Nervous System

Homeostasis
Homeostasis = relatively stable internal environmental conditions Body must maintain certain conditions o Temperatures o Minerals o Sugar o Pressure

Homeostasis
Regulated by 2 systems o Endocrine System Hormones (slow) Released by Glands o Nervous System Electrical Impulses (fast) Nerve cells

Nervous System
Neurology = the study of the nervous system Nervous System o Only 3% of body weight o Includes neurons and neuroglia

Nervous System
Neurons = basic functional units of the nervous system that are specialized for intercellular communication Neuroglia = glial cells = cells that support and protect neurons

Nervous System
Nervous System o Brain o Spinal Cord o Receptors in sensory organs o Nerves

Nervous System Organization

Nervous System Organization

Two Divisions o Central Nervous System (CNS) Brain Spinal Cord o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) All other parts of the nervous system

Nervous System Organization

Central Nervous System o Integrates, processes, and coordinates sensory data and motor commands o Also regulates higher functions (intelligence, memory, learning, and emotion) o Brain and spinal cord

Nervous System Organization

Peripheral Nervous System o Delivers sensory data to CNS o Carries motor commands from CNS to tissues and systems o Made up of all neural tissue outside of brain and spinal cord

Nervous System Organization

Peripheral Nervous System o 2 divisions Afferent Division brings sensory information to CNS Efferent Division carries motor commands from CNS to muscles and glands

Nervous System Organization

Nervous System Organization

Somatic Nervous System (soma = body) Autonomic Nervous System

Nervous System Organization

Somatic Nervous System (SNS) o Controls skeletal muscle contraction o Under voluntary control o Conscious control

Nervous System Organization

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) o Regulates smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and glandular secretions o Subconscious level o 2 divisions

Nervous System Organization

Nervous System Organization

Branches of the ANS o Sympathetic Nervous System o Parasympathetic Nervous System

Nervous System Organization

Sympathetic Nervous System o Fight or Flight response o Speeds up your body blood pressure and heart rate Slows digestion

Nervous System Organization

Parasympathetic Nervous System o Rest & Digest response o Slows the body down BP & HR Speeds digestion

The Autonomic Nervous System

Structure

Sympathetic Stimulation Iris (eye muscle) Pupil dilation Saliva production Salivary Glands reduced Oral/Nasal Mucosa Heart Lung Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Liver Kidney Bladder Mucus production reduced Heart rate and force increased

Parasympathetic Stimulation Pupil constriction Saliva production increased Mucus production increased Heart rate and force decreased

Bronchial muscle relaxed Bronchial muscle contracted Peristalsis reduced Motility reduced Motility reduced Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose Decreased urine secretion Wall relaxed Sphincter closed Gastric juice secreted; motility increased Digestion increased Secretions and motility increased

Increased urine secretion Wall contracted Sphincter relaxed

Nervous System Organization

Nervous System
Nervous Tissue o 2 kinds of cells Neurons send the signals Neuroglia support, nourish, and protect neurons

Nervous System
Neurons o Electrically excitable cells o Can produce an action potential or impulses in response to stimuli

Nervous System
Neuron Structure o 3 parts Cell Body Dendrites Axon

Nervous System
Neuron Structure: Cell Body o Contains nucleus o Contains other normal organelles o Where most cell products are made and recycled o Must transport to other parts of cells (axoplasmic transport)

Nervous System
Neuron Structure: Dendrites (little trees) o Extension emerging from the cell body o Generic name is a nerve fiber (same name for axon) o Receiving end (input) of neuron

Nervous System
Neuron Structure: Axon o Carries impulse toward another neuron, muscle fiber, or gland o Joins cell body at axon hillock (small hill) o End of axon is called axon terminals

Nervous System
The space between an axon (end of neuron) and the next neuron or the effector cell (target cell) is called the synapse Tips of axons swell into bulbs called synaptic end bulbs

Nervous System
Synaptic End Bulb o Contains membrane sacs called synaptic vesicles o Synaptic vesicles store chemicals called neurotransmitters o Can contain 2-3 different neurotransmitters

Nervous System
Neuron Diversity o Great amount of variation Cell body can be 5 m (RBC size) to 135 m (visible) Axon can be very short but as long as 3.2ft +

Nervous System
Neuroglia o Half the volume of the CNS o Smaller than neurons o 5-50 x more numerous o Dont generate impulses o Can multiply and divide o 6 kinds

Nervous System
6 types of neuroglia o Astrocytes maintain chemical environment & provide nutrients to neurons; maintain bloodbrain barrier (CNS) o Oligodendrocytes form supporting network; produce myelin sheath (CNS) o Microglia protect CNS from disease by engulfing microbes; clear dead cells and debris (CNS)

Nervous System
Ependymal Cells line brain and inner spinal cord; produce cerbrospinal fluid (CNS) Schwann Cells produce myelin sheath (PNS) Satellite Cells support neurons and regulate environment (PNS)

Nervous System
White Matter o part of brain that looks white o Contains many myelinated neuron sections Gray Matter o Contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, neuroglia, and unmyelinated axons

Nervous System: Part Three

Electrical Signals

Nerves
Neurons are electrically excitable Communicate with 2 types of electrical signals
o o

Action Potentials Graded Potentials

Nerves
There is an electric voltage difference across the membrane of most cells Called a membrane potential Flow of charged particles is called current In cells, the flow of ions (not electrons) makes up the current

Nerves
Electric signals occur when different ion channels in cells open and close in response to stimuli Ion channels
Allow specific ions to move across plasma membrane o Ions tend to flow from high concentration (or charge) to low concentration (or charge)
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Ion Channels
2 kinds of ion channels
Leakage channel always open o Gated channel open and close in response to stimulus of some sort
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Ion Channels
Leakage channels
More potassium channels (K+) o Less sodium channels (Na+) o Cells tend to be more permeable to potassium as a result
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Ion Channels
3 kinds of gated channels
Voltage-gated: opens in response to a change in the membrane potential o Ligand-gated: open in response to chemical stimulus (neurotransmitters, hormones, ions, etc.) o Mechanically gated: opens in response to vibration, sound waves, pressure, or tissue stretching
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Resting Membrane Potential

Exist due to build-up of negative ions in the cytosol and positive ions in the extracellular fluid Occurs next to membrane Creates potential energy Measured in volts or millivolts Neurons have resting potential between -40 and -90 mV (-70 is

Resting Membrane Potential

Cells are said to be polarized when a membrane potential exists Most body cells are polarized More K+ leaves than Na+ enters Na-K pump regulates this, but there is still a gradient

Graded Potential
Graded potential occurs when a stimulus opens an ion channel causing a small change in the membrane potential
If charge is made more negative = hyperpolarized graded potential o If charge is made less negative = depolarized graded potential
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Graded Potentials
Graded potentials vary in size (amplitude) depending on the strength of the stimulus
Depends on how many channels are open and for how long o Very localized flow o Used only for shortdistance communication o Usually occur in dendrites
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Action Potential
Action Potential (AP) = Impulse = sequence of rapid events that decrease, reverse, and then restore resting potential
2 channels open Na+ opens, letting a rush of sodium in (depolarization) o K+ channel opens, letting potassium out (repolarization) o Happens in about 0.001 seconds
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Action Potential
Occur based on an all-or-none principle:
If depolarization reaches a certain point (usually -55mV) the gates open o AP is always the same size (amplitude)
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Action Potential
Stages
o o o o

Resting State Depolarizing Phase Repolarizing Phase Refractory Period

Action Potential
Depolarizing Phase
Stimulus causes membrane to depolarize to threshold (-55mV) o Channels open and Na rushes in o Charge increases to +30 mV
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Action Potential
Repolarizing phase
Threshold depolarizing opens both Na+ and K+ gates o K+ is just slower o K+ opens around the same time that Na+ closes o Results in the resting membrane potential being restored
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Action Potential
Refractory Period = time where excitable cell cannot generate another AP Usually lasts 0.4-4 msec 250-1000 impulses per second possible

Action Potential
Impulse travels from one part of the body to another (usually axon hillock to axon terminals) Propagation = mode of impulse travel

Anesthetics
Local Anesthetics block pain by blocking sodium channels Pain impulse cannot reach CNS

Action Potential
Continuous Conduction Ion flow spreads continuously from one part of the membrane to the next part Animation

Action Potential
Saltatory Conduction = leaping impulses
o o o

o o

Occurs in myelinated axons There arent any channels in myelinated sections Channels are in Nodes of Ranvier (space between myelinated sections) Impulse jumps from one gap to the next Animation

Action Potential
Things affecting speed
Myelated nerves are faster (jumping is faster) o Bigger diameter in axon makes propagation faster o Warmer conditions make propagation faster o Fastest impulses travel at 27-280 miles/hour
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Action Potential
Muscle Cells
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Threshold = -90 mV Refractory Period = 1.0-5.0 msec Threshold = -70 mV Refractory Period = 0.5-2 msec

Neurons
o o

At the Synapse
Presynaptic Neuron = neuron sending signal Postsynaptic neuron = neuron receiving message Can be:

Axodendritic: axon to dentrite o Axosomatic: axon to somatic cell o Axoaxonic: axon

o

At the Synapse
Electrical Synapse

Occurs when ionic current spreads directly between 2 adjacent cells through a gap junction o Gap junction = space between two cells connected by proteins called connexons
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Electrical Synapses
3 advantages o Faster communication o Synchronization of neurons or muscle fibers o Two-way transmission

Chemical Synapses
Chemical Synapse

No contact with presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes o Synaptic cleft separates

o

20-50 nm space filled with interstitial fluid Impulse cannot propagate across

Chemical Synapses
Presynaptic signal (nerve impulse) is converted to a chemical signal (neurotransmitter) Postsynaptic neuron receives chemical signal and converts it back to an electrical signal

Chemical Synapses
Takes about 0.5 to go through these steps Called the synaptic delay

Chemical Synapses
1. Action Potential arrives at presynaptic axon 2. Depolarization of AP opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels 3. Calcium flows into cell 4. Increased Calcium levels trigger the release of vesicles containing neurotransmitters

Chemical Synapses
5. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to ligandgated ion channel receptors on the postsynaptic neurons membrane 6. Causes depolarization or hyperpolarization at postsynaptic cell Na+ channels cause depolarization Cl- channels cause hyperpolarization 7. If depolarization reaches threshold, then an AP in generated Animation

Chemical Synapses
One-way information transfer Slower

Chemical Synapses
Can cause two types of potentials o Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) o Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

Chemical Synapses
EPSP

Open cation (positive ion) channel o Na+, K+ or Ca2+

o

IPSP
o o o

Open Cl- channel Hyperpolarize Further inhibit a nerve impulse

Chemical Synapses
Neurotransmitters need to be removed from postsynaptic receptors

Diffusion Enzymatic Degradation o Uptake by cells

o o

Some drugs block reuptake of NT

Chemical Synapses
A single postsynaptic neuron can receive input from many presynaptic neuron The integration of the net input is called summation

Neurotransmitters
100 substances are known or suspected to be NT

Neurotransmitters
Effects of NT can be modified by:

Stimulating or inhibiting NT synthesis o Blocking or enhancing NT release o Stimulating or blocking NT removal o Blocking or activating NT receptor site
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Neurotransmitters
Agonist enhances or mimics the action of a NT Antagonist blocks the action of a NT

Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine (ACh) is the best-studied neurotransmitter Amino Acids Norepinephrine Epinephrine Dopamine Serotonin Gases such as nitric oxide and many others

Nervous System

Part 5

Regeneration & Repair

Nervous system exhibits plasticity Plasticity = ability to change based on experience
o o

Sprout new dendrites Make new synaptic contacts with other neurons

Regeneration & Repair

Mammals neurons have limited ability for regeneration Regeneration = capability of cells to replicate or repair themselves

Regeneration & Repair

CNS
o

Little or no repair (even if cell body is OK) Dendrites and axons can be repaired if cell body intact and Schwann cell is active

PNS
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Regeneration & Repair

Neurogenesis = birth of new neuron form undifferentiated stem cells
Only happens in limited areas o No growth stimulating cues in brain o Neuroglia inhibit new cells from being formed
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Regeneration & Repair

Damage to the brain or spinal cord is usually permanent

Sensory Nervous System

Sensation = conscious or subconscious awareness of external or internal stimuli Perception = conscious awareness and interpretation of sensations

Sensory Nervous System

Sensory Modality = type of sensation
o o o o

Touch Pain Vision Hearing

Sensory Nervous System

Each sensory nerves only carry information for one modality
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Touch and pain are carried on different neurons

Sensory Nervous System

Stimulus = change in the environment that can activate sensory receptors

Receptor Location
Exteroceptors located near body surface; detect stimuli from outside of the body Interoceptors located in vessels, organs, and nervous system; detect internal changes Proprioceptors located in muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear; provide information about body position

Types of Receptors
Photoreceptors respond to visible wavelengths of light Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical energy (stretch, pressure, etc.) Thermoreceptors respond to heat and cold

Types of Receptors
Osmoreceptors detect solute concentration changes in body fluids Chemoreceptors sensitive to specific chemicals Nociceptors = pain receptors detect tissue damage

Adaptation
Adaptation generator potential decreases in amplitude during maintained stimulus

Adaptation
Tonic Receptors adapt slowly or not at all
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Postural Muscles Internal Controls

Phasic receptors rapidly adapt

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Respond to changes in stimulus, not maintained stimulus

Thermoreceptors
Located in skin Perceive cold and warm Cold receptors respond from 10-40 C (50105F) Warm receptors respond from 32-48C (90-118F) Temperature outside of this range (50-118F) elicit pain receptors

Pain
Tissue damage or irritation releases chemicals that signal nociceptors
o o o

Prostaglandins Kinins Potassium Ions

Types of Pain
Fast Pain
Occurs quickly (less than 0.1 seconds) o Acute or sharp pain o Not felt in deep tissue
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Slow Pain
Begins a second or more after stimulus o Occurs in skin and deeper tissue o Burning, aching, or throbbing
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Nervous System

Spinal Cord
Lots of protection
o o o

Tough meninges Bony vertebrae Cerbrospinal Fluid

Meninges
Meninges = connective tissue that surrounds the spinal cord and brain 3 layers
o o o

Dura mater (outer) Meninx or Arachnoid Pia Mater (inner)

Spinal Cord
Roughly 16-18 inches long 0.75 inches in diameter Stops growing at 4-5 years of age (not as long as the vertebral column in adults)

Bone Review
Cervical Vertebrae
o o o o o o o o

C1-C7 8 Cervical Nerves T1-T12 12 Thoracic Nerves L1-L4 5 Lumbar Nerves 5 Sacral Nerves 1 coccygeal nerve

Thoracic Vertebrae Lumbar Vertebrae Sacrum Coccyx

31 Spinal Nerves

Spinal Cord
1 Spinal Nerve 2 Dorsal Root Ganglion 3 Dorsal Root (Sensory) 4 Ventral Root (Motor) 5 Central Canal 6 Grey Matter 7 White Matter Anterior median fissure

Spinal Cord
2 functions
Nerve Impulse Propagation (white matter) o Information integration (gray matter)
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Reflexes
Reflexes = fast, predictable, automatic responses to changes in the environment

Reflex
Reflex Arc = path of nerve impulse in a reflex
o o o o o

Sensory receptor Sensory neuron Integrating Center Motor Neuron Effector

Reflexes
Stretch Reflex
Stimulates the contraction of a muscle when it is stretched o Muscle Spindle is sensory receptor that sends signal o Helps prevent injury by not allowing too much stretch
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Reflexes
Tendon Reflex
Relaxes muscle before the tendon is at risk for tearing o Wont allow muscle to contract with too much force (golgi tendon organ) o Sends inhibitory signal that hyperpolarizes the motor neuron
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Reflexes
Flexor or withdrawal reflex reflex to withdrawal limb with painful stimulus