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Magnetic properties of Materials

Each electron in an atom has both a spin and an orbital magnetic moment These combine vectorially to produce a total magnetic moment for each electron The magnetic moments of the electrons within an atom combine vectorially to produce a total magnetic moment of the atom And finally, the magnetic moments of the atoms within a substance combine vectorially to produce an overall magnetic moment for the substance Substances react to magnetic fields in three general ways: Diamagnetism Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism Diamagnetism is similar to electrostatic polarization of a dielectric in that the induced magnetic moment tends to oppose the field that creates it. Paramagnetism is created when atoms with permanent dipole moments tend to align with an external magnetic field; the resulting field is greater that of the external magnetic field Ferromagnetism is similar to paramagnetism except much stronger and occurs primarily in iron, nickel, cobalt.

Diamagnetism:
Diamagnetic materials do not have permanent dipole moments Diamagnetism is the weakest of the three types of magnetism in materials

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Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

All materials exhibit diamagnetism but it is overwhelmed in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials Diamagnetism arises because the dipole moments induced in atoms tend to line up opposite of the direction of the external magnetic field that created them Diamagnetic materials thus weaken the external field Magnetization Vector and Magnetic Field Strength To describe the magnet field of materials a new symbol, M, is used M is the magnetization vector of a material (dia-, para-, or ferro-magnetic) To describe the external magnetic in the presence of materials a new symbol, H, is used H is the magnetic field strength due to some source of external magnetic field B remains the overall total magnetic field and is often called the magnetic induction or magnetic flux density to avoid confusion with H H and M have different units than B to account for the magnetic properties of materials; both have units of Amps/meter

B = o(H + M)
Because materials differ in the intensity of their magnetism, the constant c, the magnetic susceptability, is used to relate their magnetism to the external field strength that caused the magnetization

M=cH
Including the magnetic susceptability in the B equation

B = o(H + M) = o(H + cH) = oH (1 + c)

And the magnetic permeability for a substance is

m = o (1 + c) B = mH

Paramagnetism:

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Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

In paramagnetic materials, the various electron magnetic moments in an atom do not cancel and this leaves a permanent magnetic dipole moment When an external magnetic field is applied, the dipole moments tend to line up in the direction of the external field The magnetic susceptabilities for diamagnetism and paramagnetism are very small; typically 10-9 to 10-3 The reason that the susceptabilities are so small is that the alignment of the magnetic dipole must compete with the random thermal motion of the dipole Compare this with the maximum dipole energy of UB = 2B which is normally much smaller So it is expected that the magnetization M should increase linearly as the external B field is increased until the dipoles are mostly aligned This deduction was proven experimentally by Pierre Curie in 1895 and is called Curie's Law where C is a constant for each material

Ferromagnetism:
Ferromagnetism is a much stronger effect than para- or dia-magnetism The permeabilities for ferromagnetic materials are hundreds to thousands of times greater than o Ferromagnetism is a result of the combining in the same direction of the many parallel spin electrons in iron, nickel, or cobalt The effect (called exchange coupling) extends beyond any single atom and links thousands to millions of ferromagnetic atoms If the temperature is raised above several hundred C, the exchange coupling effect is overwhelmed and the atoms cease to couple in domains Under these conditions, ferromagnetism ceases to operate and the material becomes weakly paramagnetic

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Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

Normally, however, those atoms will have a commonly oriented magnetic moment in a region called a magnetic domain Any piece of ferromagnetic material will normally consist of thousands of microscopic domains that are randomly oriented with respect to each other When a magnetic field is applied, some of the domains will shift their dipole alignments toward that of the external field As the field is strengthened, more of the domains will be realigned and the resulting magnetization will be much more intense than in nonferromagnetic materials Even when the external field is removed, some of the domains will remain at the alignment they held, creating a permanent magnetic moment, i.e. a permanent magnet Lodestone is created when lightning strikes a surface deposit of iron ore and the high currents involved create a strong, though temporary, magnetic field Once a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, it is difficult to remove the magnetization Even if the external field is reversed in direction, some of the original magnetization will persist This effect is called hysteresis and makes it difficult to demagnetize any ferromagnetic material The usual way demagnetization is done is to place the material in a magetic field that reverses itself many times a second and then to slowly withdraw the material from the field.

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Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

A solenoid is a tightly wound helical coil of wire whose diameter is small compared to its length. The magnetic field generated in the centre, or core, of a current carrying solenoid is essentially uniform, and is directed along the axis of the solenoid. Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field is far weaker. Figure shows (rather schematically) the magnetic field generated by a typical solenoid. The solenoid is wound from a single helical wire which carries a current . The winding is sufficiently tight that each turn of the solenoid is well approximated as a circular wire loop, lying in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the solenoid, which carries a current . Suppose that there are such turns per unit axial length of the solenoid. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field in the core of the solenoid?

A solenoid. In order to answer this question, let us apply Ampre's circuital law to the rectangular loop . We must first find the line integral of the magnetic field
Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

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around . Along and the magnetic field is essentially perpendicular to the loop, so there is no contribution to the line integral from these sections of the loop. Along the magnetic field is approximately uniform, of magnitude , say, and is directed parallel to the loop. Thus, the contribution to the line integral from this section of the loop is , where is the length of . Along the magnetic field-strength is essentially negligible, so this section of the loop makes no contribution to the line integral. It follows that the line integral of the magnetic field around is simply

By Amperes circuital law, this line integral is equal to times the algebraic sum of the currents which flow through the loop . Since the length of the loop along the axis of the solenoid is , the loop intersects turns of the solenoid, each carrying a current . Thus, the total current which flows through the loop is. This current counts as a positive current since if we look against the direction of the currents flowing in each turn (i.e., into the page in the figure), the loop circulates these currents in an anti-clockwise direction. Amperes circuital law yields Which reduces to

Thus, the magnetic field in the core of a solenoid is directly proportional to the product of the current flowing around the solenoid and the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid. This, result is exact in the limit in which the length of the solenoid is very much greater than its diameter.

Magnetic Field of a Toroid

We can use what we just derived to examine the case of another device that produces a uniform magnetic field. In this case, we take advantage of our analysis of the solenoid to ask what happens if we bend a solenoid into a circle so that the ends join. The new configuration still has approximately zero field in the regions outside the volume contained by the coils, but the field inside that volume is again approximately uniform if the distance
Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026

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between the coils is small compared to the size of the coils. This device is a toroid.

Ampere's Law applied to a toroid. Note that Amperian loops which lie wholly outside the volume contained by the toroidal coils experience no magnetic field. We expect the magnetic field to have circular symmetry about the center of the toroid using the same reasoning as for the solenoid. Hence, we expect it to be most useful to use circular paths for evaluating the Ampere integral of magnetic field and path. For any circular path whose area is not intersected by the coils, the magnetic field is zero and the current penetrating the area is, by definition, zero. Hence, Br < Rinner = 0. For a circular path whose radius is greater than Router, we also expect to have no magnetic field. This might seem to be a contradiction with Ampere's Law because the current in the toroid coils definitely penetrate the area contained, however, note that the coils take current through the area (out of the page) at Rinner and back into the page at Router. So, the net current penetrating the area contained by the circular loop is zero since every loop of the wire carries current through the area twice - in opposite directions! So it is consistent that the magnetic field be zero.

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Asif Rasheed BS(Hons) Physics 0344-7846394,0323-7690026