Using The Ideal Gas Law and Heat Release Models To Demonstrate Timing in Spark and Compression Ignition Engines

Using the ideal gas law and
heat release models to

demonstrate timing in spark
and compression ignition
engines
G. DAVID HUFFMAN, School of Engineering Technology,
University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS 39402, USA.
huffman@netdoor.com
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education Vol 28 No 4
Received 5th January 1999
Analysis techniques of internal combustion engines range from thermodynamic methods to
complex engine design programs. Thermodynamic analyses preclude engine timing while the
details of engine design programs are beyond the level of undergraduate courses. This
article combines the ideal gas law with heat release models and an engineering equation
solver to demonstrate timing in spark and compression ignition internal combustion engines
in a manner that can be used in undergraduate courses.
Key words: spark and compression ignition engines, engine timing, combustion models.
NOTATION
m
a area, m
2
b bore, m
C mass loss parameter,
m m
L

C
p
specific heat at constant pressure, kJkg-K
C
v
specific heat at constant volume, kJkg-K
f
1
, f
2
fractional heat release functions for compression ignition engines
F fuelair ratio
H heat loss parameter, b ht p v
2
1 1 1
2
h heat transfer coefficient, kWm
2
-K
k ratio of specific heats
K
1
, K
2
, K
3
, K
4
fractional heat release parameters for compression ignition engines
l connecting rod length, m
m mass, kg
mass flow rate, kgs
M mass ratio, mm
1
n fractional heat release parameter for spark ignition engines
280 G. David Huffman
N engine rotational speed, revmin
N
c
number of cylinders
p pressure, kPa
P pressure ratio, pp
1
q heat, kJ
Q heat ratio, qp
1
v
1
r
c
compression ratio
R gas constant, kJkg-K
s stroke, m
t temperature, K
T temperature ratio, tt
1
v volume, m
3
V volume ratio, vv
1
w work, kJkg
power, hp
W work ratio, wp
1
v
1
x fractional heat release
Subscripts
c clearance
d displacement
in input
L loss
s stoichiometric
w wall
1 bottom dead center
1. INTRODUCTION
Analyses of spark and compression ignition internal combustion engines, range from an
elementary thermodynamic approach, to complicated fuel system approaches, which may
include flow analysis of the intake and exhaust systems, analysis of friction and heat losses
and other factors to numerous to mention. Programs of this type are normally beyond the
Greek
pre-mixed-diffusion combustion parameter for compression ignition
engines
shape-compression ratio parameter, (sb) (2r
c
(r
c
1))
1
,
2
fractional heat release parameters for spark ignition engines
b
heat release duration, degrees
geometric parameter, s2l
crank angle, degrees
s
start of heat release, degrees
angular ratio, ( )
s b
id
ignition delay time, msec
equivalence ratio
rotational speed, radsec
w
Using the ideal gas law and heat release models 281
level of junior and/or senior undergraduate students in mechanical engineering technology.
The basic thermodynamic approach illustrates the cyclic nature of the engine and the com-
pression, heat addition and expansion processes, but provides no information on the effect of
timing on the heat release process. This article presents an analysis of the effects of timing,
i.e., the initiation and duration of heat release, on spark and compression ignition engines.
The method used in this article combines the geometric relationship between the combus-
tion chamber surface area and volume and the crank angle with a differential form of the
ideal gas law and the first law of thermodynamics. The method also includes empirical data
on heat and mass loss, although, these factors are not essential to demonstrate timing.
The system of differential equations is evaluated using the Engineering Equation Solver
[1]. This is a software package designed to solve algebraic and initial value differential
equations.
2. ENGINE GEOMETRY
Fig. 1. Piston-cylinder schematic drawing.
As noted above, the approach employed in this article uses the ideal gas law and first law of
thermodynamics in differential form. The solution to the equations is driven by the combus-
tion chamber volumecrank angle relationship and the rate and time of heat release. The
engine geometry is shown in Fig. 1. The relationship between the volume ratio and the crank
angle is
V
r
r
c
c
+ +
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
( ) cos sin
(1)
where the various parameters are defined in the Nomenclature. Fig. 1 and equation (1) have
been adopted from Heywood [2]. Equation (1) can be differentiated with regard to the crank
angle and
If both the piston and cylinder head have flat surfaces, then
a
b
V

_
,
2
2
1 ( ) (4)
3. IDEAL GAS, ENERGY AND CONSERVATION OF MASS EQUATIONS
The ideal gas equation is

p mRt v (5)
This equation can be written in logarithmic form and differentiated yielding

1 1 1 1
p
p
m
m
t
t d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
+ +
v
v
(6)
The first law of thermodynamics in differential form for an open system is given by
Ferguson [3] as

C m
t
t
m q
p
m C t
p
v
v d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
L

+
_
,

(7)
Equations (6) and (7) can be combined yielding

d
d
d
d
d
d
L
p k q
k
p
kp
m
m

1
v v
v
v
(8)
Since this model considers migration of mass from the combustion chamber, conserva-
tion of mass can be used to provide an equation for m
d
d
L
m m

(9)
The heat term consists of both heat added through heat release and heat loss through heat
transfer
q = q
in
x q
L
(10)
where q
in
denotes the total and x the fraction of heat released. The heat loss term takes the
form
d
d
c
c
V r
r

_
,
( )sin cos
sin
1
2
1
1
2 2
(2)
The combustion chamber surface, i.e., heat transfer, area can be linked to the volume and

a a
b
+
c c
4
( ) v v (3)
d
d
L
w
q ha
t t

( ) (11)
The heat addition/loss term can finally be written as
d
d
d
d
in w
q
q
x b h
V t t

+
2
2
1 ( ) ( ) (12)
The work takes the form of

d
d
d
d
w
p

v
(13)
Equations (8), (10), (11), (12) and (13) can be written in dimensionless form as
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
in
L
P k
V
Q
x Q
k
P
V
V
kCP

_
,

1
(14)
d
d
L
w
Q
H V
PV
M
T
_
,
( ) 1 (15)
d
d
M
CM
(16)
d
d
d
d
W
P
V

(17)
The temperature ratio can be determined from equation (5)
T
PV
M
(18)
4. HEAT ADDITION
The heat addition can be estimated using data from Pulkrabek [4] and equations from
Ferguson [3], i.e.,

q
F
F
in
s
s

1
1
1 (19)
q
F
F
in
s
s
+

[ ]
>

1
1 1
1 2
( ) (20)
where F
s
= 0.68,
1
= 43 000 and
2
= 3751 for spark ignition engines and 0.69, 42 500 and
3708 for compression ignition engines.
5. HEAT RELEASE FRACTION
Experimental studies have shown that the fraction of heat released varies with crank angle
and differs for spark and compression ignition engines. For spark ignition engines, Heywood
[2] and Ferguson [3] suggest
x a
n

( )
1 exp (21)
where Heywood recommends a = 5 and n = 3 and Ferguson uses a = 1 and n = 4. Since the
heat release varies with the crank angle
d
d
x
an
x
n
b
_
,
1
1
(22)
The compression ignition heat release model is considerably more complicated than the
spark ignition model. Most compression ignition models use two functions. Stone [5]
suggests
x f f +
1 2
1 ( ) ( ) ( ) (23)
where f
1
() represents the pre-mixed and f
2
() the diffusion burning phase. The two func-
tions are combined with a weighing factor which is defined as
1 0 875
0 350
.
.
id
0.375
(24)
The numerical factors can take on a range of values. The values in equation (24) are at the
mid-point of the respective ranges [5].
The ignition delay time can be estimated with many different formulae, i.e., references
[2], [3] and [5]. The most straight-forward to apply is offered by Stone [5] and
d
d
f
K K f
K
2
3 4
1
2
4
1
( ) (33)
d
d
f
K K
K K
K
1
1 2
1
1
1 1
2
1

( )

(32)
Equations (27) and (28) are differentiated yielding
K K
4 3
0 25
0 79 .
.
(31)
K
3
0 644
14 2
.
.
(30)
K
2
5000 (29)
K N
1
8 2 4
2 1 25 10 +

. ( )
.
id
(28)
The K values are defined as
f
K
K
1
1 1
1
2
( )
( )
(26)
where t t r
k
id c

1
1
and p p r
k
id c
1
.
The pre-mixed and diffusion functions, i.e., references [2] and [4], are
id
id
id
( )
( )
3 52 2100
100
1 022
. exp
.
t
p
(25)
d
d
d
d
d
d
x f f
b b
1 2
1
(34)
6. ENGINE POWER
Since the primary thrust of this article is an assessment of engine timing, power values are
not strictly necessary and values of W can be used. Comparing values of power will, how-
ever, have more impact on the students than dimensionless units. Power can be derived from
the computed values using conventional techniques [6] and

v
v
1
1
_
,
r
r N
c
c
d
c
(35)

m
p
Rt
1
1 1
1
v
(36)
m
N
m N
1 1
120
c
(37)

w
m
m
p W

_
,
1 341
1
1
1
v
1
(38)
7. SOLUTION OF THE GOVERNING EQUATIONS
The equations of Sections 2 through 6 must be solved numerically. A computer program can
be written for this purpose or EES
32
[1] can be employed. EES
32
can be used to solve a set
of simultaneous algebraic equations and/or initial value differential equations. EES
32
differs
from numerical equation solving programs in three ways: EES
32
automatically groups
equations which must be solved simultaneously, it provides built-in mathematical and
thermophysical functions and built-in input and output including spreadsheets and graphs.
As noted earlier, the objective of this article is to demonstrate timing effects. The model
developed herein contains many simplifications and omissions. At the same time, the model
utilizes many characteristics of real engines, i.e., the piston-cylinder geometry, the engine
compression ratio, the engine rotational speed and the equivalence ratio. As a result, the
characteristics of existing engines were employed in the example cases. The engine
parameters are given in Table 1. All factors are from the manufacturers with the following
exceptions. The connecting rod length has been determined using bore and stroke and stand-
ard design practice. The equivalence ratio was chosen as 1.0 for the spark ignition engines
and as 0.52 for the compression ignition engine. Stone [5] states that equivalence ratios
range from 0.14 to 0.90 for compression ignition engines and a mid-point value of 0.52 was
chosen. Standard sea-level conditions of 101.35 kPa and 333K were selected for the condi-
tions at bottom dead centre. The values for C and T
w
were taken from Ferguson [3]. The
combustion duration was set at 40. This is a typical value and is discussed in references [2]
through [6]. The heat loss coefficient, i.e., H, was set so that the engine produced rated
power at the rated rotational speed. This has the effect of lumping all the losses in the heat
loss coefficient.
The EES
32
program used to evaluate and integrate the equations of Sections 2 through 6
is shown in Table 2. Note that this version of the program is for the Chrysler 2.2 litre spark
Table 1. Spark and combustion ignition engines used in the examples
Manufacturer
Type
Characteristics
Chrysler
Spark ignition
Carburettored I4
Oldsmobile
Spark ignition
Sequential fuel injected V6
Ford
Compression ignition
Direct injection I4
v
d
(litres)
b (mm)
s (mm)
l (mm)
r
c
sb
N
c
N (revmin)
p
1
(kPa)
t
1
(K)
H
C
T
w
b
(degrees)
2.213
87.5
92.0
145.6
8.9
1.0514
0.3159
4
5200
96.6
101.35
333
1.00
0.919
0.004
1.2
40
3.132
88.9
84.1
140.3
9.6
0.9460
0.2997
6
4800
150.0
101.35
333
1.00
0.350
0.004
1.2
40
2.496
93.7
90.5
149.4
19.0
0.9658
0.3029
4
4000
69.7
101.35
333
0.52
1.150
0.004
1.2
40
w (hp)
Table 2. EES
32
Computer program for the analysis of engine timing
{Engine Timing EES_32 Program }
{Heat Input}
Procedure Heatlnput(1sc$:Q,q_in)
$Common Theta_s,DELTA Theta_b,Phi,Pwr,t1,p1,k,R,r_c,N
If(lsc$=Cl) Then
{Compression Ignition Model}
F_s:=0.069
Gamma_1:=42500
Gamma_2:=3708
Else
{Spark Ignition Model}
F_s:0.068
Gamma_1:=4300
Gamma_2:=3751
Endif
If(Phi<=1) Then
q_in:=Gamma_1*(Phi*F_s)/(1+Phi*F_s)
Else
q_in:=(Phi*D_s)*(Gamma_1-Gamma_2*(Phi-1))/(1_Phi*F_s)
Endif
Q:=q_in/(R*t1)
End
{Heat Release Fraction}
Procedure HeatReleaseFraction(Theta,Isc$:x,dxdTheta,DELTATheta_id)
$Common Theta_s,DELTATheta_b,Phi,Pwr,t1,p1,K,R,r_c,N
If(Isc$=Cl) Then
{Compression Ignition Model}
t_id:=t1*r_c^(k-1)
p_id:=p1*r_c^k
Tau_id:=3.52*Exp(2100/t_id)/(p_id/100)^1.022\
DELTA Theta_id:=6*N*(Tau_id/1000)
If(Theta<=Theta_s) Or (Theta>=Theta_s+DELTA Theta_b) Then
x:=0
dxdTheta:=0
Else
Lambda:=(Theta-Theta_s)/DeltaTheta_b
Alpha:=1-0.875*Phi^0.35/Tau_id^0.375
If(Alpha<=0) Then Alpha:=0
If(Alpha>=1) Then Alpha:=1
K_1:=2+1.25E-08*(Tau_id*N)^2.4
K_2:=5000
K_3:=14.2*Phi^0.64444
K_4:=0.79*K_3^0.25
f_1:=1-(1-Lambda^K_1)^K_2
f_2:=1-Exp(-K_3*Lambda^K_4)
x:=Alpha*f_1+(1-Alpha)*f_2
df2dLambda:=(K_1*K_2*Lambda^(K_1-1))*((1-Lambda^K_1)^(K_2-1))
df2dLambda:=(1-f_2)*(K_3*K_4*Lambda^(K_4-1))
dxdTheta:=(alpha*dF1dLambda+(1-Alpha)*df2dLambda)/(Pi*DELTATheta_b/180)
Endif
Else
{Spark Ignition Model}
Tau_id:=-1
DELTA Theta_id:=-1
If(Theta<=Theta_s) Or (Theta>=Theta_s+DELTATHETA_b) Then
x:=0
dxdTheta:=0
Else
Lambda:=(Theta-Theta_s)/DELTATheta_b
e:=1-exp(-(Lambda)^Pwr)
dxdTheta:=((1-x)*pwr*(Lambda)^(Pwr-1))/(Pi*DELTATheta_b/180)
Endif
Endif
End
{Main Program}
Isc$=Sl{Cl--Compression Ignition and Sl--Spark Ignition}
Engine$= Chrysler 2.2Liter 14
{Gas Constants and Inlet Conditions}
k=1.336
R=0.287{kJ/kg-Deg K}
t1=333{Deg K}
p1=101.35{kPa}
{Combustion Parameters}
Phi=1
Pwr=4
DELTATheta_b=40{Degrees}
Theta_3=-30{Degrees}
{Engine Geometry}
r_c=8.9
v_d=0.002213{m^3}
N_c=4
N=5200{rev/min}
b=0.0875{m}
s=0.0920{m}
l=0.1456{m}
Epsilon=2/(2*l)
{Mass and Mass Flow Rate at Condition1}
v1=(r_r/(r_c-1))*(v_d/N_c)
m1=p1*v1/(R*t1)
m_dot_1=m1*N*N_c/120
{Heat Loss Parameters}
H=0.919
T_w=1.2
Beta=2*(s/b)*(r_c)/(r_c-1)
{Mass Loss Parameter}
C=0.004
{Heat Input Parameter}
Call Heatlnput(Isc$:Q,q_in)
{Dimensionless Volume}
Va=(1/Epsilon)+1-cos(Theta)-(1/Epsilon)*Sqrt(1-(Epsilon*sin(Theta))^2)
Vb=(r_c-1)*Va/2
V=(1+Vb)/r_c
{Differential Equations}
Theta=180*ThetaRadTmp/Pi
dVdThetat=1+Epsilon*cos(Theta)/Sqrt(1-(Epsilon*sin(Theta))^2)
dVdTheta=(r_c-1)*sin(Theta)*dVdThetat/(2*r_c)
Call HeatReleaseFraction(Theta,Isc$:x,dxdTheta,DELTATheta_id)
dPdTheta=-k*P*dVdTheta/V+(k-1)*(Q*dxdTheta-dQLdTheta)/V-k*C*P
dWdTheta=P*dVdTheta
dQLdTheta=H*(1+Beta*V)*(P*V/M-T_w)
dMdTheta=-C*M
{Integration of Differential Equations}
P=P_i+Integral(dPdTheta,ThetaRadTmp,ThetaRad_i,ThetaRad)
W=W_i+Integral(dWdTheta,thetaRadTmp,ThetaRad_i,ThetaRad)
QL=QL_i+Integral(dQLdTheta,ThetaRadTmp,TehtaRad_i,ThetaRad)
M=M_i+Integral(dMdTheta,ThetaRadTmp,ThetaRad_i,ThetaRad)
P_i=TableValue(Row-1,#P)
W_i=TableValue(Row-1,#W)
QL_i=TableValue(Row-1,#QL)
M_i=TableValue (Row-1,#M)
ThetaRad_i=TableValue(Row-1,#ThetaRad)
T=P*V/M
{Power}
w_dot=1.341*(m_dot_1/m1)*p1*v1*W
ignition engine. Procedures are used for the heat release fraction and the heat input. The
procedures are similar to those employed in a programming language. Note the use of
Common and the passage of variables through the calling statement. An IfThenElse con-
struct is used and the equations come directly from Sections 4 and 5.
The various input parameters comprise the first portion of the main program followed by
the volume equations of Section 2 and the differential equations of Section 3. The built in
integral function is used to integrate the differential equations. EES
32
uses an automatic step-
size adjustment algorithm to minimize error. The user specifies the step-size in the paramet-
ric table. A parametric table for the Chrysler engine is shown in Table 4. The integration
proceeds from 180 to 180 with 0 denoting top dead centre. The initial values are dis-
played in the first row of the parametric table, ie. P = 1, Q
1
= 0, M= 1 and W = 0 at
= 180. The integration begins with the second table row. EES
32
also provides a solution
window, Table 3, which includes all variables appearing or referenced in the main program.
Graphs can be generated from any combination of variables in the parametric table. Note
that units can be displayed for all variables.
Table 3. EES
32
Solution window
b = 0.0875 [m]
b
= 40 [Degrees]
dPdTheta = -0.2446
dVdThetat = 0.6841
Engine$ = Chrysler
2.2Liter 14
ISC$ = Sl
M = 0.975
M
i
= 0.976
P = 1.393
Pwr = 4
QL = 12.900
R = 0.287b [kJ/kg-Deg K]
s = 0.0920 [m]
= 180 [Degrees]
ThetaRad
i
= 2.9671
[Radians]
V = 1.000
Vb = 7.9
w = 96.6 [hp]
= 2.369
id
= -1.00 [Degrees]
dQLdTheta = 0.7058
dWdTheta = 0.0000
= 0.3159
k = 1.336
m1 = 6.610E-04 [kg]
N = 5200 [rev/min]
p1 = 101.4 [kPa]
P
i
= 1.448
QL
i
= 12.764
Row = 47
T = 1.428
ThetaRad = 3.1416
[Radians]
s
= -30 [Degrees]
V1 = 6.233E-04 [m
3
]
v
d
= 2.213E-03 [m
3
]
W
i
= 6.575
C = 0.004
dMdTheta = -0.0039
dVdTheta = 0.0000
dxdTheta = 0.000E+00
H = 0.919
I = 0.1456 [m]
m
1
= 0.1146 [kg/sec]
N
c
= 4
= 1.00
Q = 28.647
q
in
= 2737.8 [kJ/kg]
r
c
= 8.9
t1 = 333 [Deg K]
ThetaRadTmp = 3.1416
[Radians]
T
w
= 1.2
Va = 2
W = 6.582
x = 0.000
T
a
b
l
e

4
.

E
E
S
3
2

p
a
r
a
m
e
t
r
i
c

t
a
b
l
e
R
o
w
T
h
e
t
a
R
a
d
[
r
a
d
i
a
n
s
]
[
d
e
g
r
e
e
s
]
P
Q
L
M
W
V
T
w
[
h
p
]

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
3
.
1
4
1
6
2
.
9
6
7
1
2
.
7
9
2
5
2
.
6
1
8
0
2
.
4
4
3
5
2
.
2
6
8
9
2
.
0
9
4
4
1
.
9
1
9
9
1
.
7
4
5
3
1
.
5
7
0
8
1
.
3
9
6
3
1
.
2
2
1
7
1
.
0
4
7
2
0
.
8
7
2
7
0
.
7
8
5
4
0
.
6
9
8
1
0
.
6
1
0
9
0
.
5
2
3
6
0
.
4
3
6
3
0
.
3
4
9
1
0
.
2
6
1
8
0
.
1
7
4
5
0
.
0
8
7
3

0
.
0
0
0
0

0
.
0
8
7
3

0
.
1
7
4
5
1
8
0
1
7
0
1
6
0
1
5
0
1
4
0
1
3
0
1
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0

9
0

8
0

7
0

6
0

5
0

4
5

4
0

3
5

3
0

2
5

2
0

1
4

1
0

5

0

5

1
0

1
.
0
0
0

1
.
0
3
9

1
.
0
8
5

1
.
1
4
1

1
.
2
1
1

1
.
3
0
0

1
.
4
1
4

1
.
5
6
3

1
.
7
6
2

2
.
0
3
2

2
.
4
0
5

2
.
9
3
5

3
.
7
0
4

4
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8. SPARK AND COMPRESSION ENGINE TIMING EXAMPLES
The impact of engine timing, i.e., the start of the release process, can be demonstrated by
varying
s
for fixed values of all other parameters. All parameters used in these examples are
give in Table 1. An Oldsmobile 3.1 litre V6 spark ignition engine and a Ford 2.5 litre direct
injection naturally aspirated compression ignition engine are used in the examples. The
performance of both engines was calculated for a series of
s
values and the engine power at
180 determined. The power was then plotted against
s
and an optimum value determined,
i.e., the value of
s
for which the maximum power is produced. The results for the spark
ignition engine are shown in Fig. 2. The optimum value in this case is approximately 30 or
30 before top dead centre. Figs 3, 4 and 5 show pressure distributions for
s
values of 50,
30 and 10. The compression ignition engine results are shown in Figs 6, 7, 8 and 9. In
this case, the optimum
s
value is approximately 0 and pressure plots for
s
values of 0,
10 and 20 are included. Note that the 10 case is used for optimization purposes only.
An engine would never operate with heat release beginning after top dead centre.
Fig. 2. Power versus the start of heat release for an Oldsmobile 3.1 l V6.
9. CONCLUSIONS
The use of the ideal gas equations and a heat release model coupled with an engineering
equation solver provides a method of demonstrating engine timing effects to undergraduate
students in mechanical engineering technology.
Fig. 3. Pressure distribution for an Oldsmobile 3.1 l V6.
s
= 50.
s
= 30.
s
= 10.
Fig. 6. Power versus the start of heat release for a Ford 2.5 l DI Diesel.
Fig. 7. Pressure distribution for a Ford 2.5 l DI Diesel.
s
= 20.
s
= 10.
s
= 10.
REFERENCES
[1] EES
32
Engineering Equation Solver, F-Chart Software, Madison, WI, 1997.
[2] Heywood, John B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw Hill, Inc., New York,
1988.
[3] Ferguson, Colin R., Internal Combustion EnginesApplied Thermosciences, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1986.
[4] Pulkrabek, Willard, W., Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1997.
[5] Stone, Richard, Introduction to Internal Combustion EnginesSecond Edition, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Inc., Warrendale, PA, 1994.
[6] Ganesan, V., Internal Combustion Engines, McGraw Hill, New York, 1996.

Using The Ideal Gas Law and Heat Release Models To Demonstrate Timing in Spark and Compression Ignition Engines

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