the word gram. for example milligram, mg, instead of micro kilogram, kg; and megagram, Mg instead of kilokilogram, kkg. Units Outside the SI

5.8

10

The Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) has recognised units outside the SI because of their practical importance or because of their use in specialised fields. Table 6 lists some of the units that have frequent use in engineering: Quantity area volume time pressure SI unit m2 m3 s Pa CGPM recognised unit and symbol are, a 1 a = 102 m2 hectare 1 ha = 104 m2 litre l 1 l = 10-3 m3 minute min hour h day d bar 1 bar = 105 Pa

Table 6 Units outside the SI The unit tonne, symbol t, is outside the SI but nevertheless is recognised as having practical importance 1 t = 103 kg 6. References 1. British Standards Institution BS4811. Specification for the presentation of research and development reports. 1972 (1986) 2. 3. British Standards Institution BS1629. Recommendations for references to published material. 1989 British Standards Institution BS5555. Specification for SI units and recommendations for the use of multiples and certain other units. 1981

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