MAJOR SANDSTONE RESERVOIR FACIES

The key parameters exhibited by important sandstone reservoir facies and some of the associated facies are listed in the following pages. Also, relevant diagnostic evidence in the form of cores, logs, and seismic is summarized for cases where it is deemed particularly relevant.

Alluvial Fans
Generally, the style of deposition on alluvial fans prevents them from acting as good reservoirs. To date, there are only a few, clear-cut examples of fields producing from terrestrial fan facies. They are often, however, extremely important to recognize and delineate in the subsurface because of their indication of both tectonic setting and source area composition. Given this, and the fact that fans commonly grade into fan delta and alluvial plain environments (whose sediments have far greater potential to be good reservoirs), alluvial fans can serve as associated facies of crucial significance.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

fanglomerate (some very large fragments) channel sand, conglomerate thin shale layers rapid vertical and lateral changes commonly red beds
Sedimentary Structures crude to unbedded (fanglomerate)

imbricated and oriented pebbles crossbedding in channels (various scales) crude horizontal stratification current lineations
Paleontology

rare vertebrate bones, plant debris more common spores, pollen, often oxidized
Geometry

fan-shaped in plan view wedge-shaped in radial profile convex-upward in transverse profile

Associated Facies fault-generated mountain fronts

mountain stream valley alluvial plains (braided river) playas and eolian facies Diagnostic Evidence
Cores The general coarseness, poor sorting, clast angularity, and immaturity of alluvial fan sediments are the conspicuous features that dominate most core samples of the upper fan. Finer-grained, cross-stratified or flat-bedded channel sandstones can also be prevalent, particularly from lower-fan sediments. Figure 1 (Devonian alluvial fan successions in the Hornelen Basin, Norway ) shows the internal details of three alluvial fan coarsening-upward sequences from the Devonian of Norway.

Figure 1

Logs Figure 2 (Idealized gamma ray and dipmeter logs for an alluvial fan sequence, showing both fanglomerate and channel development.

Figure 2

Note three major patterns: lowest green dips represent shale breaks and correspond to spikes on gamma ray curve; random "bag o' nails" dips in fanglomerate; and dip clusters that show an upward-increasing blue pattern in channel sands ) shows an idealized gamma-ray/dipmeter profile through a fan. The log is characterized by a monotonous gamma ray curve generated by fanglomerate and coarse braided channel sand. Several shale layers are indicated simultaneously by spikes of high radioactivity on the gamma ray log and low dips (green motif) on the dipmeter log. These shales separate three channels, whose tadpole patterns show a clustering of high-angle dips caused by crossbedding.

Seismic Vertical seismic sections through alluvial fan complexes typically show discontinuous internal reflectors. ( Figure 3 , Seismic section and interpretation through probable alluvial fan developed over structurally deformed basement.

Figure 3

Note relatively poor internal seismic character of the deposit.) This should be expected, given the great lateral and vertical variation in lithology.

Braided Streams
Many present-day alluvial fans pass laterally into the alluvial plain of a braided river, that is, one characterized by an interlacing veinlike network of low-sinuosity channels with constantly shifting midchannel bars ( Figure 1 , Block diagram model of a braided stream system in a semi-arid environment).

Figure 1

Streams and rivers tend to braid when three main factors conspire: (1) high (though possibly seasonal) discharge, (2) relatively steep slopes and (3) large amounts of coarse bedded sediment.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

highly variable

 up to 90% coarse, pebbly sandstone

Sedimentary Structures soft sediment deformation

ripples planar bedding tabular and trough crossbedding crude bedding, oriented pebbles
Paleontology

some plant and animal debris, highly oxidized rootlet horizons burrows
Geometry feet thick Associated Facies proximal: alluvial fan

sheetlike, may cover thousands of square miles and be hundreds of

distal: meandering stream alluvium, sabkha, eolian dunes, playa

(desert lake), possible transition to marine delta

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores Core samples taken from a braided alluvial section can reveal either a homogeneous section of coarse, crossbedded and gravelly sandstones or a diverse range of grain sizes and sedimentary structures. Again, well-preserved individual sequences begin with a sharp erosional base that marks the channel floor, possibly overlain by an upwardly fining progression of grain sizes and sedimentary structures. ( Figure 2 Idealized "outcrop" showing succession of grain sizes and sedimentary structures in a single channel sequence of braided alluvial system.)

Figure 2

Logs Figure 3 (Log of braided alluvial sequence showing characteristic monotonous log response.

Figure 3

Note that the gamma log is neither as clean as that for eolian deposits, not as shaly as meander channel flood plane alluvial sequences. Azimuth frequency plots reflect linear trend of this river type ) displays the idealized log response of a braided stream deposit. Some crude fining-upward portions of the curve can be discerned, but grainsize variation is most often too small to produce a convincing bell-shaped channel profile, and blocky profiles usually result. In terms of its dipmeter signature, this facies mainly shows the multiple stacking of channels. Within each channel, azimuths and dip amounts are clustered into separable groupings. Channel switching is characteristic but azimuth changes usually remain within a 90 arc. The probable long dimension of the sand body as a whole can often be found by bisecting the arc when it is plotted on an azimuth frequency diagram.

Seismic Due to relative lithologic homogeneity, braided stream deposits do not often show internal reflections. Shales are too thin and localized to generate any significant responses. Figure 4 (Possible braided stream/alluvial fan deposit in seismic designated by dashed line) is a probable example of the overall lenslike geometry and poor internal seismic character of such a deposit.

Figure 4

Meandering Stream Channels

With greater distance from the sediment source area, a meandering river becomes typical (Figure 1), idealized block diagram showing meandering river system over region of low slope and continual subsidence).

Figure 1

Alluvial flood plains cut by a single meander channel occur in regions characterized by relatively low gradients, higher suspended load component, fine- to medium-grained sediment, and more continuous (nonseasonal) discharge. Sand bodies are created as point bar sands resulting from channel migration.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

 overall, approximately 1:1 sand/shale ratio point bar: flood-plain siltstone/shale, medium to fine sand, well-sorted
and channel pebble lag

abandoned channel: oxbow lake siltstone/shale channel lag flood-plain shale, coal
Sedimentary Structures scour and fill

surface exposure features; mud cracks, raindrop impressions ripples planar bedding trough, tabular crossbedding oriented pebbles, current lineations
Paleontology

potentially diverse: vertebrates, plant remains, nonmarine mollusks,

Geometry gastropod shells, spores, pollen, burrows, footprints

point bars: stacked to relatively isolated lenticular sand bodies channels: continuous and discontinuous "shoestrings," sometimes
encased in less permeable sands/silts or flood-plain shales Associated Facies most common: deltaic, shoreline/marine shelf, lakes, braided streams

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores Core sampling of point bar sands should show the overall fining-upward sequence of sedimentary types and structures illustrated in Figure 2 (Idealized "outcrop" showing upward succession of grain size and sedimentary structures in preserved point bar).

Figure 2

Such sequences are often truncated by overlying channels and the entire suite may not be seen.

Logs Figure 3 (Well log showing two upward-fining point-bar sand bodies).

Figure 3

Note the characteristic bell-shaped curve for channels. There is little, however, to distinguish these filled channels as alluvial.) presents several logs that show the variations and relationships in meandering stream, alluvial floodplain sediments. Two point-bar sequences are in evidence. Both are surrounded by overbank flood-plain shales. Note how the gamma ray curve shows the abrupt change from shale to sand at the base of each channel, as well as the fining-upward, bell-shaped curve as point-bar sand grades into flood-plain shale at the top of each channel sequence.

The dipmeter log for such a section will be a bit complex, but will show three main depositional surfaces ( Figure 4 , Idealized dip log showing both the filled-in red motif (left) and the upward-increasing blue motif, which indicates individual crossbed sets.

Figure 4

Note that the blue pattern (right) depends upon a narrow dip correlation interval (usually less than 10 ft.), so that both toeset and foreset dips can be recorded by the logging tool): structural dip (green motif), major accretion slopes (red motif), and crossbedding (blue motif).

Seismic In the subsurface, channels generally create abrupt changes in lithology. Their seismic "visibility" should, therefore, be pronounced. At the same time, where the sharp erosional base and sides of the average channel make for good velocity contrast, the upper part of the average channel grades into flood-plain deposits, and thus will not generate high-quality reflections. As a result, the typical lens shape of most channels should be only relatively clear on high resolution seismic lines, as shown in Figure 5 .

Figure 5

(Seismic expression of a river-cut channel. Note the abrupt termination of flat-lying reflections against the channel flanks and the change in seismic character between

these reflections and those within the channel. Note also the steeper slope of the right flank of the channel, possibly indicating that this was the cut bank.)

Eolian Dunes
The bed forms into which sand settles when transported by wind are mainly asymmetric ripples and dunes whose overall geometry is much like that of their subaqueous counterparts. Most dunes preserved in the sedimentary record appear to be the transverse type ( Figure 1 , Cross section of barchan or transverse dune showing the various bedforms and slipface surface).

Figure 1

The dynamics of eolian and aqueous movement are basically similar: they both involve granular solids being moved by and within "fluids." This is probably the main reason why the eolian environment is particularly difficult to distinguish in the subsurface.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

clean, well-sorted quartz sandstones (orthoquartzite) scattered, local interdune shale, evaporite, or lag lenses layers of heavy mineral concentrations

 pure carbonate sand, much more rare

Sedimentary Structures primarily large- to giant-scale crossbedding with high angle foresets (20-35)

surface exposure features (rain drops, rootlets, tracks and trails, etc.)
in interdune lithologies

Paleontology

rare vertebrate remains oxidized spores, pollen

Geometry

usually sheetlike, upper surface often planed by transgressive seas Associated Facies potentially variable: alluvial fans, braided streams, sabkha, playa in interior arid basins; barrier island, lagoonal and shallow shelf facies in coastal settings, often complexly interbedded with water-laid deposits

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores Samples of eolianite sections are commonly composed almost entirely of clean, wellsorted quartz sandstone (often called orthoquartzite or quartzarenite) ( Figure 2 , Idealized vertical sequence of eolian dune and interdune sediments).

Figure 2

Detailed sedimentological analysis has not proven its unqualified worth in strictly distinguishing dunes from some transitional marine facies. Since eolian sand is often

reworked from older deposits, such study may reveal mostly "inherited" features. Thick sets of monotonously consistent crossbedding are the prominent sedimentary structures found in most cores. Traces of oxidized "impurities" between sand grains whether ferric iron, spores, or heavy minerals can be significantly diagnostic.

Logs Figure 3 (Log motifs for eolian sands.

Figure 3

Note well-developed blue pattern of upward-increasing dips along the toeset-foreset transition in individual dune units ) shows a suite of logs typical of the eolian Rotliegendes (Permian) group, a productive reservoir in the North Sea. Despite an overall blocky appearance, the gamma ray curve can be divided into approximately

50-ft increments, all bordered by narrow spikes of higher radioactivity. Thus, the general profile can be more accurately described as "saw-toothed." Each of the small kicks (which are more obvious on the density log curve) is asymmetric, with a gentle upward decrease in gamma ray API units. They are caused by the finergrained, micacontaining layers of each new dune that abruptly truncate the foresets of the underlying dune unit. The 50-ft interval is also strongly evident on the dipmeter. Each increment begins at the base with low-angle dips (toeset beds), which then increase upward until reaching a maximum of about 25 to 35 (foreset beds). This maximum is the most conspicuous part of the dipmeter log and indicates both the large size and consistent orientation of the crossbedding. Dip azimuths are very constant, directly indicating the downwind direction. This, in turn, reveals the local elongation of the sand body transverse (perpendicular) to wind direction.

Seismic In general, subsurface dune deposits are not detectable as such by existing seismic methods. Sheetlike geometry, association with unconformities, and absence of good internal reflectors are, as mentioned, also typical of the overall response generated by braided stream sediments which may over- or underlie eolianites and thus further mask them. Seismic data, therefore, are perhaps most useful in delineating the depositional limits, rather than the actual lithology, of a potential dune reservoir.

Lacustrine Deposits
Unlike the previous environments we have looked at, lakes usually do not define a single facies, but a collection, and might better be considered to represent a facies group ( Figure 1 , Block diagram illustrating the major facies and subfacies of Lake Unita, northeastern Utah, as it is interpreted to have looked in the Eocene.

Figure 1

Alluvial, marginal-lacustrine, and open-lacustrine depositional environments existed simultaneously). Lakes that have occupied intracratonic basins can, to some extent, be considered as small inland seas in terms of their major facies. They may be bordered by coastal alluvial plains with swamps, lagoons, and barrier islands (tidal flats are notably absent). They may also be the site for deltas, which form at major river mouths, and from which turbidity (subaqueous gravity slide) currents transport sediment into the basin center, creating subaqueous fan deposits. This means that lithology is often completely undiagnostic for this environment. The far more subdued water turbulence of the lacustrine environment waves, longshore and subsurface currents as well as its different geochemistry, sometimes effects significant, partially diagnostic differences from marine counterparts. Lacustrine sediments, for example, are often much more finely bedded (laminated) and contain better preserved plant debris than those in most marine settings (lagoons being a major exception). Certainly, paleontology is the most prognostic indicator, but experience dictates that reworking and redeposition of nonmarine fossils in marine facies is common. In general, the consistent indication of aqueous deposition and nonmarine fossils, as well as the "negative evidence" offered by the lack of marine biota, together indicate the probability that the facies under consideration is lacustrine. More broadly, tectonic settings can also afford a strong clue. Small continental basins, as well as rift grabentype basins associated with continental breakup, are strong candidates for having at one time or another played host to large lakes.

Deltas
The delta environment contains diverse settings for sandstone deposition ( Figure 1 , Sand deposits of a delta system).

Figure 1

In the upper delta plain, point-bar or braided-stream channel sands may be deposited. When streams contain high sediment bedload or when marine processes dominate (high-energy deltas), these alluvial channel sand deposits may extend over the entire delta plain to the shoreline. In river-dominated deltas of low marine energy, alluvial channel deposits of the upper delta plain give way, through stream bifurcation, to a network of essentially straight distributary channel deposits on the lower delta plain. Surrounding these channels are fine-grained bay-fill sediments, often containing coarsening-upward sandy sequences deposited by crevasse subdeltas. The subaqueous delta contains distributary front bar sands that may be reworked into barrier islands by marine processes in abandoned portions of low-energy, riverdominated deltas. In high-energy deltas, winnowing of fine-grained material by waves, currents, and tides creates a variety of sand deposits along the shoreline, in the form of barrier islands, tidal channels, and tidal sand sheets. The characteristics and diagnostic evidence of braided stream and point bar sands deposited in the delta environment are essentially the same. Crevasse subdelta sands generally form minor petroleum reservoirs. We shall touch on the two major deltaic sandstone facies: distributary channel sands and distributary mouth bar sands.

Facies Characteristics of Distributary Channel Sands

Lithology

fine- to medium-grained sandstone, moderate- to well-sorted fining-upward grain-size profiles

Sedimentary Structures contorted bedding

ripple formations planar bedding trough, tabular crossbedding scour base

Paleontology

burrows organic plant debris faunal remains usually absent

Geometry

 linear, straight to sinuous 10 in to 30 in thick 1 km to 5 km wide

Associated Facies fluvial meander point bar or braided stream

interdistributary bay, crevasse subdelta distributary mouth bar

Diagnostic Evidence for Distributary Channel Sands

Cores and cutting samples should show a suite of lithologies and structures similar to that shown in Figure 2 (Idealized lithogenetic sequence of vertically stacked point bars from upper delta plain area).

Figure 2

An upward-fining sequence of medium- to fine-grained, moderately to well-sorted sandstone is typical. Sedimentary structures vary from large-scale cross strata in lower portions of units to interbedded ripple cross laminations and planar lamination in upper parts. Fragments of plant and coaly material are common. Logs SP/gamma ray curves typically display blocky to upward-fining "bell" shapes with abrupt bases. Curves are often jagged, reflecting shale laminations within the sand, and dip-meters in distributary channel sands tend to display red "slope" patterns of increasing dip with depth ( Figure 3 , Sp and dipmeter logs of a distributary channel sand reservoir, offshore Louisiana, with a schematic cross section showing location of logs within the channel.

Figure 3

Note red pattern dip azimuths point toward channel axis). These shapes reflect

deposition on lateral accretion surfaces and dip azimuths usually point toward the channel axis and, thus, are normal to channel strike.

Facies Characteristics of Distributary Mouth Bar Sands

Lithology

in proximal bar: clean, well-sorted coarse- to medium-grained

sandstone

in distal bar: coarsening-upward sequence of fine sand, silt, and clay

Sedimentary Structures in proximal bar: small-scale cross laminae and current ripples

in distal bar: small-scale cross laminae, small scour and fill, and
graded sand units Paleontology

abundant microfossils in prodelta clays at base of sequence with

minor bioturbation

microfossils and bioturbations decrease upward small burrows and shell remains in distal bar laminations of organic debris in upper sand body (proximal bar)
Geometry

elongate in seaward direction with high river influence; arcuate to

cuspate-shaped, with increased wave and marine current action

up to 130 in thick and 10 in wide

Associated Facies prodelta marine shale

delta plain and interdistributary bay silts and clays distributary channel sands crevasse subdelta silts

Diagnostic Evidence for Distributary Mouth Bar Sands

Cores should typically show lithologies and sedimentary structures illustrated in Figure 4 (Lithologic column of distributary mouth bar deposit ) i.e., distal shales and silts coarsening upward to coarse-to-medium, well-sorted sand in upper bar.

Figure 4

Sedimentary structures are primarily ripple laminations in fine- to medium-grained sandstones.

Logs The electric log in Figure 5 (Gamma-ray/SP and dipmeter log of distributary mouth bar sequences, subsurface Gulf of Mexico.

Figure 5

Note blue current dip motifs pointing in direction of current flow ) shows the SP/gamma ray curve of distributary mouth bars displays an overall funnel-shaped, coarseningupward profile. An abrupt break is usually seen at the top of the curves, reflecting the sharp change from clean, well-sorted sand of the uppermost bar to a capping by finegrained sediments. On dipmeters, distributary mouth bars are often characterized by patterns of upwardincreasing dips (blue patterns) ( Figure 5 ). This pattern reflects deposition by progressively stronger currents as a bar is built up into shallower water. Dip azimuths generally point in the direction of current flow (seaward) , but variations may be considerable.

Seismic
Oblique progradation is the type of reflection configuration typically associated with fluvial delta systems. Sediment input in this environment is high compared to sea level

rise/basin subsidence, resulting in significantly more lateral progradation than vertical aggradation. The oblique configuration is distinguished by reflections that terminate by toplap at or near the upper surface, and by downlap at the base ( Figure 6 , Obliqueprogradational seismic reflection pattern typical of deltaic systems).

Figure 6

An actual map view of an ancient deltaic channel or bar sand may be revealed by a horizontal slice through a block of 3-D seismic data. Figure 7 (Horizontal slice through block of 3-d seismic data from Gulf of Mexico, showing lenticular-shaped distributary channel sand.

Figure 7

Superimposed structural contours show brightest (darkest) portion of channel, where gas is indicated, is structurally high) is such a horizontal section from the Gulf of Mexico displaying variations in reflection amplitude along a structurally interpreted horizon (Brown 1985). We can clearly see a bifurcating distributary channel delineated by a zone of high amplitudes (darkest tone) cutting from northeast to southwest across the section.

Fan Deltas
Fan deltas are alluvial fans that prograde out into a standing body of water from an adjacent highland (Holmes 1965). As such, they generally develop on the flanks of basins next to fault-bounded, elevated source areas (Figure 1 , Typical fan-delta tectonic setting on flank of rift valley).

Figure 1

When fan deltas form adjacent to contemporaneous faults, thick wedges of coarsegrained deposits accumulate. Fan deltas have only recently been recognized as important oil and gas reservoirs (Ethridge and Wescott 1984). Rapid facies changes and association with tectonically active basin margins create favorable stratigraphic and structural trapping conditions. Furthermore, potential reservoir beds are often in close juxtaposition with marine hydrocarbon source rocks.

The cross sections in Figure 2 (Idealized vertical sequence),

Figure 2

Figure 3 (paleogeographic reconstruction),

Figure 3

and Figure 4 (cross section of shelf-type fan deltas based on data from U.S.

Figure 4

midcontinent Pennsylvanian-Permian granite wash studies. Based on studies by McGowen, 1970) illustrate the distribution of facies within a shelf-type fan delta. This type of fan delta forms on the broad shelves that typically border intracratonic and plate-divergent basins and often develops extensive progradational sequences. We see that the proximal and medial parts of the fan, collectively called the fan plain, occupy the exposed portion of the fan-delta system. The distal fan and prodelta environments constitute the subaqueous portion of the fan system.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology fan plain: poorly sorted, coarse-grained, sands and gravels; often highly arkosic distal fan: well-sorted, coarsening-upward sequences of sand and gravel, grading offshore into prodelta shales and possible marine limestones Sedimentary Structures crude to unbedded (fanglomerate) in proximal fan large-scale, tabular, and trough crossbedding in braided channels in medial fan with occasional horizontal stratification parallel-laminated to massive delta-front sands Paleontology rare vertebrate bones, plant debris in fan plain

 shell fragments in delta-front sands microfossils (marine or fresh water) in prodelta shales Geometry overall fan-shaped in plan view wedge-shaped in radial profile convex-upward in transverse profile subaqueous distal facies elongate in seaward direction in fluvialdominated fans; arcuate to cuspate-shaped, with increased wave and marine current action

Associated Facies fault-generated mountain fronts, proximally marine or lacustrine shales and limestones, distally

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores and cuttings should show a high ratio of coarse- to fine-grained sediment, often highly arkosic, and an overall coarsening-upward succession in vertical sequence ( Figure 5 and Figure 6 ,

Figure 5

Hypothetical vertical sequence in shelf-type fan delta based on studies of fans and fan deltas along the southern Alaska coast).

Figure 6

Logs Figure 7 (SP and resistivity log of the fan-delta Ivishak formation,

Figure 7

main reservoir in the Prudhoe Bay field, Alaska ) a log of the reservoir Ivishak formation, Prudhoe Bay field, Alaska, illustrates the overall coarsening-upward Sp profile of a fan delta sequence. The base of the sequence consists of very fine-grained sandstones and mudstones of the offshore that coarsen upward into fine-grained, wellsorted sandstones deposited in a beach-bar shoreline complex. Overlying the shoreline sands are coarse-grained sandstones deposited in braided streams of the distal fan plain that are capped by conglomerates of the proximal alluvial fan. In this example, a sequence of braided stream channel sand ("upper sandstone sequence") from a following cycle overlies the proximal conglomerate facies.

Seismic In a study of seismic reflection patterns from offshore Brazilian basins, Brown and Fisher (1977) presented patterns characteristic of fan delta/shelf facies. They found the reflection patterns developed in response to proximal, medial fan facies to be poorly defined and parallel-layered to reflection free ( Figure 8 , Seismic facies patterns characteristic of fan delta/shelf reflections, generalized from offshore Brazil seismic section).

Figure 8

Reflection continuity is very poor to absent, and the external geometry of the reflection units is wedge-shaped, thickening toward the source area or toward bounding basement faults. The distal fan and prodelta facies contain some poorly defined, inclined to horizontal, slightly divergent, layered reflectors increasing in number basinward and grading into well-developed shelf reflections.

Coastal Barrier Islands

Coastal barrier sand bodies are generally narrow, wave-built, sandy islands or peninsulas that form parallel to shore ( Figure 1 ,

Figure 1

Figure 2 and Figure 3 ,

Figure 2

Idealized block diagram and cross sections showing principal environments and facies of a regressive barrier island system).

Figure 3

As topographic features, they can be perennially emergent or exposed only during periods of low tide. They most frequently occur as a linear trend of individual islands separated by tidal inlet channels. The main sand body of a barrier island is created almost entirely by relatively high-energy, shallow marine processes. In many instances, subaerial reworking by onshore winds leads to the formation of a capping dune field. The offshore-to-beach profile of Figure 4 (Typical fan-delta tectonic setting on flank of rift valley ) shows the progression of specific depositional zones.

Figure 4

The offshore or shelf zone grades landward into the lower and then upper shore face zones, which form the seaward portion of the barrier island. Above the mean low water level is the beach/ dune zone.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology lower shoreface: fine- to medium-grained sand upper shoreface: medium- to coarse-grained, well-sorted sand beach: medium- to coarse-grained, well-sorted sand, occasionally with conglomerate Sedimentary Structures lower shoreface: small-scale cross lamination stratification, often hummocky; abundant bioturbation

and

parallel

upper shoreface: high-angle trough cross stratification, planar tabular bedding beach: low-angle, planar stratification, dipping seaward; possible highangle cross stratification dipping landward

Paleontology macrofossils (bivalves and gastropods) and shell fragments trace fossils: straight burrows of low-level suspension feeders in subaqueous barrier rootlet horizons (uppermost beach) Geometry

thickness: 10 in (low-energy coasts) to 30 in (high-energy coasts) elongate: 20 kin to 100 km in length on microtidal (0-2 in) coasts stunted ("drumstick"-shaped) 3 km to 20 km in length on mesotidal (24 m) coasts) barriers generally absent on macrotidal (>4 in) coasts isolated, shoestring bodies when formed by rapid transgressing seas overlapping series of bars when formed by regressing seas

Associated Facies marine shelf shales lagoonal silts and shales tidal channel, tidal delta/inlet and washover fan sands Diagnostic Evidence Cores As illustrated by Figure 5 (Theoretical vertical sequence of a barrier island system based on studies of modern deposits on Oregon coast ),

Figure 5

cores and cuttings should reflect the following basic characteristics of a regressive barrier island sand sequence: a progressive and fairly regular upward increase in grain size from silt/clay to coarse sand and possibly conglomerate, with maximum grain size usually occurring in the upper shoreface. a simultaneous upward improvement in sorting, from fair to good in the lower shoreface, to excellent within the upper shore face and beach. a general upward increase in both the abundance and scale of cross stratification, indicative of higher energy levels. a general upward decrease in the disturbance of primary stratification due to bioturbation. Logs SP and gamma ray logs through barrier island sands commonly display the smooth funnel shape that reflects a regular upward increase in grain size, sorting, and permeability. Greater amounts of fine-grained material depress and round off this

curve, while barrier island sands that are almost entirely free of clay and silt generate a blockier profile. Figure 6 (Generalized electric log patterns across a barrier island system,

Figure 6

showing changes in log shape depending on location and relative richness of sand versus shale) shows how log curves ideally vary according to changes in the amount of fine and coarse material and to location within the barrier system. As shown in Figure 7 (Gamma ray log and dipmeter motifs for barrier island sand bodies), dipmeter patterns for barrier bar sands usually display an upward-increasing blue motif reflecting the concave profile of the seaward depositional slope.

Figure 7

Dips within the barrier sand body may, when plotted on a rose diagram, reveal a bimodal pattern. The lower angle dips, which define the main blue motif, represent seaward-inclined beds formed by wave swash, while higher dips with opposite azimuths reflect landward-dipping foresets, presumably from ridge and runnel deposition. Seismic A typically seismic response should generate a high amplitude reflection from the sharp upper contact between the coarser beach/dune or upper shore face sands and the overlying marine or lagoonal shales. A sharp but diminishing reflection is generated from the sides of the sand body, caused by the downward-fining in grain size and a weaker response marking the transition to the fine-grained base of the sand body. In a profile showing three pulses of barrier island regression (part a of Figure 8 , Seismic profile showing three pulses of barrier-bar regression), note the high amplitude reflection caused by the contrast between the upper barrier sands and overlying lagoon/marsh material.

Figure 8

The general depositional slope and the direction of progradation are to the right, as modeled in the accompanying cross section (part b of Figure 8 , Block diagram showing how transgressive-regressive sand bodies are composed of a stair-step multitude of individual bars).

Continental Shelf Sands

Shelf sands form as linear ridges usually oriented oblique to the shoreline, or as sheetlike deposits. They occur between the lower shoreface and shelf edge of continental shelves ( Figure 1 , Occurrence of sand deposits on the continental shelf) and in broad, relatively shallow epicontinental seas, such as the North Sea.

Figure 1

Tidal- and storm-generated currents have been shown to be the two most significant agents responsible for shelf sand deposition.

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

fine- to coarse-grained sand, moderately sorted, possible pebble

conglomerate at top of unit

generally coarsening-upward grain size profile minor to abundant glauconite occasional shale laminations and shale clasts
Sedimentary Structures predominately moderate angle trough and planar crossbedding

some planar laminated bedding ripple stratification in lower units, often hummocky bioturbated in lower units possible scour at base of some high-energy deposits
Paleontology

marine shelf foraminiferal assemblages in associated finegrained

rocks

macrofossil shell "hash" at scour base of some high-energy ridges Cruziana and Zoophycus ichnofacies
Geometry

commonly series of parallel ridges, asymmetrical in cross section, up

to 50 km long, 3 km wide, and 40 in thick

less commonly sheetlike, up to 20,000 sq kin in area and up to 12 in

thick Associated Facies surrounded by marine shelf shales

possible lower-shoreface fine sands and silts laterally shoreward of

some shelf ridges

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores

The upward-coarsening lithofacies sequence, illustrated in Figure 2 (Idealized lithologic sequence of the Viking formation, Joffre-Joarcam area, Canada ), from the productive Cretaceous Viking formation of Alberta, Canada, is characteristic of many shelf sand ridge deposits.

Figure 2

The basal facies consists of a burrowed, silty gray shale. This facies is overlain transitionally by ripple-bedded sandstone intercalated with silty shale and containing abundant burrowing. Interchangeable with this ripple-bedded sandstone facies is a bioturbated, shaly, fine-grained sandstone. Next in vertical sequence is a trough crossbedded, fine- to very coarse-grained, well- to moderately sorted sandstone. Shale clasts are common and the sandstone contains abundant glauconite. Generally this facies has a sharp lower contact and a gradational upper contact. A pebble conglomerate occasionally forms the top of the sequence. Overlying the sequence may be another interval of bioturbated or rippled sandstone and shale, which, in turn, is overlain by crossbedded sandstone. Logs

SP/gamma ray log profiles may show a variety of shapes: funnel (coarsening-upward), blocky, serrated, and more rarely, bell-shaped (fining-upward). The type of profile depends on the amount and occurrence of dispersed clay and clay intervals, which, in turn, are dependent on the nature of shelf near-bottom currents. Therefore, log shapes of shelf sands tend to reflect flow regimes. In general, a funnelshaped, coarsening-upward profile (the most common of shelf sand log profiles) suggests a storm/wave-dominated shelf. A blunt-base, blunt-top signature is more characteristic of tidal-current sand bodies (Selley 1976). Figure 3 (Gamma-ray neutron-density log of the Cretaceous Shannon formation, oil reservoir of Hartzog Draw field,

Figure 3

Wyoming, showing coarsening-upward grain-size profile and corresponding upward increase in porosity typical of a shelf sand ) from the Shannon sandstone of Wyoming illustrates the coarsening-upward, funnel-shaped profile common for storm-emplaced shelf sands. Figure 4 (Log of the Cretaceous sub-Clarksville.

Figure 4

a shelf sandstone in Iola field, Texas, with plots of texture and composition, showing a fining-upward sequence probably resulting from rapid deposition by waning storm currents) shows a log from the Cretaceous sub-Clarksville sandstone of Texas. Here however, the log and grain-size plot show a fining-upward sequence characteristic of rapid deposition by waning current flows, probably from geostrophic storm currents.

Figure 5 (Gamma-ray log of shelf tidal current sand body from the North Sea,

Figure 5

showing characteristic blocky shape with blunt base and top associated with many tidal sands ) is a gamma-ray log from an undisclosed North Sea location where the sand body was postulated to originate on a tide-dominated shelf. The log profile has the characteristic blocky shape with blunt base and top associated with many tidal sands.

Seismic Shelf sands usually coarsen upward from a shale base to a coarse sand or conglomeratic top that is abruptly overlain by marine shale. Laterally these bodies are fringed with tight silt that grades into marine shale. The seismic model in Figure 6 (Seismic model of a thin shelf sandstone, Cardium formation, Alberta, Canada ) reflects these overall lithologic changes by showing a strong event at the upper sharp contact and a lower-amplitude event at the gradational base.

Figure 6

As the reservoir becomes transitional into silt, updip to the right, there is a gradual decrease in amplitude and the exact boundary between porous reservoir rock and tight silt is difficult to determine seismically.

Deep Sea Sands

Deep sea research of present-day ocean bottoms, along with petroleum exploration in ancient basins, has shown that a particular type of deep water sedimentary facies is characterized by thick sequences of laterally extensive interbedded sands and shales. These deposits have been variously called deep sea sands, deep water fans, turbidites, submarine fans, and turbidite fans. Although fan-type deposits make up the bulk of the sediment, feeder channel sands and slump deposits can be important subfacies ( Figure 1 , Model of a submarine fan). And, though turbidite currents are believed to be the primary depositional process, processes like debris flow and grain flow can be significant in the proximal fan area.

Figure 1

Summary of Facies Characteristics

Lithology

pebbly conglomerate and massive sand in channels

 upward-fining, vertically graded turbidites that constitute overall

coarsening-upward sequences of sand, silt, and shale in mid- to lowerfan and inter-channel areas Sedimentary Structures scoured erosion surfaces

dish structures and pillars in channel sands laminated sands, cross-laminated sands, and laminated, often
convoluted, silts and fine sands in turbidites Paleontology

macrofossils (in situ) rare micro fossils common in finer-grained sediments

Geometry

fans are mound shaped, concave downward in strike profile fans are lenslike, concave upward in dip profile individual channels long and narrow or coalesced into sheets
Associated Facies marine pelagic shales

slope shales

Diagnostic Evidence
Cores A diverse range of sediment from boulder beds to fine silt and clay is characteristic of deep sea fans. Figure 2

Figure 2

and Figure 3 (Hypothetical stratigraphic sequence of a prograding submarine fan: C.T., classical turbidite; M.S., massive sandstone; P.S., pebbly sandstone; D.F., debris flow; S.L., slumps; C.G.L., conglomerate.

Figure 3

Arrows show thickening-upward and thinning-upward sequences) shows the overall stratigraphic sequence typically developed by a prograding fan. The lower portion of the sequence consists of often incomplete turbidite sequences (CT). The upper portion of the sequence is dominated by cut-and-fill channel sediments composed of massive sand (MS), pebbly sand (PS), and conglomerate (CGL). The main feeder channel in the upper fan may be filled with debris flow (DF) sediment characterized by massive, poorly sorted sand with clasts of coarse gravel.

Figure 4 (Idealized turbidite sequence showing Bouma subdivisions Ta throught Te with hemipelagic subdivisions for the Te unit) shows the ideal lithologies and sedimentary structures anticipated in cores of the turbidite units.

Figure 4

With increased distance away from the source the coarser, lower units of the sequence become missing from nondeposition. Thus, in the lower fan, only the upper, finegrained portions of the sequence are deposited. Glauconite and carbonaceous detritus are often found mixed together if sediment is derived from both marine and deltaic sources.

Logs Figure 5 (Blocky to fining-upward gamma-ray and dipmeter motif of submarine feeder channels) shows the typical blocky or fining-upward SP/gamma ray profiles of feeder channels of the upper fan with random, scattered dips displayed by the dipmeter.

Figure 5

Figure 6 (Gamma-ray profiles of proximal fan sands showing fining-upward channel sands,

Figure 6

and dipmeter showing red "slope" motifs dipping into the center of the channels) shows the thinner fining-upward SP/gamma ray profiles developed in channels of the proximal (mid) fan area. Dipmeters may display red "slope" motifs dipping into the center of the channels in a direction perpendicular to channel axes. Thin blue current patterns are often absent because crossbedding is usually not well developed in deep sea sands.

Figure 7 (Gamma log profiles of distal fan sands showing coarsening-upward progradational sequences,

Figure 7

and dipmeter showing blue dip patterns pointing in the direction of fan progradation) shows the upward-coarsening SP/gamma ray profiles of the distal (lower) fan progradational sequences. These larger sequences in turn are made up of individual upward-fining turbidite units. Combined with the presence of marine pelagic shale intervals, the resulting SP/gamma ray profile of a distal fan displays a "nervous" backand-forth character. Blue dip patterns that may be evident point in the direction of fan progradation. Seismic Perhaps the most direct seismic indicator of submarine fans is a mound-shaped seismic sequence with an internal hummocky or chaotic reflection pattern. Figure 8 (Seismic section across the Frigg field, a giant gas field in the North Sea.

Figure 8

The pronounced mound with hummocky reflections from 1.8 to 2.0 sec is a submarine fan, and the "flat spot" around 2.0 sec is a gas-liquid contact ) is a seismic section across the Frigg field, a giant gas accumulation in the North Sea, which produces from a submarine fan. Note the pronounced mound with hummocky reflections from 1.8 to 2.0 seconds, centered under shotpoint 150. The high amplitude reflection at 2.0 seconds is a "flat spot" representing a seismic reflection off the gas-liquid contact. The presence of canyons or troughs on a seismic section may indicate the presence of a submarine fan located basinward of these features. Submarine fans also may be present beneath or basinward of features displaying clinoform (sigmoid or oblique) patterns.

Case Study: Marchand "C" Sandstone, Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma

A typical environmental study of a productive sandstone was described by Baker (1979). The Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) Marchand "C" Sandstone of the Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma produces oil from over 90 wells in the East Binger field ( Figure 1 , Location map of East Binger field, Anadarko Basin, Caddo Co., Oklahoma).

Figure 1

Regional structure consists of a monoclinal surface with local structural noses and saddles; hydrocarbon entrapment is purely stratigraphic with porous, permeable sands grading laterally into siltstones and shales. The first step in the study was to determine the external geometry of the sand body by constructing an isopach map of the gross clean sandstone ( Figure 2 , Isopach of gross sand, Marchand "C").

Figure 2

The sand body was shown to be an elongate, northwest-southeast trending sand ribbon extending over 8 mi in length and 1 to 1.5 mi in width. Sand thickness ranged up to 80 ft, and the sand body was asymmetrical in shape with a steep southwest flank. A northeast-southwest stratigraphic cross section was then constructed in a direction normal to the long axis of the field. With streaks of "hot-shale" and local marker beds providing correlations, the section showed the sandstone to thicken at the expense of the underlying shale, a classic indication of a channel deposit ( Figure 3 , Stratigraphic cross section, C-C', across East Binger field, showing sandstone thickening at expense of underlying shale).

Figure 3

However, based on regional isopach mapping ( Figure 4 ) the long axis of the sand body apparently parallels depositional strike. Channel deposits usually extend approximately normal to depositional strike. Thus a channel interpretation seemed unlikely.

Figure 4

Thin sections and hand samples of the sand revealed no woody or carbonaceous detritus, thus indicating a turbulent environment (beach or shoal). In contrast, glauconite, fecal pellets, and crinoid fossils were present in the sand, indicating a marine origin. Combining this information with the blocky gamma ray profiles and applying it to Selley's model a sub-tidal sand ridge was suggested. ( Figure 5 , Four characteristic gamma log motifs.

Figure 5

From left to right: thinly interbedded sand and shale; an upward- coarsening profile with an abrupt upper sand-shale contact; a uniform sand with abrupt upper and lower contacts; and, furthest right, an upward-fining sand-shale sequence with an abrupt base. None of these motifs is environmentally diagnostic on its own. Coupled with data on their glauconite and carbonaceous detritus content, however, they define the origin of many sand bodies.) However, the stratigraphic cross section showed the sand body to be emplaced into the underlying shale; thus it was unlikely to have been formed as a "ridge." A core study revealed underlying burrowed, fossiliferous marine shale scoured into by a basal lag deposit, ripple and megaripple crossbeds, herringbone cross-stratification, shale lamina, and slumping of sediments - all very similar to sequences seen in present-day subtidal sand ribbons that are formed by tide-generated bottom currents in the North Sea. It was finally concluded that the Marchand "C" Sandstone was indeed probably formed as a subtidal sand ribbon but infilled a scoured depression similar to the depressions present on many modern tide-dominated shelves.