bài giảng vật liệu kĩ thuật

KHOA C KH - NG TU
B MN CNG NGH VT LIU

TP BI GING VT LIU K THUT

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Ths. L Vn Cng - Ch bin

Vt liu k thut

i hc hng hi - nm 2006

KHOA C KH - NG TU
B MN CNG NGH VT LIU


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A4 (210 x 297) mm

mc lc

Mc lc
Bi m u 3
Phn I. Vt liu hc c s 5
Chng 1. Cu to tinh th 5
Chng 2. Kt tinh t th lng ca kim loi 37
Chng 3. Cu to hp kim v gin trng thi 59
Chng 4. Bin dng do v c tnh ca kim loi 76
Phn II. Nhit luyn thp 96
Chng 5. Gin trng thi st - cacbon 96
Chng 6. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung v lm ngui thp 106
Chng 7. Cc phng php nhit luyn thp 128
Chng 8. Ha bn b mt thp 156
Phn III. Cc vt liu kim loi 173
Chng 9. Gang v nhit luyn gang 173
Chng 10. Thp cacbon 186
Chng 11. Thp hp kim 195
Chng 12. Hp kim mu 242
Cu hi n thi 255
Ti liu tham kho

KHOA C KH - NG TU
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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Bi m u

Vt liu hc l mn khoa hc kho st bn cht ca vt liu, mi quan h gia
cu trc v tnh cht ca chng, t ra phng php ch to v s dng thch hp.
1. Mc ch, yu cu, ni dung mn hc v cc mn hc lin quan
1.1. Mc ch
- Trang b nhng kin thc c bn v cu trc, t chc v tnh cht kim loi.
- Cc phng php gia cng nhit luyn p dng cho cc kim loi (thp v gang).
- Cc loi vt liu kim loi: cng dng, thnh phn, tnh cht v k hiu.
1.2. Yu cu
- Hiu cc quy lut chuyn bin c bn ca kim loi
- Bit chn v thay th vt liu theo cc tiu chun khc nhau
- Lp c cc quy trnh gia cng nhit luyn cho cc chi tit in hnh
- Hiu c k hiu cc vt liu kim loi c bn
1.3. Ni dung mn hc
Phn 1: L thuyt v kim loi
Chng 1: Cu to tinh th
Chng 2: S kt tinh
Chng 3: Cu to hp kim v gin trng thi
Chng 4: Bin dng kim loi
Phn 2: Nhit luyn thp
Chng 5: Hp kim st - cacbon
Chng 6: Cc phn ng xy ra khi nung v lm ngui thp
Chng 7: Nhit luyn thp
Chng 8: Ha bn b mt thp
Phn 3: Cc vt liu kim loi
Chng 9: Gang v nhit luyn gang
Chng 10: Thp cacbon
Chng 11: Thp hp kim
Chng 12: Kim loi v hp kim mu

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

1.4. Cc mn hc lin quan
- L thuyt nhit ng
- Ha l v vt l cht rn
2. S lc v lch s pht trin
* Giai on s dng vt liu t nhin
* Giai on s dng vt liu theo kinh nghim:
- Cha c c s khoa hc
- Tc ng n vt liu theo c s khoa hc
3. Cc phng php nghin cu mn hc
- Phng php th c tnh
- Phng php ha phn tch
- Phng php phn tch quang ph
- Phng php hunh quang
4. Ti liu tham kho
- Kim loi hc v nhit luyn - Nghim Hng
- Vt liu hc - Arrmaxor - Chu Thin Trng
- Vt liu hc - L Cng Dng

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

phn I. vt liu hc c s

Chng 1. Cu to tinh th

Tu theo iu kin to thnh (nhit , p sut ) v tng tc gia cc
phn t cu thnh (dng lc lin kt ), vt cht tn ti trng thi rn, lng v
kh (hi). Tnh cht ca vt rn (vt liu) ph thuc ch yu vo lc lin kt v
cch xp xp ca cc phn t cu to nn chng. Trong chng ny cc khi
nim c bn s c cp l: cu to nguyn t, cc dng lin kt v cu trc
tinh th, khng tinh th ca vt rn.

1.1. Cu to nguyn t v cc dng lin kt trong vt rn
Trong phn ny kho st nhng khi nim c bn v cu to nguyn t v
cc dng lin kt gia chng, nhng yu t ny ng vai tr quyt nh vi cu
trc v tnh cht ca vt rn, vt liu.
1.1.1. Cu to nguyn t
Nguyn t theo quan im c bao gm ht nhn v cc in t quay chung
quanh theo nhng qu o xc nh. Tuy nhin vi m hnh khng gii quyt
c cc kh khn ny sinh, c bit l vic xc nh chnh xc qu o ca
in t. p dng c hc sng nghin cu cu to nguyn t chng ta thy
rng theo h thc bt nh Heisenberg:
x . p h
x . v
m
h

(1.1)
Trong :
x: bt nh trong php o to vi ht
p: bt nh trong php o xung lng vi ht
v: bt nh trong php o vn tc vi ht

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

p dng nguyn l cho in t trong nguyn t chng ta thy nu mun xc
nh v tr ca in t th x 10
-4
m (l c kch thc nguyn t) khi v s
l 10
6
m/s tc l ln hn tc chuyn ng ca in t trong nguyn t theo
m hnh c in. V vy khng th c khi nim qu o ca in t m ch c
th ni n xc sut tn ti n trong mt th tch no .
Theo quan im ca c hc lng t sau khi gii phng trnh sng
Schrodinger vi cc m hnh nguyn t c th gii quyt c vn cu to
lp v in t ca nguyn t. Vi mt nguyn t c th theo m hnh vi s in
t z xc nh c cu to lp v in t c th hin qua bn s lng t l:
- S lng t chnh n = 1, 2, 3, ... xc nh mc nng lng ca lp v in
t. V d: n = 1 l lp K, n = 2 l lp L, n = 3 l lp M v n = 4 l lp N.
- S lng t phng v l = 0, 1, 2, ... , n-1 xc nh s phn lp trong cng
mt mc nng lng. V d: l = 0, 1, 2, 3 tng ng vi cc phn lp s, p, d , f.
- S lng t t m = 0, 1, 2, ... l xc nh kh nng nh hng ca
m men xung lng qu o theo t trng bn ngoi.
- S lng t Spin S = 1/2 xc nh kh nng nh hng ngc chiu
nhau ca vc t m men xung lng. Ngoi ra vic phn b cc in t vi mt
trng thi (n, l, m) xc nh phi tun theo nguyn l loi tr Pauli l ch c th
c hai in t vi Spin ngc nhau. Da vo nguyn l ny c th d on c
s in t cho php trn cc mc nng lng (lp v phn lp) qua vit c
cu hnh lp v in t ca nguyn t theo s th t z ca chng trong h thng
tun hon Meldeleev (cng l s in t ca nguyn t trong m hnh l
tng).
V d: Cu c z = 29 ta c cu to lp v in t l:
{ {
N
1
M
10 6 2
L
6 2
K
2
s 4 d 3 p 3 s 3 p 2 s 2 s 1
43 42 1 3 2 1

y in t vn c th chuyn t mc nng lng ny sang mc nng
lng khc (thuc lp hoc phn lp). Khi chng s pht ra hoc thu vo mt
nng lng di dng lng t nh sng.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Theo s lng t chnh n ta c bng s lng in t c th (s trng thi
nng lng) trn mt s lp v phn lp nh sau:
1s - K
2s 2p - L
3s 3p 3d - M
4s 4p 4d 4f - N

Bng 1.1. S lng in t c th trn cc lp v phn lp
(s trong ngoc l s trng thi c th)

S in t c th S lng
t chnh n
K hiu
lp in t
K hiu
phn lp Phn lp Lp
1 K s 2 (1) 2
s 2 (1) 2 L
p 6 (3)
8
s 2 (1)
p 6 (3) 3

M
d 10 (5)

18
s 2 (1)
p 6 (3)
d 10 (5)
4 N
f 14 (7)
32

1.1.2. Cc dng lin kt trong vt rn
Theo iu kin bn ngoi (P, T) vt cht tn ti ba trng thi: rn, lng, hi.
- Trng thi rn: c trt t (trt t xa)
- Trng thi lng: c trt t (trt t gn)
- Trng thi hi: hn n, khng c trt t
bn ca vt liu trng thi rn ph thuc vo dng lin kt ca vt rn.
1.1.2.1. Lin kt cng ho tr
y l dng lin kt m cc nguyn t tham gia lin kt gp chung in t
lp ngoi cng, to ra lp ngoi cng t tr s bo ho v s in t c th

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

(s
2
p
6
). Nh vy khi to lin kt cng ho tr s to ra lp ngoi cng ca nguyn
t c tm in t, vi dng lin kt nh vy n c cc c im sau:
- L loi lin kt c nh hng, ngha l xc sut tn ti cc in t tham
gia lin kt ln nht theo phng ni tm cc nguyn t (hnh 1.1).

Hnh 1.1. Lin kt cng ho tr trong kh Cl
2
- Cng lin kt ph thuc rt mnh vo mc lin kt ca cc in t
ho tr vi ht nhn. Ta c th thy r, cc bon trong dng th hnh kim cng
c lin kt cng ho tr rt mnh do cc in t ho tr lin kt trc tip vi ht
nhn. Ngc li vi Sn do cc in t ho tr nm rt xa ht nhn nn c lin kt
cng ho tr rt yu.
- Lin kt cng ho tr c th xy ra gia cc nguyn t ca cng mt
nguyn t (ng cc) thuc cc nhm t IV A n VII A (v d Cl
2
, F
2
, Br
2
, ...)
hoc cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc nhau (d cc) thuc cc nhm III A
v V A hoc II A v VI A (GaAs, GaP, ...).
1.1.2.2. Lin kt Ion
L loi lin kt mnh, hnh thnh bi lc ht gia cc in tch tri du (lc
ht tnh in Coulomb). Lin kt ny xy ra do cc nguyn t cho bt in t lp
ngoi cng tr thnh Ion dng hoc nhn thm in t tr thnh Ion m. V
vy lin kt Ion thng xy ra v th hin r rt vi cc nguyn t c nhiu in
t ho tr ( kim in hnh) v cc nguyn t c t in t ho tr (kim loi in
hnh). V d LiF, NaCl, Al
2
O
3
, Fe
2
O
3
, ...
Cng ging lin kt cng ho tr, lin kt Ion cng mnh (bn vng) khi
nguyn t cha cng t in t. V n l dng lin kt khng nh hng.
A B
A B
A B

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nng lng lin kt c th tnh bng cng thc:
r
A
U =

(1.2)
V lc lin kt:
2
r
1
. B
dr
du
F = =

(1.3)
Trong :
A v B: Cc hng s ph thuc vo phn t lin kt
r: Khong cch gia cc phn t lin kt
Du (-) ch rng nng lng v lc lin kt c xu hng lm gim khong
cch gia cc phn t lin kt.
1.1.2.3. Lin kt kim loi
c im chung ca cc nguyn t nguyn t kim loi l c t in t ho tr
lp ngoi cng, do chng d mt (bt ra) in t to thnh cc Ion dng b
bao quanh bi cc my in t t do. Cc ion dng to thnh mt mng xc nh,
t trong khng gian in t t do chung, l m hnh ca lin kt kim loi.

Hnh 1.2. Lin kt kim loi

Lin kt kim loi thng r rt vi cc nguyn t c t in t ho tr (do d
mt in t). Cc nguyn t thuc nhm I c mt in t ho tr l cc kim loi
in hnh, th hin r rt nht lin kt kim loi. Cng dch sang phi bng h
thng tun hon, tnh ng ho tr trong lin kt tng ln v xut hin lin kt
hn hp kim loi - ng ho tr. Cu trc tinh th ca cc cht vi lin kt
kim loi c tnh i xng rt cao.
Ion dng
My e
-
t do

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Lin kt kim loi l dng hn hp: gm lc ht gia cc in tch tri du
v lc y gia cc in tch cng du.
Nng lng lin kt trong lin kt kim loi c th tnh bng cng thc:
{ { {
III
3
II
2
I
r
C
r
B
r
A
U + + =

(1.4)
Vi A, B, C l cc h s
I: Nng lng ht gia cc in tch tri du
II, III: Nng lng y gia cc in tch cng du.
1.1.2.4. Lin kt hn hp
Thc t, t khi tn ti nhng dng lin kt thun tu ch c mt kiu lin
kt. Lin kt ng ho tr thun tu ch xy ra trong trng hp ng cc. Khi
lin kt d cc, in t ho tr gp chung, tham gia lin kt ng thi chu hai tc
dng tri ngc:
- B ht bi ht nhn ca mnh
- B ht bi ht nhn nguyn t th hai to in t chung.
Kh nng ht in t ca ht nhn c gi l tnh m in ca nguyn t.
S khc nhau v tnh m in ca cc nguyn t tham gia lin kt trong lin kt
ng ho tr lm cho m my in t b bin dng v to ra cc ngu cc in
v l tin cho lin kt ion. Tnh cht ca lin kt ion cng ln khi s sai khc
v tnh m in gia cc nguyn t cng cao. Do c th khng nh rng tt
c cc lin kt d cc u l hn hp gia lin kt ion v ng ho tr.
1.1.2.5. Lin kt yu (lin kt Vander Waals)
Lin kt ng ho tr cho php l gii s to thnh nhng phn t nh nc
hoc polyetilen (C
2
H
4
)
n
... nhng khng gii thch c s hnh thnh cc phn
t rn t cc phn t trung ho (nc , polyme ...). Ta bit trong cc phn
t c lin kt ng ho tr, do s khc nhau v tnh m in ca cc nguyn t s
dn n trng tm ca in tch dng v in tch m khng trng nhau, ngu
cc in hnh thnh, phn t trung ho b phn cc. Lin kt Vander Waals l
lin kt do hiu ng ht nhau gia cc nguyn t hoc phn t b phn cc (hnh
1.3). Lin kt ny l loi lin kt rt yu, d b ph v bi ba ng nhit (khi

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

tng nhit ). V vy nhng vt rn c lin kt Vander Waals c nhit nng
chy rt thp (nc nng chy 0
0
C).

Hnh 1.3. Qu trnh to thnh lin kt Vander Waals
a: Trung ho b: Phn cc c: To lin kt

Nng lng lin kt:
6
r
A
U =

(1.5)
V lc lin kt:
7
r
B
F =

(1.6)

1.2. Cu to tinh th l tng ca vt rn
Cc vt rn trong t nhin hin nay c phn thnh hai nhm l vt rn
tinh th v vt v nh hnh. Vic phn loi ny to s thun li cho qa trnh
m hnh ho khi nghin cu vt liu. Cc vt liu kim loi l loi vt liu kt cu
c bn hin nay ch yu l cc vt c cu to tinh th. Do nghin cu v
cu to ca chng trc ht chng ta cn tm hiu v khi nim vt tinh th v
vt v nh hnh.
1.2.1. Vt tinh th v vt v nh hnh
Theo quan im ca vt l cht rn, cc vt rn c gi l vt tinh th khi
chng ng tho mn cc iu kin sau:
- L nhng vt lun tn ti vi mt hnh dng xc nh trong khng gian,
hnh dng bn ngoi ca chng th hin mt phn cc tnh cht bn trong.
a,
b,
c,

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Vt tinh th lun lun tn ti mt nhit nng chy (hoc kt tinh) xc
nh. C ngha l khi nung nng vt tinh th lun c mt nhit chuyn bin t
trng thi rn sang trng thi lng xc nh. iu ny cng ng khi lm ngui
vt tinh th t th lng.
- Vt tinh th khi b p gy (ph hu), s b gy theo cc mt xc nh v
b mt vt gy khng nhn bng. Tnh cht ny th hin r rt s khc bit v
tnh cht ca vt tinh th vi vt v nh hnh.
- Vt tinh th lun c tnh d hng, c ngha l tnh cht ca n (c, l, ho
tnh) theo cc phng khc nhau lun c s khc bit. iu ny th hin r s
xp xp cc nguyn t trong vt tinh th l tun theo mt quy lut xc nh.
Ngc li vi vt tinh th l cc vt v nh hnh. Vt v nh hnh l nhng
vt khng tn ti mt hnh dng xc nh trong khng gian (c hnh dng l ca
vt cha n). Khng c nhit nng chy hoc kt tinh xc nh, khng th
hin tnh d hng ... Mt s vt v nh hnh tiu biu nh nha ng, parafin,
thu tinh ...
Tuy nhin vic phn bit r rng v rch ri gia vt tinh th v vt v
nh hnh l mang tnh tng i. Vi s pht trin ca vt l hin i, ranh gii
gia vt tinh th v vt v nh hnh tr nn khng r rng, v d vi vt liu kim
loi khi tin hnh ngui nhanh vi tc ngui rt ln (n hng triu
0
C/s) ta
thu c kim loi c ht rt nh v th hin c tnh cht ca vt v nh hnh.
1.2.2. Cu to tinh th l tng ca vt rn
1.2.2.1. Khi nim mng tinh th
Qua xem xt tnh cht ca vt tinh th, chng ta c th thy rng, cc tnh
cht b chi phi v quyt nh bi cch xp xp ca cc nguyn t (hoc ion,
phn t) trong vt rn. V vy nm r c mi quan h v ng dng n
trong nghin cu, x l vt liu chng ta cn i vo quy lut xp xp nguyn t
trong vt tinh th. Do ta c khi nim mng tinh th.
Mng tinh th l m hnh khng gian, dng nghin cu quy lut xp xp
ca nguyn t (hoc ion, phn t) trong vt tinh th. T m hnh ny cho php
chng ta xc nh c cc c trng c bn, nh hng c tnh cht ca cc

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

vt liu s dng. Nh vy xy dng m hnh mng tinh th, ta cn phi xc
nh c h to v n v o khi xy dng mng tinh th.
Phng php xy dng mng tinh th:
xy dng m hnh mng tinh th trc ht ta chn mt nguyn t (ion,
phn t) bt k (t y gi l cht im) lm gc. T cht im gc ta k ba trc
to qua ba cht im gn nht (khng cng mt mt phng) lm ba trc to
. Nh vy trn mi trc to ca h trc to Decarte thu c s c hng
lot cc cht im cch u nhau. Qua cc cht im ta dng cc ng
thng song song vi cc trc to . Cc ng thng ct nhau to thnh m
hnh mng tinh th (hnh 1.4).

Hnh 1.4. M hnh mng tinh th

Vi m hnh mng tinh th nh vy, chng ta thy xc nh mt v tr
bt k trong mng tinh th, ta c vc t nh v l:
c . j b . n a . m r
n
+ + =
(1.7)
Trong :
a : Vc t n v theo trc Ox, c tr s bng khong cch gia hai cht
im gn nht theo trc Ox
b: Vc t n v theo trc Oy
c: Vc t n v theo trc Oz
m, n, j: Ch s theo ba trc to Ox, Oy, Oz.
z
x
y

O

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nh vy mt m hnh mng tinh th s c xc nh khi chng ta c b
su thng s l ba vc t n v a , b, c v ba gc (zOx, yOx), (zOy, yOx),
(zOy, zOx). T cch xy dng nh trn, chng ta thy mng tinh th c cc tnh
cht c bn sau:
- Mng tinh th l v tn, khng tn ti khi nim kch thc mng m ch
c gi tr xc nh l cc vc t n v v cc gc nh v (do s lng nguyn t
trong vt rn l v tn).
- Khi dch chuyn mng tinh th i mt khong cch bng khong cch
gia hai cht im theo phng ni hai cht im , mng t trng lp vi
chnh mnh. Khong cch gi l chu k lp ca mng. Nu khong cch
c o theo cc trc to th c gi l chu k mng hay thng s mng.
- Mng tinh th l m hnh khng gian, tn ti nhiu yu t i xng khc nhau.
- Tu thuc vo b cc thng s xc nh mng tinh th ( a , b, c, , , )
chng ta c cc kiu mng khc nhau v do c cc quy lut xp xp cht
im khc nhau.
Mng tinh th l tng l mng m p ng hon ho cc quy lut xp xp
ca cht im ti cc v tr, xc sut bt gp cht im bng mt, cc cht im
hon ton ging nhau v kch thc v bn cht.
Nh vy khi xy dng mng tinh th cho mt vt rn bt k, chng ta s c
mt m hnh khng gian v tn v s xp xp ca cc cht im. Vic nghin
cu trn ton b mng l kh khn v khng cn thit. Chnh v vy thun li
cho nghin cu tinh th, ngi ta tin hnh nghin cu t phn t nh nht cu
to nn mng tinh th l cc c bn.
c bn trong mng tinh th:
Vi cch xy dng mng tinh th nu trn chng ta thy rng, mt kiu
mng tinh th c hon ton xc nh vi b su thng s. Nh vy chng ta c
th hnh dung rng, c mt phn t nh nht c cu to c trng cho ton b
kiu mng v khi mng tinh th c hnh thnh l do v s cc phn t
xp st nhau. Phn t gi l c bn ca mng tinh th. V nh vy nghin

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

cu tnh cht ca mng tinh th v tn c chuyn v nghin cu thng qua
c bn ca n c kch thc v hnh dng c th.
Nh vy vi t cch l c bn ca mng tinh th, cn phi tho mn cc
nguyn tc sau:
- c bn phi m bo c trng hon chnh cho cu to mt kiu mng,
bao gm tho mn cc iu kin i xng ca tinh th (i xng gng, i
xng tm, i xng trc quay) v nh ca c bn phi c cht im.
- nh ca c bn phi c cht im.
- Th tch ca c bn phi l nh nht.
Vi mt kiu mng tinh th chng ta c c bn c trng ca n, thng
qua c bn chng ta xc nh c cc kiu mng tinh th c bn. phn
loi mng tinh th ngi ta chia thnh:
- H mng tinh th l phn loi theo hnh khi ca c bn (v d lp
phng, lc gic ...).
- Kiu mng tinh th l hnh thc phng php xp xp ca cht im trong
c bn ca mng.
S kt hp gia h v kiu cho chng ta cc loi mng tinh th c bn, cc
loi mng tinh th ny c thng k thnh 14 kiu mng tinh th Bravais.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Bng 1.2. 14 kiu mng Bravais
Kiu
H
n gin y tm Th tm Din tm Quan h
thng s mng
Tam t x x
a b c
90
0

n t x x
a b c
= = 90
0
, 90
0

Trc giao x
a b c
= = = 90
0

Mt thoi x x x x a = b = c
90
0

Lc gic x
a = b c
= = 90
0
, =
120
0

Lp phng x x x a = b = c
= = = 90
0

Chnh
phng
x
a = b c
= = = 90
0

1.2.2.2. Mt s kiu mng tinh th thng gp ca kim loi
* Mng lp phng th tm (A2, K8): Xt c bn ca mng l mt khi lp phng,
cc nguyn t b tr 8 nh v tm ca khi.

Hnh 1.5. Mng lp phng th tm v mt xp st ca nguyn t

- Thng s mng (chu k mng): a
- S nguyn t trong mt c bn (s nguyn t thuc khi n
V
): n
nt

a

2 a
a

a

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

n
nt
= n
V
= 2 1
8
1
. 8 = + (nguyn t)

(1.8)
- S sp xp K: s cc nguyn t gn nht quanh mt nguyn t K = 8
- Cch sp xp ca nguyn t: cc nguyn t c xp xt nhau theo ng cho
ca khi (hnh 1.5).
- Bn knh nguyn t: r
nt

r
nt
=
4
3 a

(1.9)
- L hng trong mng tinh th: do cc nguyn t l hnh cu, khi xp st nhau m
khng b bin dng s tn ti cc l hng.
Cc l hng trong mng lp phng th tm: L hng khi tm mt nm
tm ca cc mt bn, l hng khi bn mt thuc cnh bn.
ngha: cho php s xm nhp khuch tn ca vt cht trong tinh th cho
php to ra hp kim.
- Mt mt ca mng tinh th: l t l ca tit din nguyn t thuc mt mt
phng gii hn trong mt c bn so vi din tch ca mt (ch tnh cho mt
nguyn t dy nht l mt bn vng).
% 100 .
S
S . n
% 100 .
S
S
M
mat
nt 1 S
mat
nt
S
=
=

(1.10)
Trong :
n
S
: S nguyn t thuc mt

n
S
= 2 1
4
1
. 4 = +

S
1nt
: Din tch tit din (mt ct) ca nguyn t thuc mt
S
1nt
= .r
2
nt
= .
2
4
3 a
|
|
\
|

S
mat
: Din tch ca mt tnh mt mt
S
mat
= a.a 2 = a
2
2

Thay vo biu thc trn ta c:
% 4 , 83 % 100 .
S
S . n
M
mat
nt 1 S
S
= =

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

ngha: nh gi mc lin kt ca nguyn t trong mt ang xt, mt mt
cng ln th mt cng bn vng.
- Mt khi ca mng tinh th: l t l phn trm th tch nguyn t trong mt
c bn vi th tch c bn.
% 100 .
V
V . n
% 100 .
V
V
M
ocoban
nt 1 V
ocoban
nt
v
=
=

(1.11)
Trong :
V
1nt
: Th tch ca mt nguyn t
3
3
3
nt 1
a .
16
3
4
3 a
.
3
4
r .
3
4
V =
|
|
\
|
= =

V
ocoban
: Th tch ca mt c bn
V
ocoban
= a
3

% 68 % 100 .
a
a .
16
3
. 2
% 100 .
V
V . n
M
3
3
ocoban
nt 1 V
v
=
= =

ngha: cho bit mc in y vt cht ca kiu mng, do cho bit s b
nh gi khi lng ring ca vt liu c kiu mng .
- Nhng kim loi c kiu mng A2: Fe(), Cr, W, Mo ...
* Mng lp phng din tm (A1, K12): Xt c bn ca mng l mt khi lp
phng, cc nguyn t b tr 8 nh v tm ca 6 mt bn.

Hnh 1.6. Mng lp phng din tm v mt xp st ca nguyn t
a
a
a

a

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Thng s mng: a = = =90
0

V
): n
nt

n
nt
= n
V
= 4
2
1
. 6
8
1
. 8 = + (nguyn t)

(1.12)
- Cch sp xp ca nguyn t: cc nguyn t c xp xt nhau theo ng cho
mt bn ca khi (hnh 1.6).
- Bn knh nguyn t: r
nt

r
nt
=
4
2 a

(1.13)
- Mt mt ca mng tinh th:
% 100 .
S
S . n
% 100 .
S
S
M
mat
nt 1 S
mat
nt
S
=
=

(1.14)
Trong :
n
S
: S nguyn t thuc mt

n
S
= 2 1
4
1
. 4 = +

S
1nt
S
1nt
= .r
2
nt
= .
2
4
2 a
|
|
\
|

S
mat
S
mat
= a.a = a
2

% 5 , 78 % 100 .
a
4
2 a
. . 2
% 100 .
S
S . n
M
2
2
mat
nt 1 S
S
=
|
|
\
|
= =

- Mt khi ca mng tinh th:
% 100 .
V
V . n
% 100 .
V
V
M
ocoban
nt 1 V
ocoban
nt
v
=
=

(1.15)
Trong :
V
1nt

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

3
3
3
nt 1
a .
24
2
4
2 a
.
3
4
r .
3
4
V =
|
|
\
|
= =

V
ocoban
: Th tch ca mt c bn
V
ocoban
= a
3

% 74 % 100 .
a
a .
24
2
. 4
% 100 .
V
V . n
M
3
3
ocoban
nt 1 V
v
=
= =

- Nhng kim loi c kiu mng A1: Fe(), Ni, Mn, Au ...
* Mng lc gic xp cht (A3, L12): Cc nguyn t nm cc nh, gia hai mt y
hnh nng tr lc gic v tm ba khi nng tr tam gic khc nhau.

Hnh 1.7. Mng lc gic xp cht v mt xp st ca nguyn t
- Thng s mng: a, c
663 , 1
a
c
= : chnh phng ca mng tinh th
= = 90
0
; = 120
0

V
): n
nt

n
nt
= n
V
= 6 3
2
1
. 2
6
1
. 12 = + + (nguyn t)

(1.16)
- Cch sp xp ca nguyn t: cc nguyn t c xp xt nhau theo mt y ca
khi (hnh 1.7).
- Bn knh nguyn t: r
nt

a
a
c

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

r
nt
=
2
a

(1.17)
- Mt mt ca mng tinh th:
% 100 .
S
S . n
% 100 .
S
S
M
mat
nt 1 S
mat
nt
S
=
=

(1.18)
Trong :
n
S
: S nguyn t thuc mt

n
S
= 3 1
3
1
. 6 = +

S
1nt
S
1nt
= .r
2
nt
= .
4
a .
2
a
2
2
=
|
\
|

S
mat
S
mat
=
2
a . 3 3
2

% 91 % 100 .
S
S . n
M
mat
nt 1 S
S
= =

- Mt khi ca mng tinh th:
% 100 .
V
V . n
% 100 .
V
V
M
ocoban
nt 1 V
ocoban
nt
v
=
=

(1.19)
V
1nt
3
3
3
nt 1
a .
6
1
2
a
.
3
4
r .
3
4
V =
|
\
|
= =

V
ocoban
: Th tch ca mt c bn
V
ocoban
= S
mat
.c =
2
a . 3 3
2
.1,663a =
2
a . 663 , 1 . 3 3
3

% 73 % 100 .
V
V . n
M
ocoban
nt 1 V
v
= =

- Nhng kim loi c kiu mng A
3
: Uran (U), Platin (Pt), Osmi (Os) ...

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

* Mng chnh phng th tm: hnh 1.8 trnh by khi c bn ca mng chnh
phng th tm, n ging vi khi c bn ca mng lp phng th tm ko di
ra theo mt chiu cnh ca khi.

Hnh 1.8. Mng chnh phng th tm v mt xp st ca nguyn t

* Mng kim cng: kim cng l mt trong nhng dng th hnh ca cacbon c
lin kt trao i. c bn ca mng (hnh 1.9 a) c th xem nh c to thnh
trn c s c bn lp phng din tm c thm bn nguyn t bn trong vi
cc to :
|
\
|
4
1
,
4
1
,
4
1
;
|
\
|
4
3
,
4
1
,
4
3
;
|
\
|
4
1
,
4
3
,
4
3
;
|
\
|
4
3
,
4
3
,
4
1
. Hoc c th hnh
dung bng cch khc: chia mng lp phng din tm thnh tm khi u
nhau v trung tm ca bn khi nh nm cch nhau c thm bn nguyn t.
Mi nguyn t trong mng u c bao quanh bi bn nguyn t khc cch
u vi khong cch
4
3 a
,v vy s sp xp K = 4.
Trn hnh 1.9 b nu hnh chiu ca bn nguyn t pha trong ln mt phng
yz c km theo to x ca chng.

a
a
c

(
a
2

+

c
2
)
1
/
2

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Hnh 1.9. c bn ca mng kim cng

* Mng Graphit: graphit cng l mt dng th hnh ca cacbon c mng tinh th
lc gic lp vi cc thng s mng a = 2,46 A
0
, cc = 6,82A
0
.

Hnh 1.10. Mng tinh th graphit

Mng c th xem nh c to thnh bi nhng lp nguyn t cch nhau mt
on
0
A 41 , 3
2
c
= . Trn tng lp, mi nguyn t c bao quanh cch u ba
nguyn t khc trn khong cch 1,42 A
0
, to thnh nhng hnh su cnh u.
Trong cu to mng graphit th hin rt r tnh phn lp v khong cch nguyn
t gn nht gia cc lp hn gp 2,36 ln so vi khong cch nguyn t trong
cng mt lp. l nguyn nhn v sao graphit c bn rt b.
a
c

z
x
z
y y
4
1
x =
4
1
x =
4
3
x =
4
3
x =
a, b,

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

1.2.2.3. K hiu mt v phng tinh th
Qua kho st cc kiu mng tinh th thng gp trn chng ta thy ny
sinh mt vn l vic nh v cc mt v phng tinh th. Vic nh v mt v
phng tinh th c ngha v cng quan trng trong nghin cu tinh th. Khi
nghin cu cu trc tinh th bng cc thit b hin i, ngi ta phn tch cu
trc thng qua cc tn hiu s trn c s s phn hi di tc dng ca cc yu
t phn tch. Do ngi ta a ra cc phng php k hiu mt v phng
tinh th bng cc b s nguyn. Vi cc h mng khc nhau ta dng cc b ch
s khc nhau, y ta xt hai h ch s l ch s Miller v Miller - Bravais cho
hai h mng hay gp l lp phng v lc gic.
Lp ra cc b ch s ch v tr khng gian ca cc mt v phng trong
tinh th vi mc ch:
- n gin khi nh gi
- s ha khi nghin cu bng knh hin vi in t v my tnh
- thun tin cho vic s dng hnh chiu cc x.
1.2.2.3.1. Ch s Miller cho h lp phng
Ch s cho mt tinh th:
Ch s Miller cho mt tinh th l mt b s nguyn (h, k, l) khng c tha
s chung c xc nh theo trnh t nh sau:
- Tm to giao im ca mt cn k hiu vi ba mt phng to ca
mng tinh th.
- Ly nghch o ba to .
- Quy ng mu s (nu cn) v t tha s chung (nu c). Thu c b
ba s nguyn (h, k, l) khng c tha s chung. Khi xc nh ch s mt ta c th
thy rng, c rt nhiu mt c cng tr s tuyt i ca b ch s, ch khc nhau
v th t ch s hoc du ca chng. Cc mt nh vy hp thnh mt h mt. Do
khi cn xc nh s mt thuc mt h ta ch cn thc hin php hon v v i
du cho cc ch s xc nh c ca mt mt. Cc mt thuc cng mt h c
tnh cht hon ton ging nhau v c k hiu l {h, k, l}.
Ch s phng tinh th trong mng:

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Ch s Miller cho phng tinh th trong mng lp phng l mt b s u,
v, w khng c tha s chung, c xc nh nh sau:
- Xc nh to ca cht im thuc phng , gn nht vi gc to ,
theo ba trc to (Ox, Oy, Oz). Lu l vi phng khng i qua gc to
th ta xc nh ch s theo phng song song vi n, i qua gc to . Do cch
xy dng mng tinh th chng ta thy r rng cc phng song song vi nhau s
c cng tnh cht ( y cn hiu rng phng tinh th l cc phng c cht
im thuc n).
- Quy ng mu s v t tha s chung ta c b ch s u, v, w k hiu
cho phng cng tng t nh i vi mt tinh th, cc phng tinh th c cng
tr s tuyt i ca b ch s thuc cng mt h v c k hiu l [u, v, w]. Cc
phng trong cng mt h cng c cng tnh cht nh nhau.
1.2.2.3.2. Ch s Miller - Bravais cho mng lc gic
Ta c th xt c th thng qua v d sau:

Hnh 1.11. Cch chn h to trong mng lc gic

Khi k hiu theo ch s Miller ta c h to Oxyz nh hnh v. Trong
trc Ox v Oy hp vi nhau mt gc 120
0
. By gi ta xt ba mt tinh th ln lt
l (OF
1
D
1
), (OD
1
B
1
) v (OB
1
F
1
) r rng y l ba mt c cng tnh cht v n
D
1
A
1
B
1
E
1
F
1
C
1
x
z
y
a
c

D
A

B
E
F
C
O
1
O

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

tho mn i xng trc quay bc ba (ngha l khi quay tinh th i mt gc 120
0
,
cc mt tinh th k trn s ln lt trng nhau). Nh vy y l mt tinh th ca
cng mt h, v nguyn tc b ch s k hiu n phi cng tr s tuyt i.
Nhng theo ch s Miller ta c k hiu ca ba mt nu trn ln lt l:
Mt (OF
1
D
1
) c giao vi ba trc to l (1, 1, 1) do c k hiu l (1, 1, 1)
Mt (OD
1
B
1
) c giao vi ba trc to l (1,
2
1
, 1) do c k hiu l (1, 2, 1)
Mt (OB
1
F
1
) c giao vi ba trc to l (
2
1
, 1, 1) do c k hiu l ( 2, 1, 1)
Ta thy rng ba mt ca cng mt h ny li c b ch s khc nhau v gi
tr tuyt i. gii quyt vn ny Bravais b xung vo h trc to
Oxyz ca Miller thm mt trc to th t trn mt phng y. Trc ny to
vi Ox v Oy cng vi gc 120
0
.

Hnh 1.12. H trc to Miller - Bravais trong mng lc gic

Ba trc ny c k hiu l Ox
1
, Ox
2
, v Ox
3
hp vi trc Oz to thnh h
trc to Miller - Bravais trong mng lc gic. Vi cch xy dng nh vy ta
c b ch s mt theo ch s Miller - Bravais s l mt b bn ch s {h, k, i, l}
vi i l ch s theo trc Ox
3
. Do tnh i xng ca mng lc gic nn ch s i ca
trc Ox
3
khng phi l mt bin c lp. Chng ta c th chng minh rng:
i = - (h + k) (1.20)
Nh vy t ch s Miller cho mt tinh th, chng ta c th chuyn sang ch
s Miller - Bravais theo cng thc (1.26), thc hin hon v v i du chng ta
c mt h mt (phi tho mn iu kin i = - (h + k)). V d trong mng lc gic
x
3
x
1
x
2
120
0
120
0
120
0
O

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

khng tn ti mt (1, 1, 2, 1). Vi cc mt nu trn ta c: mt (OF
1
D
1
) c
k hiu Miller l (1, 1, 1) chuyn sang Miller - Bravais l (1, 1, 2, 1); mt
(OD
1
B
1
) c k hiu Miller l (1, 2, 1) chuyn sang Miller - Bravais l (1, 2, 1,
1); mt (OB
1
F
1
) c k hiu Miller l ( 2, 1, 1) chuyn sang Miller - Bravais l
( 2, 1, 1, 1) r rng cc mt ca cng mt h lc ny c cng mt b ch s v
gi tr tuyt i v do tho mn yu cu v k hiu ca mt tinh th. Tng t
nh vy, khi k hiu phng cho mng lc gic ta cng s dng h trc to
trn v khi k hiu phng tinh th trong mng lc gic s l mt b ch s
u, v, t, w t l vi mt b s u
'
, v
'
, t
'
, w
'
khng c tha s chung c xc nh
nh sau:
3
q p 2
' u

=
3
p q 2
' v

=
3
q p
' t
+
=

(1.21)
Vi p, q l to theo hai trc Ox v Oy trong h to Miller. Ch s w
xc nh theo to ca cht im gn nht thuc phng vi trc Oz. V d ta
k hiu cho ba phng Ox
1
, Ox
2
, v Ox
3
theo ch s Miller v Miller - Bravais.
Bng 1.3. K hiu phng tinh th trong mng lc gic
STT Phng Ch s p, q,
z
Ch s theo
Miller
Ch s theo Miller -
Bravais

1

Ox
1

p = 1
q = 0
z = 0

1, 0, 0

2, 1, 1, 0

2

Ox
2

p = 0
q = 1
z = 0

0, 1, 0

1, 2, 1, 0

3

Ox
3

p = - 1
q = - 1
z = 0

1, 1, 0

1, 1, 2, 0

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Qua bng trn ta thy t ba phng ca cng mt h nu theo ch s Miller
ta cng c s sai khc v b ch s. Khi chuyn sang ch s Miller - Bravais ta
chuyn chuyn chng v cng mt h vi mt b ch s hon ton ging nhau
v tr s tuyt i. Tuy nhin ch s tin cng l ch s ph thuc vo u v w tho
mn iu kin:
t = - (u + w) (1.22)

1.3. Cc sai lch trong mng tinh th
Mng tinh th nh xy dng trn l dng hon ton l tng. Khi tnh
ton cc ch tiu v c tnh cng nh cc tnh cht khc vi m hnh mng tinh
th l tng s cho chng ta cc gi tr sai khc rt ln vi cc gi tr thu c
trong thc t bng con ng thc nghim (ti hng nghn ln). S d c s sai
khc ny l do trong mng tinh th ca vt rn lun tn ti cc khuyt tt, cc
loi khuyt tt trong mng tinh th rt a dng v c nh hng khc nhau n
tnh cht ca vt liu. Vic nghin cu v cc sai lch trong mng tinh th i
hi cc thit b, phng tin trnh cao nh phn tch cu trc bng tia
Rnghen, tia , knh hin vi in t ...
Khi nim: Khuyt tt trong mng tinh th l cc dng sai lch, n lm thay
i quy lut, v tr, kch thc ca mng tinh th, trong :
- Quy lut: l quy lut sp xp cht im v cc mt tinh th
- V tr: l s xut hin hoc thiu ht cc cht im v cc vng tinh th
khng theo quy lut ban u
- Kch thc: l s tng hay gim ca thng s mng
nh hng ca sai lch mng: lm thay i tnh cht ca tinh th, dn n
thay i tnh cht ca vt liu.
Vi cc kt qu nghin cu mi nht v cu trc vt liu ta c th a ra
cc loi khuyt tt mng tinh th ch yu l:
1.3.1. Sai lch im
Sai lch im l sai lch mng c kch thc nh (vi thng s mng) theo
c ba chiu. Bao gm nt trng, nguyn t xen k v nguyn t l.

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1.3.1.1. Nt trng v nguyn t xen k: trong mng tinh th cc nguyn t (ion) lun
lun dao ng quanh v tr cn bng ca chng nh nng lng dao ng. Nng lng
dao ng ph thuc vo nhit v phn b khng u trn cc nguyn t, tc l
mi thi im lun lun c nhng nguyn t c nng lng b hn hoc ln hn gi tr
trung bnh nhit cho. Mt s nguyn t no c nng lng ln vi bin
dao ng ln, chng c kh nng bt khi v tr cn bng ca mnh, li cc
nt trng khng c nguyn t chim ch. Sau khi ri khi v tr cn bng, nguyn t
hoc di chuyn ra ngoi b mt ca tinh th (hnh a) hoc i vo v tr xen k gia cc
nt mng (hnh b).

Hnh 1.13. Sai lch im trong mng tinh th
a: Nt trng b: Nguyn t xen k c: Nguyn t l

Xc sut bt gp nt trng trong mng tinh th:
|
\
|
=
T . K
u
exp . A ) n ( P

(1.23)
Trong :
A: H s ph thuc vo kiu mng
U: Nng lng cn thit to nt trng
K: Hng s Boltzmann
T: Nhit Kenvin
nh hng: to ra mt vng x lch trong mng tinh th v gy ng sut d trong
mng.
Ch : cc nt trng khng ng yn m lun lun i ch bng cch trao i v
tr vi cc nguyn t bn cnh.
a, b, c,

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1.3.1.2. Nguyn t l: kim loi d nguyn cht n u cng cha mt lng nht nh
nguyn t ca cc nguyn t khc gi l tp cht hay nguyn t l (hnh c).
Cc nguyn t tp cht c th thay th v tr ca nguyn t c s nt mng hoc
nm xen k gia cc nt mng.
nh hng: to cc trng ng sut d c du khc nhau ph thuc vo ng
knh nguyn t l.
Bn thn cc nt trng, cc nguyn t xen k gia cc nt mng v cc nguyn t
tp cht l sai lch im trong mng tinh th, hn na chng cn lm cc nguyn t
xung quanh b x dch i t nhiu to ra vng hnh cu ng knh khong vi thng
s mng vi cc nguyn t nm lch v tr.
1.3.2. Sai lch ng
Sai lch ng l sai lch mng c kch thc nh theo hai chiu o v ln theo
chiu o cn li, tc l c dng ng (thng hoc cong).
Cc dng lch ch yu l lch thng, lch xon v lch hn hp.
1.3.2.1. Lch thng (lch bin)
Nguyn nhn: Do s xut hin cc mt tinh th khng hon chnh dn n to ra
cc trc c nng lng cao hn, do km n nh hn nn to ra trc lch. nh
gi cng lch ngi ta dng vc t Burgers: b .

Hnh 1.14. M hnh lch thng

Lch thng c th hnh dung bng cch sau: Gi s c mng tinh th hon chnh
gm nhng mt nguyn t song song v cch u nhau. By gi nu chng ta chn
thm na mt phng ABCD vo na phn trn ca tinh th th cc mt nguyn t thng
ng nm v hai pha mt ABCD s khng cn hon ton song song nhau na, chng
b cong i vng gn ng AD. Cc nguyn t nm trong vng ny b x dch khi v
tr cn bng c ca mnh: Cc nguyn t vng pha di ng AD b y xa ra mt
t (vng c ng sut ko) cn cc nguyn t pha trn ng AD b p li mt t
A
B
C
D
A
B

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(vng c ng sut nn). Nh vy vng c sai lch nm xung quanh ng thng AD v
v vy ngi ta gi l lch thng. ng AD ng gi l trc c lch thng.
1.3.2.2. Lch xon
Nguyn nhn: Do s dch chuyn ca cc mt tinh th khng hon chnh to ra
cc b mt nhp nh t vi trong mng tinh th.
Lch xon c th hnh dung bng cch sau: Cc tinh th hon chnh bng na mt
phng ABCD xong x dch hai mp ngoi ngc chiu nhau lm th no mt
nguyn t nm ngang th nht bn phi trng vi mt nguyn t th hai bn tri. Kt
qu lm cho cc nguyn t nm gn ng AB b x dch khi v tr cn bng c ca
mnh. S d c danh t lch xon v cc lp nguyn t trong vng sai lch mng i theo
hnh xon c.
Mt phng ABCD gi l mt trt ca lch. Cc nguyn t nm trong vng dc
theo trc 1. Trc L gi l trc ca lch xon.
Vc t Burgers ca lch xon lun lun song song vi trc lch.

Hnh 1.15. M hnh lch xon
a: Tinh th hon chnh b: Tinh th c lch xon
c: Cch b tr nguyn t v hai pha mt trt
1.3.2.3. Lch hn hp
Lch hn hp l lch trung gian gia thng v xon n mang cc c im ca c
hai loi lch nu.

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Hnh 1.16. M hnh lch hn hp
Nu i vi lch thng hoc xon vect Burgers b nm trc giao hoc song song
vi trc ca lch trn mt phng trt th vect Burgers ca lch hn hp to thnh vi
trc lch mt gc bt k gia 0
0
v 90
0
trn mt trt

Hnh 1.17. Quan h gia vect b v trc lch L ca lch thng (a),
lch xon (b) v lch hn hp (c)
Vct b ca lch hn hp lun lun c th phn thnh hai vect thnh phn: mt
song song v mt trc giao vi trc lch L.
t x //
b b b b b + = + =

(1.29)
Theo thy rt r rng lch hn hp l tng hp ca lch thng v lch xon.
1.3.2.4. Khi nim v li lch hoc rng lch
Lch l dng khuyt tt c sn trong kim loi. Chng phn b mt cch bt k c
th ct nhau ti nhng im gi l nt lch. S phn b khng gian ca cc ng lch
trong kim loi cha bin dng gi l li lch hoc rng lch. Trng thi n nh nht
l ti mi nt ch c ba lch gp nhau. Nhng cng c trng hp khi 4 hoc 6 lch
ct nhau ti mt im, nhng nhng nt lnh nh vy lun lun c xu hng bin
thnh nt b ba. Trn hnh v l s li lch trong tinh th hnh tr cha bin
dng.

A
B
C
P P P
L L
90
0

b
b
b //
b
b
L
a, b, c,

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Hnh 1.18. S li lch trong tinh th hnh tr cha bin dng

c trng quan trng ca li lch, cng l c trng quan trng ca t chc
lch l mt lch, k hiu . l tng chiu di ca cc ng lch c trong mt
n v th tch:
] cm [
V
l
2
=

(1.24)
Trong :
l: Tng chiu di ca tt c ng lch trong ton th tch tinh th (cm)
V: Th tch ca tinh th (cm
3
)
1.3.3. Sai lch mt
Sai lch mt l nhng dng sai lch c kch thc nh theo mt chiu o v ln
theo hai chiu o cn li. Sai lch mt trong mng tinh th gm cc dng ch yu: bin
gii ht, bin gii siu ht v mt ngoi tinh th.
1.3.3.1. Bin gii ht
Cc nguyn t trn bin gii ht chu nhiu s quy nh. Do to ra mt bin
gii ht c s xp xp sai quy lut to thnh sai lch.
Vng tip gip gia cc ht trong a tinh th l mt dng sai lch mt, v y
cc nguyn t sp xp khng theo trt t nht nh, c trng cho cc vng pha bn
trong. V vy kim loi vng bin gii c cu to ging nh vt th v nh hnh. Gi
thit ny cho php gii thch mt s tnh cht ca vng bin gii nh nng lng t do,
kh nng ha tan tp cht vv...

im thot ca lch ra mt ngoi

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Hnh 1.19. Cch sp xp nguyn t trong vng bin gii ht
theo thuyt "v nh hnh"

V tr nguyn t ca vng bin gii khng phi hon ton ngu nhin m cn tun
theo mt s nguyn tc no ph thuc vo gc lch mng ca hai ht. Bin gii ht
cha rt nhiu sai lch mng, c chiu di khong vi thng s mng n hng trm
thng s mng. sch ca kim loi cng cao, chiu dy ca lp cng b. Ni mt
cch khc, kim loi cha nhiu tp cht bao nhiu th vng bin gii cng dy by
nhiu v n c kh nng ha tan nhiu nguyn t tp cht. Nng lng t do ca bin
gii cao hn so vi cc vng pha trong v thng c nh gi bng sc cng bin
gii ht (tng t nh sc cng b mt ca mt ngoi).
Do c im v cu to, vng bin gii ht c mt s tnh cht sau:
- C nhiu nng chy thp hn mt t so vi cc vng pha bn trong. Ngi ta
pht hin rng trong kim loi cc sch nhit nng chy ca bin gii ht thp
hn khong 0,14
0
C so vi bn thn ht.
- C hot tnh ha hc cao hn th hin tc b n mn ha hc cao. Do vy
m bng phng php tm thc (n mn nh bng axt) c th pht hin c bin gii
ht.
- Khi chuyn bin pha, bin gii l ni sinh ra tm mm nht
- C kh nng khuch tn cao vi tc nhanh hn so vi vng bn trong
- Gp phn kh ln vo in tr ca kim loi. Kim loi c ht nh tc tng s
vng bin gii ln, c in tr cao hn.
- nhit cao trn vng bin gii ht xy ra qu trnh chy do
- Bin gii c tc dng cn tr qu trnh trt khi bin dng. Vn ny chng ta
s xt n khi nghin cu qu trnh bin dng do.

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1.3.3.2. Khi nim v siu ht (block) v bin gii siu ht
Cc nghin cu t m v cu trc siu t vi cho thy rng ngay trong mi ht
phng mng cng khng phi hon ton c nh. Ht c phn chia thnh v s
vng nh c kch thc khong (10
-5
10
-3
) v phng mng lch nhau mt gc rt
nh, thng nh hn 1
0
. Nhng vng nh ny ca ht gi l siu ht (hoc block).

Hnh 1.20. M hnh siu ht

1.3.3.3. Mt ngoi ca tinh th
Mt ngoi ca tinh th c trng thi sp xp nguyn t khc vi nhng vng pha
trong. Trn b mt mi nguyn t ch c lin kt vi mt s nguyn t nm pha
trong s sp xp b hn tr s quy nh v do lc lin kt khng cn bng. l
nguyn nhn lm cho cc nguyn t mt ngoi sp xp khng c trt t, to nn sai
lch mt.

Hnh 1.21. M hnh sp xp nguyn t ca mt ngoi hnh th

D

b
a, b,

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1.3.4. Sai lch khi (sai lch th tch)
Sai lch khi trong mng tinh th ca vt liu l cc dng sai lch c kch
thc ln theo c ba chiu o.
Trong cc sai lch khi chng ta c th chia lm hai loi c bn nh sau,
theo nh hng ca chng n tnh cht ca vt liu:
- Loi xut hin ngu nhin trong qa trnh sn xut vt liu (nu luyn,
c kim loi, hp kim ...). Thuc v nhm ny c cc dng nh lm co, r co,
ngm x hoc hnh thnh pha th hai. Cc dng sai lch khi loi ny thng
thng lm gim c tnh ca vt liu, nhng trong cc iu kin theo yu cu th
chng li c li v mt c tnh.
- Loi xut hin do s c ca ngi sn xut, thc cht l s tit pha
th hai do phn hu dung dch rn qu bo ho.

1.4. Mt s khi nim c bn khi nghin cu tinh th
1.4.1. n tinh th
Nu khi kim loi em dng ch l mt tinh th, tc l c mng tinh th m
phng ca n c gi ng nht mi im th c gi l n tinh th.
1.4.2. a tinh th
Kim loi c cu to gm nhiu tinh th c gi l a tinh th v mi tinh
th trong c gi l ht.
1.4.3. Tnh th hnh cc vt tinh th
Tnh th hnh l kh nng tn ti nhiu kiu mng khc nhau ca vt tinh
th ph thuc vo iu kin bn ngoi (T
0
, P).
V d: Vi Fe
- Khi nhit < 910
0
C: tn ti Fe() c mng A2

K8.
- Khi nhit t (910 1392)
0
C: tn ti Fe() c mng A1

K12.
1.4.4. Tnh d hng
Tnh d hng l s khc nhau v tnh cht (c, l, ha) theo cc phng
khc nhau.

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Chng 2. Kt tinh t th lng ca kim loi

Trong thc t hin nay cc vt liu kim loi v hp kim c bn hu ht
c ch to bng phng php kt tinh t th lng. Nghin cu v qu trnh kt
tinh bao gm cc nhim v ch yu l:
- iu kin nhit ng hc ca qa trnh kt tinh
- Cc giai on (qu trnh) c bn ca s kt tinh
- Cc yu t c trng cho qu trnh kt tinh v sn phm sau kt tinh
- Cht lng vt liu sau kt tinh v bin php nng cao cht lng vt liu
- ng hc ca qu trnh kt tinh
- Cu to thc t v cc dng khuyt tt c th xut hin trong sn phm
sau khi kt tinh.
thc hin vic nghin cu cc vn trn chng ta ln lt i vo cc
ni dung sau:

2.1. Cu to kim loi lng v iu kin nng lng ca qu trnh
kt tinh
2.1.1. Cu to kim loi lng
Nh ni, tu theo iu kin bn ngoi (nhit , p sut), vt cht ni
chung v kim loi ni ring c ba trng thi tn ti l rn - lng - hi. Kim loi
nh bit hu ht l c cu to tinh th trng thi rn, nh vy n tn ti
mt quy lut xp xp cc nguyn t trong mng tinh th. Trong iu kin l
tng, xc sut bt gp nguyn t ti cc v tr xc nh theo quy lut l bng
mt. Trt t sp xp trong trng thi rn nh vy c gi l trt t xa, ngha l
m bo trong ton b th tch vt rn. Ngc li vi trng thi rn l trng
thi hi, hon ton hn n (khng trt t). trng thi hi khng tn ti mt
quy lut xc sut (hay phn b) no ca cc nguyn t, vic bt gp cc nguyn
t ti v tr no trong th tch l hon ton ngu nhin.

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Trc kia theo cc quan im c, trng thi lng ca kim loi c coi l
c cu to gn vi trng thi hi. Tuy nhin hin nay, vi s pht trin ca khoa
hc, bng vic p dng cc phng php nghin cu k thut cao nh phn tch
bng tia Rnghen, tia , knh hin vi in t ... cho thy cu to kim loi lng
c mt s c im sau:
- gn nhit kt tinh, th tch kim loi trng thi lng xp x vi th
tch kim loi trng thi rn.
- Nhit dung ring ng p ca kim loi lng xp x bng nhit dung ring
ng p cng ca kim loi trng thi rn.
- C kim loi lng v kim loi trng thi rn vn dn in v dn nhit tt.
T cc c im trn, chng ta c th rt ra mt s kt lun c bn sau:
- Th nht l khong cch cc nguyn t kim loi trong trng thi lng v
trng thi rn l xp x nhau (do th tch gn ging nhau), nh vy l c s n
nh v mt xp xp nguyn t kim loi trng thi lng.
- Th hai l dao ng nhit ca cc nguyn t kim loi quanh v tr cn
bng hai trng thi l gn ging nhau (do nhit dung ring xp x nhau), do
c mc n nh ca cc nguyn t l gn ging nhau.
- Th ba l trong kim loi lng vn tn ti my in t t do (th hin qua
tnh dn in).
Vi cc kt lun c bn k trn, c rt ra khi xt c im cu to ca
kim loi lng cho chng ta thy rng, nh vy trong kim loi lng tn ti cu to
v lin kt kim loi v do trt t xp xp nguyn t vn theo mt trt t xc
nh. Vn cn phi t ra l trt t xp xp nguyn t trong kim loi lng v
trng thi rn c g khc bit ? Cc nghin cu ch ra trong kim loi lng l
trt t gn, trng thi ny c th lin tc bt gp nhng vng c cu to tinh
th trong kim loi lng, ng thi cng lun c s ho tan cc phn cu to tinh
th tr li kim loi lng. Xc sut bt gp nguyn t theo v tr khng gian c
dng dao ng quanh gi tr n nh (hnh 2.1).

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Hnh 2.1. Xc sut bt gp nguyn t theo khng gian trng thi rn (a)
v trng thi lng (b)
Nh vy chng ta c th kt lun rng: gn nhit kt tinh, kim loi
lng c cu to trt t gn, trng thi ny gn vi trng thi rn (trt t xa) hn l
trng thi hi.
Tt nhin khi chng ta tip tc tng nhit cho kim loi lng, khi ti gn
nhit si, trong kim loi lng s ph v hon ton trng thi trt t gn
(khng cn tn ti cc vng c cu to tinh th). Khi kim loi lng chuyn
sang trng thi hn n, hon ton khng trt t v gn vi trng thi hi hn.
2.1.2. iu kin nng lng ca qu trnh kt tinh
Nh xt, chng ta thy v mt cu trc, gn nhit kt tinh kim loi
lng c cu to gn trng thi rn, nh vy khi kt tinh (chuyn t trng thi
lng sang trng thi rn), vic u tin chng ta thy y l qu trnh xy ra
theo s gim nhit v do n l mt qu trnh nhit ng. Chnh v vy,
nghin cu qu trnh kt tinh chng ta s p dng cc quy lut nhit ng. Trc
ht chng ta xt iu kin nng lng ca s kt tinh.
Chng ta u bit, mi h vt l u c xu hng tn ti trng thi c
mc nng lng t do thp, iu ny c th thy qua mt v d vi mt h c hc
n gin nh sau (hnh 2.2).
Vin bi c th c ba v tr tn ti (I, II, III) v nng lng t do ca n l th
nng ca vin bi, nh vy ti v tr I (cao nht), vin bi s c nng lng t do l
1
P(x)
a
b,
1
P(x)
a
a,
a
2
2 a

2 a

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ln nht, s d dng mt n nh v hai v tr II v III v gi l trng thi khng
n nh. Ti v tr III (thp nht), vin bi s c nng lng t do l nh nht, n
c mc n nh cao (cn nng lng rt ln ph v s cn bng) v c
gi l trng thi n nh. Cn v tr II l n nh hn v tr I, nhng km n nh
hn v tr III, nh vy xu hng ca n l chuyn sang trng thi n nh III,
nhng khi cn phi cp cho n mt nng lng ln vt qua trng thi
khng n nh. Nng lng cn cp cho h tr v trng thi n nh gi l
hng ro nng lng.

Hnh 2.2. Cc trng thi vi mc n nh khc nhau ca h c hc
Hin nay, quan im nng lng ny c chng minh l ng cho mi
h vt l, v vy khi xt chiu dng xy ra ca mt qu trnh bao gi cng phi
cn c vo iu kin nng lng l u tin, iu ny chng ta s cn s dng
trong tt c cc qu trnh nghin cu ca khoa hc vt liu.
Vi qu trnh kt tinh, hu ht s kt tinh kim loi lng l trong mi trng
p sut kh quyn v c th coi l qu trnh ng p.
Nng lng t do ng p ca h (nng lng Gibbs) c tnh bng biu thc:
G = H - T.S (2.1)
Trong :
G: Nng lng t do ng p ca h; T: Nhit (
0
K)
H: Entanpi (nhit hm) ca h; S: Entropi ca h.
Bin thin nng lng t do ca h:
dG =dH - T.dS - S.dT (2.2)
Do qu trnh ng p (P = const) nn ta c:
I
II
III

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dH = Cp.dT
T
dT
. Cp dS=

(2.3)
Thay (2.3) vo (2.2) ta c:
dT
T
dT
. Cp dT . S dG
T
0
(
= =

(2.4)
dT
T
dT
. Cp G G
T
0
T
0
0

(
=

(2.5)
T phng trnh (2.5) vi cc kim loi ta c th thay i nng lng t
do ca hai pha lng v pha rn nh hnh (2.3).

Hnh 2.3. th thay i nng lng t do ca kim loi lng
v rn theo nhit
Trn th ta thy hai ng cong ct nhau ti mt im c nhit l T
0
.
T th ny chng ta thy rng: Khi nhit ca h nh hn nhit T
0
, lc
nng lng t do ca pha rn nh hn ca pha lng, v vy trng thi rn s l
n nh v kim loi s tn ti trng thi rn. Ngc li khi nhit ln hn
nhit T
0
, nng lng t do ca pha lng s nh hn ca pha rn v do trng
thi lng tr nn n nh hn, kim loi s tn ti trng thi lng.
Ti nhit T
0
ta c:
G
lng
= G
rn
(2.6)
Tc l:
H
lng
- T
0
.S
lng
= H
rn
- T
0
.S
rn
(2.7)
T
G
G
L
G
R
T
0

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

H
rn
- H
lng
= T
0
(S
rn
- S
lng
)
S
H
T
0
=
(2.8)

(2.9)
H: chnh nhit hm gia trng thi rn v trng thi lng ca kim loi,
chnh l nhit nng chy ca kim loi v c k hiu l L
n/c
. Ta suy ra:
S
L
T
c / n
0
=

(2.10)
Nhit T
0
gi l nhit kt tinh l thuyt ca kim loi, ti nhit ny
tn ti trng thi cn bng ng gia pha lng v pha rn, cha xy ra qu trnh
kt tinh, c c bao nhiu phn t rn xut hin th li c s ho tan tr li kim
loi lng by nhiu phn t rn.
Nh vy, mun qu trnh kt tinh kim loi lng xy ra ta phi c iu kin:
G = G
rn
- G
lng
< 0 (2.11)
Tc l nhit thc t ca h T
k
phi tho mn:
T = T
0
- T
k
> 0 (2.12)
Gi tr T gi l qu ngui khi kt tinh. V nh vy iu kin kt tinh
xy ra ch khi T > 0. Ta thy v mt nng lng, qu trnh kt tinh kim loi
lng s xy ra khi tn ti qu ngui T > 0, song s kt tinh xy ra theo cc
giai on th no, iu ny s c trnh by trong cc phn tip theo.

2.2. Qu trnh to mm v pht trin mm khi kt tinh
2.2.1. Qu trnh to mm
Khi thc hin kt tinh, khng phi ngay tc khc ton b th tch kim loi
lng chuyn sang trng thi rn m phi tri qua cc giai on khc nhau theo
thi gian. Ban u trong lng kim loi lng c s xut hin ra nhng phn t rn
u tin, m khng b ho tan tr li kim loi lng. Ngi ta gi l qu trnh
to mm, qu trnh to mm c hai dng c bn khc nhau l to mm t sinh
(ng pha) hoc to mm k sinh (khng ng pha).
2.2.1.1. To mm t sinh

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Mm t sinh l nhng mm c to ra t bn thn kim loi lng, khng
chu s tc ng ca cc yu t bn ngoi. Qu trnh to mm t sinh xy ra khi
mt nhm nguyn t c trt t, c nh li to cu to mng tinh th cng kiu
vi mng tinh th kim loi . Khi trong lng kim loi lng c s xut hin mt
phn t rn ta thy h c hai s thay i nng lng ngc chiu nhau l:
- S gim nng lng khi mt th tch pha lng chuyn sang trng thi rn
(do khi kt tinh nhit nh hn T
0
, lc ny nng lng t do ca pha rn nh
hn pha lng).
- Khi pha rn to ra, xut hin mt b mt pha mi v c nng lng b
mt, dn n lm tng nng lng ca h.
Hai s thay i ny c m t qua biu thc ton hc nh sau:
G = - G
th tch
+ G
b mt
(2.13)
Trong :
G: S thay i nng lng t do ca h
G
th tch
: S gim nng lng khi chuyn t trng thi lng sang trng thi rn
G
b mt
: S tng nng lng do nng lng b mt ca pha rn mi to ra.
Ta c:
G
th tch
= G
lng
- G
rn
(2.14)
Hay:
(H
lng
- H
rn
) - T
k
(S
rn
- S
lng
) = G
th tch

L
n/c
- T
k
.S = G
th tch

(2.15)
T (2.10) v (2.15) ta c:
G
th tch
= L
n/c
- T
k
.
0
c / n
T
L

G
th tch
=
0
c / n
T
T . L

(2.16)
Biu thc (2.16) l nng lng gim i ca h khi to mt n v th tch
pha rn. Gi s mm ban u to ra l c dng hnh cu vi bn knh r (tho mn

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

iu kin nng lng b mt nh nht), ta c biu thc tnh gim nng lng
ca h khi to mm pha mi l:
G
th tch
=
0
c / n
3
T
T
. L . r
3
4

(2.17)
Vy bin thin nng lng t do ca h l:
G = -
0
c / n
3
T
T
. L . r
3
4
+ 4 r
2
.

(2.18)
Trong :
: Sc cng b mt n v ca b mt mm.
T biu thc (2.18) ta c th v th m t s bin thin nng lng ca
h theo s thay i ca bn knh mm pha rn mi to ra (hnh 2.4).
T th chng ta thy s tn ti mt gi tr r
th
ti ng vi gi tr bin
thin nng lng G l cc i. Do khi cc mm to ra c bn knh nh hn
r
th
s khng pht trin c, m b ho tan tr li kim loi lng. Ch c nhng
mm c bn knh ln hn r
th
mi tip tc pht trin c, thay th dn pha lng
thc hin qu trnh kt tinh.

Hnh 2.4. Bin thin nng lng t do ca h theo bn knh mm pha mi

Ta c th tnh bn knh mm ti hn (r
th
) nh sau:
G
BM
G

G
th
G
TT
G

r
th
O

r

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

0
) G (
th
r r
=

=
0 . r 8
T
T
. L . r 4
th
0
c / n
2
th
= +

0
T
T
. L . r 2 r 4
0
c / n th th
=
|
|
\
|

T . L
T . 2
r
c / n
0
th
=

(2.19)
T biu thc (2.19) ta thy gi tr ca bn knh mm ti hn t l nghch vi
qu ngui khi kt tinh T. Khi gi tr T cng ln (tc l nhit kt tinh
cng nh), s dn n r
th
cng nh v do qu trnh to mm xy ra nhanh hn,
cc mm to ra c kh nng pht trin c c bn knh nh hn. Ngoi ra gi
tr bn knh mm ti hn cn ph thuc vo tnh cht vt l ca bn thn kim
loi kt tinh. Biu thc (2.19) cng khng nh rng, khi nhit T
0
(T = 0)
qu trnh kt tinh l khng th xy ra do r
th
= .
Thay biu thc (2.19) vo biu thc (2.18) ta c nng lng ti hn to
mm c bn knh ti hn l:
G
th
= -
0
c / n
3
th
T
T
. L . r
3
4
+ 4 r
th
2
.
=
|
|
\
|
+

th c / n
0
2
th
r . L
T 3
T
r 4
=
|
|
\
|

th
0
c / n 2
th
r
3
1
. T
T
L
r 4
=
|
|
\
|

T . L
T . 2
3
1
. T
T
L
r 4
c / n
0
0
c / n 2
th

=
|
\
|

3
2
r 4
2
th

=
th
F .
3
1

(2.20)
Trong :
F
th
: Din tch b mt mm ti hn.
Nh vy bin thin nng lng t do ca h l:

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

= =
3
1
. r 4
3
1
G
2
th th
G
b mt

(2.21)
Ta thy s gim nng lng do yu t th tch ch to 2/3 din tch b
mt mm ti hn, nh vy to mm cn phi c s cp thm nng lng t
cc ngun khc. Ngun cp nng lng ny da vo s ba ng nng lng ca
h, gi tr nng lng ca kim loi lng khi kt tinh phi hiu l gi tr trung
bnh. Nng lng ca cc phn th tch nh khc nhau nhng thi im khc
nhau c s thay i, c th ln hn hoc nh hn gi tr trung bnh. Nu phn
nng lng tng thm do ba ng nng lng cung cp phn nng lng
cn thiu to b mt, khi qu trnh to mm s xy ra. Do qu trnh to
mm lin quan cht ch n s ba ng nng lng v xc sut to mm chnh l
xc sut ba ng nng lng vi tr s G
th
.
Ta c:
P
1
(x) = c
1
exp
|
\
|
T . K
G
th

= c
1
exp
|
|
\
|
2 2
c / n
3 2
0
T . T
1
L
. T
K 3
16

= c
1
exp
|
|
\
|
2
3
2
T . T
. c

(2.22)
Trong :
P
1
(x): Xc sut to mm ti hn
K: Hng s Boltzmann.
Biu thc (2.22) cho thy xc sut to mm ph thuc rt mnh vo T.
Cc th nghim thc t ch ra rng, kim loi nu c sch cao khi kt tinh
xy ra vi T kh ln (ti 0,2 T
0
), nhng vi cc kim loi thng thng qu trnh
kt tinh li bt u vi nhng qu ngui rt nh (t 1 10
0
C), iu ny c
gii thch bi s nh hng ca cc tp cht c mt trong kim loi lng v l c
ch to mm khc pha.
2.2.1.2. To mm k sinh

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Mm k sinh l nhng mm c to ra trn c s cc ht rn c sn
trong kim loi lng. Khi nim v ht rn c sn gm cc yu t c bn sau:
- Thnh khun cha kim loi lng khi kt tinh.
- Cc tp cht kh chy ln trong kim loi lng (v d: Al
2
O
3
, Cr
2
O
3
, ... ln
trong kim loi lng).
- Bi tng l ln trong kim loi lng.
Vi s xut hin ca cc ht rn c sn, s thay i nng lng t do khi to
mm trong trng hp ny c cc c im ring ca mnh.
Chng ta kho st m hnh to mm, mt cch n gin nh sau: Gi s
trn b mt ca ht rn c sn c mt mm c to ra c dng chm cu vi
bn knh r (hnh 2.5). Gc l gc tip xc gia mm v b mt vt rn.

Hnh 2.5. S to mm k sinh

T m hnh ta tnh c cc yu t hnh hc ca mm nh sau:
- Th tch mm:
V =
3
r
3
(2 - 3 cos + cos
3
)

(2.23)
- Din tch tip xc gia mm v b mt vt rn:
F
MR
= r
2
. sin
2

(2.24)
- Din tch tip xc gia mm v pha lng:
F
ML
= 2 r
2
(1 - cos)
(2.25)
Khi xut hin mm, h c s thay i nng lng t do l:
Kim loi lng
Kim loi rn
Mm
r
RL
ML
MR

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- gim nng lng th tch (do s chuyn mt phn th tch t pha lng
sang pha rn):
G
th tch
= . T
T
L
0
c / n
V
mm

= . T
T
L
0
c / n

3
r
3
(2 - 3 cos + cos
3
)

(2.26)
- tng nng lng b mt do b mt mm to ra:
G
b mt
=
ML
. F
ML
+ (
MR
-
RL
). F
MR
(2.27)
Trong :

ML
: Sc cng b mt gia mm v kim loi lng
MR
: Sc cng b mt gia mm v ht rn c sn
RL
: Sc cng b mt gia ht rn v kim loi lng.
T hnh (2.5) ta thy, mm khng dch chuyn th phi tho mn iu kin:
0 ML MR RL = + +
-
RL
+
MR
+
RL
. cos = 0
cos =
ML
MR RL

(2.28)
Bin thin nng lng ca h:
G = - G
th tch
+ G
b mt

= . T
T
L
0
c / n

3
r
3
(2 - 3 cos + cos
3
) + G
b mt

(2.29)
Thay cc tr s vo (2.27) tnh G
b mt
:
G
b mt
=
ML
. 2r
2
(1 - cos) + (
MR
-
RL
).r
2
sin
2

=
ML
. 2 r
2
(1 - cos)
ML
. cos. r
2
sin
2

= r
2
.
ML
(2 - 3cos + cos
3
)

(2.30)
T ta c:
G = C . T . r
3
4
.
T
L
r 4 .
3
0
c / n 2
ML
|
|
\
|

(2.31)

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Vi C =
4
1
(2 - 3cos + cos
3
)
So snh (2.31) v (2.18) ta thy chng ch khc nhau h s C v gi tr
ca 0 < C < 1.
ng vi cc gi tr xc nh ng cong biu din quan h gia bn knh
mm v qu ngui T cng c dng hnh 2.4. Ta cng tnh c bn knh ti
hn ca mm l:
T . L
T . 2
r
c / n
0 ML
th
=

(2.32)
V nng lng cn thit to mm k sinh c bn knh ti hn l:
2
th ML th
r 4 . . C
3
1
G =

(2.33)
Biu thc (2.33) cho thy, nng lng cn thit to mm k sinh ph
thuc vo gc vi tr s ca xc nh theo (2.28).
Chng ta thy rng, cos c th nhn cc gi tr t -1 n +1, thy r nh
hng ca gc chng ta xt hai trng hp:
- Khi cos = - 1 h s C = 1 v do nng lng to mm:
*
th ML th
F .
3
1
G =

(2.34)
Vi F
*
th
l din tch mt cu c bn knh cong bng r
th
ca mm k sinh.
Khi cos = - 1 ngha l
ML
=
MR
v
RL
= 0 v gc = 180
0
, tc l mm
to ra c dng hnh cu, do n tr v trng hp mm t sinh.
Vy khi
ML

MR
lc qu trnh to mm tr v mm t sinh v vai tr
ca vt rn trong qu trnh kt tinh l khng cn, v khi to mm trn pha rn
s c nng lng cao hn khi to mm trong lng pha lng. Trong tt c cc
trng hp khc khi
ML
>
MR
th cos lun ln hn -1 v h s C lun nh hn
1. Nng lng to mm k sinh s nh hn nng lng to mm t sinh. Khi
b mt ca vt rn c sn thc y qu trnh kt tinh nhanh hn.
- Khi cos = 1 ta c h s C = 0 tc l G
th
= 0, y l trng hp l tng,
tuy nhin chng ta c th phn u theo hng
RL
=
ML

MR
0 khi tr

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

s C s rt nh v tng ng nng lng cn thit to mm s gim i rt nhiu,
qu trnh kt tinh xy ra d dng hn.
Sc cng b mt gia mm v pha rn ph thuc rt nhiu vo cu trc
tinh th ca chng, nu mm v vt rn c cng kiu mng khi
MR
l rt nh
v d dng to mm. iu ny gii thch ti sao nu kim loi lng khi b nung
khng nng chy hon ton s kt tinh rt nhanh, do vt rn l chnh bn thn
kim loi . Tuy vy d c kiu mng khc nhau nhng khi mm gn ln b mt
vt rn theo cc mt tinh th c tr s M
s
tng ng cng gim ng k
MR
(v
d (1, 1, 1) ca mng A1 vi (1, 1, 0) ca A2 hoc (1, 0, 0) ca A1 vi (1, 1, 0)
ca A2). Phn tch ny gip chng ta la chn hp l nht cht bin tnh khi
mun thc y qu trnh kt tinh, ngoi yu t v nhit nng chy ta cn phi
lu n cu trc mng ca chng.
2.2.2. Qu trnh pht trin mm
Cc mm (trung tm) kt tinh c bn knh ln hn gi tr ti hn, sau khi
to ra s tip tc pht trin, to thnh cc ht, tinh th bng cch gn thm cc
nguyn t hoc nhm nguyn t ln b mt mm theo cc trt t xc nh. Qu
trnh ny l qu trnh t nhin, bi v n c xu hng lm gim nng lng ca
h thng (hnh 2.4). Khi nghin cu qu trnh to mm, chng ta gi thit mm
ban u l hnh cu c bn knh r, tuy vy iu ny khng th ng vi iu kin
thc t v kim loi c cu to mng tinh th, do b mt mm phi l cc tinh
th vi trt t xp xp nguyn t xc nh. Khi mm ln ln n phi c dng
hnh khi ph hp vi cu to tinh th ca n v do y chng ta xt c ch
ln ln ca mm l theo cc mt tinh th ca n.
Qu trnh pht trin mm l s pht trin v mt kch thc ca cc phn t
rn dn dn chim ch th tch pha lng.
C hai l thuyt v qu trnh ln ln ca mm l: c ch mm ln ln theo
lp nguyn t khng hon chnh v mm ln ln theo b mt lch xon. Sau y
ta ln lt nghin cu v hai c ch ny.
2.2.2.1. C ch mm ln ln theo lp nguyn t khng hon chnh

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Lp nguyn t khng hon chnh l cc phn c cu to tinh th xut hin v mt
i trong kim loi lng gn nhit kt tinh.
Xt trn b mt pha rn, u tin lp nguyn t khng hon chnh c sp xp trt
t vi kch thc a x b v chiu cao bng mt ng knh nguyn t gn ln b mt
pha rn (hnh a). Tip theo , nhng nguyn t ring bit t pha lng in dn vo
t c lp nguyn t hon chnh (hnh b). Sau li mt lp nguyn t khng hon
chnh khc gn vo v qu trnh ln ln ca mm c tip tc theo .

Hnh 2. 6. M hnh c ch mm ln ln theo lp nguyn t khng hon chnch

Cc khi lp phng biu din cc nguyn t, chng c th gn vo tinh th theo
cc v tr 1, 2, 3 trong v tr 3 l n nh nht v n cho php nguyn t tip xc vi
tinh th theo ba mt, v tr 2 km n nh hn v v tr 1 l bt li nht v nguyn t ch
tip xc vi tinh th theo hai v mt mt.
- Tc to mm N: l s lng mm to ra trong mt n v thi gian.
N = P
1
(x) . P
2
(x) (2.35)
Trong :
P
1
(x): Xc sut to mm ti hn.
P
2
(x): Xc sut bt gp lp nguyn t khng hon chnh.
- Tc ln ln ca mm v: l s pht trin v kch thc ca mm theo thi gian.
v = P
2
(x) . P
3
(x) (2.36)
Trong :
P
3
(x): Xc sut to ra s pht trin ca mm
Lp nguyn t khng hon chnh
a
b
d
3
1
2
a, b,

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

So snh N v v:
+ C N v v u ph thuc vo T
+ Mc tng ca N v v theo T trong giai on u khc nhau, N tng
nhanh hn. Khi v bt u gim (T > T
0
/ 2) th N vn tip tc tng.
Do vy, mun tng cng s lng mm th tng T tc l gim nhit
kt tinh thc t (T = T
0
- T
kt tinh TT
) T = 2T
0
/ 3.
2.2.2.2 Mm to ra theo c ch da vo lch xon
pha rn lun tn ti lch c cha lnh xon. V tinh th c cha lch xon nn
b mt trc giao vi trc ca lch c dng xon, trn n c sn nhng bc cp ng
vai tr nh lp nguyn t khng hon chnh. Tinh th ln ln bng cch cc nguyn t
bm vo b mt nhng ni c bc cp nh hnh v.

Hnh 2.7. M hnh mm to ra theo c ch da vo lch xon
C hai c ch ln ln ca mm u c nhng gi tr ring ca mnh v ni ln
hai kh nng thc t ca s pht trin tinh th. im ging nhau ca chng l trn b
mt tinh th ang ln ln phi c nhng bc cp nguyn t t pha lng gn vo.
cng l hai kh nng thc t trong qu trnh kt tinh.

2.3. ht khi kt tinh, ngha v cc yu t nh hng
2.3.1. Khi nim ht
Qu trnh hnh thnh ht:

Hnh 2.8. Qu trnh hnh thnh ht
Kim loi lng To mm Mm c ln ln,
mm mi to thnh
To ht

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

ht kim loi sau kt tinh l kch thc trung bnh ca cc ht tinh th trong th
tch kim loi rn.
Cc ht to ra c kch thc khng ng nht, v vy phi ly gi tr trung bnh
gi l ht.
n gin, ta xc nh ht bng cch m s ht trn mt n v din tch.
2.3.2. ngha ca ht
ht quyt nh c tnh ca vt liu. ht cng nh, c tnh cng cao. Do
trong sn xut kim loi lun mong mun to c ht nh.
2.3.3. Cc yu t nh hng n ht (A)
- Tc ngui:
N
v
k A
1
= - Kch thc trung bnh ca ht

(2.37)
Trong : k
1
, k
2
l hng s.
Nh vy, mun thu c ht nh th phi tng tc to mm N v gim tc
ln ln ca mm v.

Hnh 2.9. S thay i ca N v v theo T
Trong thc t, khi N tng th v cng tng (vi T tng), nhng do N tng mnh
hn v. V vy mun ht nh phi tng qu ngui T, tc l tng tc lm ngui.
- Tng cng qu trnh to mm k sinh bng cch a vo kim loi lng cc tp
cht kh chy: phng php bin tnh kim loi.
- Dng dao ng c hc.
- Dng sng siu m.
T

v

N

N, v

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2.3.4. Cch xc nh ht trong thc t
Xc nh cc bng cp ht theo tiu chun: t cp (-3 12). Ch s cng tng th
ht cng nh. Lm tiu bn mc phng i 100 ln. Cc mu thc t tin hnh
chp nh vi phng i 100 ln, ri em so vi tiu bn ta c cp ht thc t.
Cc dng ht thng gp:
- Ht u trc: c tit din gn vi hnh trn.
- Ht ko di: dng tinh th hnh tr.
Cp: (-3 0): ht th
(1 8): ht va
(9 12): ht mn
Phm vi ng dng:
+ Ht th: Dng trong cng ngh ch to phi
+ Chi tit my thng thng dng c ht t 1 8
+ Chi tit my yu cu c bit dng c ht t 9 12

2.4. qu trnh kt tinh thc t ca kim loi trong khun c
2.4.1. C ch kt tinh nhnh cy
- C ch: qu trnh kt tinh khng xy ra u theo mi phng m n pht trin
theo mt s phng u tin nht nh, to thnh dng nhnh cy.
- M hnh: Trong th tch kim loi lng ban u s kt tinh theo nhng hng u
tin to thnh mt trc chnh, t trc chnh tip tc pht trin theo hng kt tinh ph
v hng nh.

Hnh 2.10. M hnh kt tinh nhnh cy

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- Nguyn nhn: s dng hai l thuyt gii thch
+ Theo l thuyt tp cht: Trong kim loi lng khi kt tinh n lun lun tn ti
tp cht. Tp cht phn b gianh gii pha lng v pha rn do to ra cc hng u
tin pht trin pha rn, hnh thnh ra dng nhnh cy.

Hnh 2.11. Gii thch c ch kt tinh nhnh cy theo l thuyt tp cht

+ Theo l thuyt Graien nhit m: Thnh ca khun c lun tn ti nhng
nhp nh t vi do to sai khc v qu ngui nn to phng u tin kt tinh do
to dng nhnh cy.

Hnh 2.12. Gii thch c ch kt tinh nhnh cy theo
l thuyt Gradien nhit m
Kt lun: khi tin hnh kt tinh kim loi v hp kim lng cn c cc bin php
trnh s kt tinh nhnh cy m bo c tnh cho vt liu.
2.4.2. Cu to ca thi c thc t
- iu kin khun v lm ngui:
+ Khun kim loi
+ Lm ngui trong khng kh tnh to ra qu ngui T n nh.
- Cu to thi c: bao gm 3 vng

Tp cht

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Hnh 2.13. Cu to ca thi c

+ Vng 1: L vng st vi thnh khun, tc ngui ln, qu ngui T tng
do N v v tng nn r
th
nh, s lng mm to ra nhiu. Ton b nhp nh thnh
khun th tham gia to mm k sinh, N rt ln v vy ht nh.
+ Vng 2: Tip theo thnh khun nng ln, tc ngui gim, qu ngui T
gim, N v v gim, ht c kch thc ln v b ko di theo phng truyn nhit (vung
gc vi thnh khun).
+ Vng 3: Do trng nhit ng u, tc ngui gim rt mnh, c tnh
ng hng, v vy to ht c kch thc ln dng a din.
Trn c s phn tch cu to ca thi c, ta thy mun thu c t chc hon
ton nh mn th cn lin tc duy tr T ln bng cch lm mt lin tc cho khun.
Nu lun duy tr phng truyn nhit u tin s khng to t chc ht th m to t
chc xuyn tinh.
Khi tc lm ngui nh s khng c kh nng u tin phng truyn nhit nn
khng to t chc xuyn tinh m to ra t chc ht th.
2.4.3. Khuyt tt ca thi c
- Khi nim: Khuyt tt l cc dng t chc, cu trc khng ng theo mun
ban u ca ngi sn xut.
- Cc dng khuyt tt ca thi c l: Lm co, r co, r kh v thin tch.
2.4.3.1. Lm co
- Khi nim: Lm co l hin tng gim th tch ca vt c so vi th tch kim
loi lng ban u v c tp trung ti mt v tr.
- Nguyn nhn: Do gin n nhit v cu trc tinh th hai trng thi lng v
rn l khc nhau.
- Tc hi: To ph phm vt c.
- Khc phc: Dng cc h thng b, co ngt.
Vng 1
Vng 2
Vng 3

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Ty thuc vo bn cht kim loi m co c th ln hoc b. Lm co thng
xut hin vng kt sinh sau cng ph thuc vo phng php lm ngui m c cc
dng lm co khc nhau.

Hnh 2.14. Cc dng khuyt tt cu thi c

Hnh a: Lm ngui mnh lit t y khun cn cc tng bn vn gi nhit
cao. Kt tinh xy ra t y ln pha trn, mc kim loi lng tt dn v mt trn cng
ca thi c c dng tng i bng phng.
Hnh b: Lm ngui mnh lit t y v cc tng bn. Kt tinh xy ra t ba pha
v lm co c dng cho
Hnh c: Lm ngui mnh lit t cc tng bn, cn mt y vn gi nhit
cao. V kt tinh ch xy ra t bn hng nn lm co c dng phu nhn ko di v pha
y khun.
Hnh d: Trong c ba trng hp k trn s ta nhit trn b mt khng ng k,
do lp kim loi lng trn b mt kt tinh sau cng. Trong mt s trng hp, v d
khi qut gi lnh pha trn khun hoc tit din khun phn trn b hn nhiu so
vi cc phn di vv...lm co nm kn trong thi c.
Khi em thi c cn nng thnh thnh phm ngi ta phi ct b phn kim
loi c cha lm co v nu khng lm co s ko di ra trong vt cn nh nhng vt nt
c sn. Hn na vng lm co kt tinh sau cng c cha rt nhiu tp cht v x nn
cng phi ct b i. phn kim loi ct b i l t nht, phi tm cch lm cho lm
co tp trung trn cng khng i su vo thi c. Mun vy, phi thit k hp l hnh
dng khun v dng cc bin php bo m tc ngui chm vng trn cng.
t mc ch ny ngi ta thng dng np y bng vt liu chu la c tng dy
gim tc ta nhit hoc dng cc bin php nung vng trn ca khun.
2.4.3.2. R co
a, e, d, c, b,
R kh
R co

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- Khi nim: R co l hin tng m lm co i vo bn trong vt c di dng
cc l nh.
Hnh2.14.e: Lm co ngm nu phn tn s to thnh r co.
- Nguyn nhn: Ch yu do qu trnh lm ngui.
- Tc hi: Lm mt tnh lin tc ca vt liu, gim c tnh vt c.
2.4.3.3. R kh
- Khi nim: R kh l hin tng tn ti cc bt kh trong vt c (hnh 2.14.e).
- Nguyn nhn: Do s ha tan kh ca kim loi lng.
- Tc hi: Lm mt tnh lin tc ca vt c v to cc vng tp trung ng sut,
lm cho c tnh ca vt c gim rt mnh.
- Khc phc: Tng cng qu trnh thot kh khi kt tinh bng cch to ra s lu
ng ca kim loi lng v m nu phi c sy kh trc khi nu luyn.
2.4.3.4. Thin tch
- Khi nim: Thin tch l s khng ng nht v thnh phn ha hc gia cc
vng trong vt c. C hai loi thin tch l thin tch vng v thin tch ht.
Thin tch vng: l s khng ng nht v thnh phn ha hc trong ton b th
tch vt c.
Thin tch ht: l s khng ng nht v thnh phn ha hc trong ni b ht kim
loi.
- Nguyn nhn: Do s khc nhau v nhit nng chy, khi lng ring v h
s khuch tn ca cc nguyn t.
- Tc hi: To ra cc vng khng ng u v c tnh, lm gim tin cy ca
sn phm c bit l cc vt c c kch thc ln.
- Cch khc phc:
La chn hp l cc nguyn t khi to hp kim.
Vi thin tch ht c th vt c ng u ha thnh phn ( khuch tn).
C gng dng cc bin php cng ngh to s ng u khi kt tintin trnh
thin tch vng.

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Chng 3. Cu to hp kim v gin trng thi

Trong k thut, c bit l trong ch to c kh rt t dng kim loi nguyn cht,
m thng dng cc hp kim. Do , trong chng ny s kho st cu to v gin
trng thi ca hp kim.

3.1. Cc khi nim c bn
3.1.1. Khi nim hp kim
Hp kim l hn hp ng nht v mt t chc ca t hai nguyn t tr ln trong
c t nht mt nguyn t l kim loi v nguyn t kim loi ng vai tr chnh tc l
c hm lng ln nht, tnh cht ca n th hin r rt nht.
3.1.2. c im ca hp kim
- Hp kim d sn xut hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c nhiu tnh cht tt hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c th to ra nhng tnh cht c bit m kim loi nguyn cht khng th
c.
- Hp kim c gi thnh r hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht.
- Hp kim c tnh cng ngh cao hn so vi kim loi nguyn cht v c th hin :
Tnh do: Khi s dng hp kim cho tnh do cao, do kh nng bin dng do
tt, d dng cho vic gia cng p lc.
Tnh c: Khi s dng cc hp kim c th thu c iu kin nng chy thp hn
kim loi nguyn cht, do tnh chy long cao nn c th in y cc lng khun phc
tp.
Tnh ct gt tt hn.
Chnh v th trong thc t hu nh ch s dng hp kim.
3.1.3. Cc nh ngha c bn v hp kim
- Pha (F): l cu phn ng nht ca hp kim cng t chc v cng trng thi (khi
trng thi rn phi c cng kiu mng v thng s mng), c ngn cch bng mt
b mt phn pha ln.
- H: l tp hp cc pha trng thi cn bng (cc pha tn ti n nh trong mt
iu kin bn ngoi xc nh).
- H cn bng: h c coi l h cn bng khi cc qa trnh xy ra trong h c
tnh thun nghch.

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Qa trnh thun nghch: nhng qa trnh m khi c s thay i ca mt yu t
bn ngoi hoc bn trong s lm h bin i theo mt hng. Khi yu t bn ngoi
thay i theo chiu ngc li v i qua cc giai on nh hng bin i trc.
- Cu t (nguyn) (N): l nhng cu phn c lp ca h (c th l n cht hoc
hp cht) c thnh phn ha hc n nh m n c nhim v cu to nn tt c cc pha
ca h.
- Bc t do ca h (T): l s cc yu t bn ngoi (P, T
0
) hoc bn trong (thnh
phn) c th thay i c m h khng b thay i trng thi.
Quy tc pha (Gibbs) tnh bc t do: T = N - F + 2
Trong :
N: l s cu t cu to nn h
F: l s pha ca h ti im tnh bc t do
2: l s yu t bn ngoi (P, T
0
)
Trong thc t, coi P = const nn: T = N - F + 1 (cng thc Gibbs).
ngha ca bc t do: gip chng ta bit c trng thi ca h. Khi T = 0 th h
s suy bin thnh mt im.
Nu T = 0 tc l F = N + 1 khi h l v bin, hay khng c yu t no (nhit
hay thnh phn) c th thay i c. V d kim loi nguyn cht (N = 1) khi nng
chy hay kt tinh s tn ti 2 pha (F = 2 nn T = 0), iu ny chng t kim loi nguyn
cht nng chy sau kt tinh nhit khng i (v trong h mt nguyn khng c
bin s v thnh phn ha hc).
Nu T = 1 tc l F = N h l n bin tc l ch c mt yu t (hoc nhit
hoc l thnh phn) c th thay i c. V d hp kim Cu - Ni khi nung nng s bin
thnh dung dch lng, v vy s pha F = 2 nn T = 1 do N = 2, iu ny chng t qu
trnh nng chy ca hp kim Cu - Ni xy ra trong mt khong nhit hoc l ti mt
nhit no y trong qu trnh nng chy ta c thm vo mt t Cu (hoc Ni) m vn
khng lm thay i s pha ca h.
Nu T = 2 tc l F = N - 1 h l nh bin tc l cng mt lc c th thay i c
2 yu t nhit v thnh phn. V d, phn ln cc hp kim 2 nguyn trng thi
lng u ha tan v hn vo nhau nn ch c t chc mt pha l dung dch lng, iu
ny chng t trng thi lng ta c th thay i thnh phn hoc nhit kh d dng
m hp kim vn ch c t chc mt pha.

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3.2. Cc dng cu trc hp kim c bn
- Dung dch rn
- Cc pha trung gian
- Hn hp c hc
3.2.1. Dung dch rn
3.2.1.1. Khi nim
Dung dch rn l mt dng cu trc hp kim to bi hai nguyn, trong mt nguyn
bo tn c kiu mng gi l dung mi, nguyn th hai ha tan vo trong kiu mng
gi l cht tan.
Vi thc t, c th c dung dch rn c nhiu cht tan.
3.2.1.2. Phn loi dung dch rn
Da vo kiu ha tan ca cht tan trng mng dung mi, ngha l kiu sp xp
ca nguyn t cht tan trong mng tinh th dung mi th dung dch rn c phn
thnh: dung dch rn thay th, dung dch rn xen k v dung dch rn c trt t.
3.2.1.2.1. Dung dch rn thay th
- Khi nim: Dung dch rn thay th l dung dch rn trong cc nguyn t cht
tan chim ch ca nguyn t dung mi ti v tr cc nt mngl

Hnh 3.1. Dung dch rn thay th

- c im: Dung dch rn thay th gi nguyn kiu mng ca dung mi nhng
to ra cc sai lch im trong mng tinh th nn to ng sut d trong mng v du ca
ng sut d ph thuc vo ng knh nguyn t cht tan.
- iu kin to dung dch rn thay th:
iu kin kch thc:
% 15 % 100 .
d
d
vi: d = d
A
- d
B
;
2
d d
d
B A
+
=

Trong :
d
A
: ng knh nguyn t dung mi
Nguyn t cht tan
Nguyn t dung mi

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d
B
: ng knh nguyn t cht tan
Nu sai khc ng knh nguyn t cng nh th cng d to dung dch rn thay
th.
- Cc loi dung dch rn thay th: Dung dch rn thay th c th c dng ha tan
v hn hoc ha tan c hn.
Dung dch rn thay th ha tan c hn: tn ti mt gii hn ha tan ca cht tan
trong dung mi.
T l dung mi x
A
: x
A
+ x
B
= 1
T l cht tan x
B
: x
B
< 1
Dung dch rn thay th ha tan v hn: x
B
= 1
- iu kin to thnh ha tan v hn:
+ Dung mi v cht tan phi c cng kiu mng.
T nguyn l "thay th" thy rng: nu hai nguyn A v B ha tan v hn vo
nhau th chng phi c kiu mng ging nhau. iu kin ging nhau v kiu mng ch
mi l iu kin cn. Kh nng to thnh dung dch rn v hn cn ph thuc vo
nhiu yu t khc. Nhiu nguyn t c kiu mng ging nhau nhng cha chc to
nn dung dch rn v hn. Da vo bng h thng tun hon ta thy thng thng cc
nguyn t cng mt chu k th c kiu mng ging nhau.
+
% 15 % 100 .
d
d
<

S tng quan v ng knh nguyn t khi ng knh nguyn t ca cc nguyn
thnh phn A v B khng ging nhau nn khi ha tan vo nhau chng to ra sai lch
im v xung quanh mt nguyn t ho tan xut hin trng sai lch n hi. S sai
khc ng knh nguyn t gia cc nguyn A v B cng ln, nng ha tan cng cao
th mc sai lch mng cng nhiu v n mt mc no mng tr nn khng n
nh. Khi , s sai khc v ng knh nguyn t cht tan (d
B
) v ng knh nguyn
t dung mi (d
A
) khng vt qu 15%. iu ny gii thch ti sao i a s cc dung
dch rn thay th c to thnh gia cc kim loi vi nhau, ch mt s t trng hp l
gia kim loi v kim.
+ Ch s nng in t C
e
(s in t ha tr ca dung dch rn to thnh) phi
nh hn C
e
gii hn.
C
e
= x
A
.v
A
+ x
B
.v
B

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v
A
, v
B
: Ha tr ca cc nguyn
C
e
= v
A
.x
A
+v
B
.(1 - x
A
)
Thc nghim v l thuyt cho thy, khi to thnh dung dch rn thay th dng ha
tan v hn th tr s nng in t nh hn gii hn nht nh. Gii hn ny ph
thuc vo kiu mng v bn cht ca dung mi. Thng thng, ngi ta thy rng
nguyn t B mun ha tan v hn vo trong A th phi c ha tr bng hoc nh hn
ha tr ca A.
+ Tng quan v m in ( ): Sai khc v m in cng nh th kh nng
ha tan v hn cng tng.
3.2.1.2.2. Dung dch rn xen k
- Khi nim: Dung dch rn xen k l loi dung dch rn m cc nguyn t cht
tan i vo v tr cc l hng trong mng tinh th dung mi.

Hnh 3.2. Dung dch rn xen k

- c im ca dung dch rn xen k:
+ Gi nguyn kiu mng ca dung mi, tn ti cc sai lch im loi nt xen k,
to ra trng ng sut ln hn do kch thc l hng nh hn nhiu so vi ng knh
nguyn t.
+ Khng th xy ra dng dung dch rn ha tan v hn.
+ Dung dch rn xen k c bn v cng cao hn so vi dung dch rn thay
th do mc x lch mng ln hn.
- iu kin to dung dch rn xen k:
iu kin kch thc:
59 , 0
d
d
A
B
<

Nu sai khc nguyn t cng ln th cng d to ra dung dch rn xen k.
3.2.1.2.3. Dung dch rn c trt t
Nguyn t cht tan
Nguyn t dung mi

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Ch xy ra vi dung dch rn thay th. Trong trng hp ny cc nguyn t cht
tan c sp xp theo mt quy lut xc nh.
- iu kin to dung dch rn c trt t:
) E E (
2
1
E
B A B
+ <
Trong :
E
A
: Nng lng bin ca min Brillouin trong cht tan
E
B
: Nng lng bin ca min Brillouin trong dung mi.
3.2.1.3.Tnh cht chung ca dung dch rn
- Mang tnh cht ca dung mi: vi hp kim, dung mi phi l kim loi do
dung dch rn mang tnh kim loi.
- Trong dung dch rn tn ti nhiu khuyt tt mng do s xen k hoc thay th
ca cc nguyn t cht tan, mc nng lng t do cao hn nguyn t nguyn cht do
km n nh hn.
- bn, cng v rn thng cao hn kim loi nguyn cht.
3.2.2. Cc pha trung gian
3.2.2.1. Khi nim
Cc pha trung gian l dng cu trc hp kim to bi cc cu t c kiu mng ring
bit ca mnh, khng ph thuc vo kiu mng ca cc nguyn to ra n.
3.2.2.2. Cc loi pha trung gian
Cc pha trung gian c rt nhiu loi khc nhau ph thuc vo kch thc nguyn
t tng i gia cc nguyn, ha tr ca cc nguyn v v tr ca cc nguyn trong
bng h thng tun hon:
- Hp cht ha hc ha tr
- Pha xen k
- Pha in t
- Pha Lavies
- Pha
- Cu trc khuyt
3.2.2.2.1. Hp cht ha hc ha tr
L pha c to thnh trn c s cc nguyn t c tnh cht ha hc khc nhau
theo lin kt ha tr (Fe
2
O
3
, FeO, Al
2
O
3
, SiO
2
...). Loi pha ny t gp trong hp kim.

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3.2.2.2.2. Pha xen k
L cc pha to thnh c kiu mng ring v l hp cht ha hc to nn gia cc
kim loi nhm chuyn tip c ng knh nguyn t ln vi cc kim c ng knh
nguyn t b v tha mn iu kin kch thc:
- Khi d
B
/ d
A
< 0,59 to thnh pha xen k vi cc kiu mng n gin ca cc
nguyn t kim loi, c kiu mng khc c A v B (pha xen k n gin). Thng l cc
loi cc bt VC, WC, TiC ...
c im: ht nh, cng v bn cao, c dng lm cc pha ha bn l
tng cho hp kim.
- Khi d
B
/ d
A
> 0,59 to thnh pha xen k c kiu mng tinh th phc tp, c ti
hng chc c bn trong mt nguyn t (pha xen k phc tp). V d : Fe
3
C, Mn
3
C,
Cr
7
C
3
...
c im: C kiu mng rt phc tp.
Tnh cht: C cng, bn cao v nhit nng chy cao. Thng dng ha
bn cho hp kim lm vic nhit thng.
3.2.2.2.3. Pha in t (Pha Hum - Rzri)
L pha to nn bi cc kim loi c ha tr khc nhau, c hnh thnh c kiu
mng ring nhng phi tha mn quy lut v tr s nng in t C
e
.
Pha in t c ba dng c bn:
- Pha : C
e
= 3 / 2 - C kiu mng lp phng th tm A2
- Pha : C
e
= 21 / 13 - C kiu mng lp phng phc tp vi 52 nguyn t trong
mt c bn
- Pha : C
e
= 7 / 4 - C kiu mng lc gic.
Vi
B A
B B A A
e
n n
v . n v . n
C
+
+
=

Trong :
n
A
, n
B
: ch s ca cc nguyn trong cu to pha
v
A
, v
B
: ha tr ca cc nguyn.
V d: Trong hp kim Cu - Zn
Cc dng cu trc:
- Pha (CuZn):
2
3
1 1
2 . 1 1 . 1
C
e
=
+
+
=

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- Pha (Cu
5
Zn
8
):
13
21
8 5
2 . 8 1 . 5
C
e
=
+
+
=
- Pha (CuZn
3
):
4
7
3 1
2 . 3 1 . 1
C
e
=
+
+
=
Ch : Cu to pha in t ch c tc dng tnh ton ch s C
e
, t ch ra kiu
mng. Bn thn cc pha in t tn ti trong phm vi thnh phn.
Tnh cht: Pha in t c ht rt nh, cng v bn cao. S lng khng
ln, vng thnh phn khng rng do t dng trong vic ha bn.
3.2.2.2.4. Pha Laves
L hp kim ca nhm cc kim loi chuyn tip m c thnh phn khng i
thng c biu din bng cng thc AB
2
(MgCu
2
, CuZn
2
...).
c im ca pha Laves: rt gin lm gim c tnh ca hp kim, do trong sn
xut hp kim trnh s xut hin ca pha Laves.
Pha Laves c cu trc mng tinh th theo h lp phng v lc gic.
3.2.2.2.5. Pha
L cc pha trung gian c di thnh phn t A
4
B AB
4
.
c im: pha c kiu mng rt phc tp, tnh gin rt cao, vng thnh phn rng
do lm gim c tnh rt mnh ca hp kim, khi la chn hp kim trnh hnh thnh pha
.
3.2.3. Hn hp c hc
3.2.3.1. Khi nim
Hn hp c hc l cc t chc ca hp kim c hai pha cng tn ti trong mt th
thng nht, hai pha c to ra cng mt lc v gi nguyn b mt phn pha.
3.2.3.2. Cc loi hn hp c hc
- Hn hp c hc cng tinh: l dng hn hp c hc cng mt lc kt tinh ra hai
pha t th lng.
L [A + B]
T = 2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Phn ng cng tinh xy ra nhit v thnh phn xc nh.
c im ca hn hp c hc cng tinh l c nhit nng chy thp nn c tnh
c tt, nhng li c tnh gin cao dn n kh gia cng p lc.

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- Hn hp c hc cng tch: l dng hn hp c hc tit ra cng mt lc th
rn.
R
A
[R
B
+ R
C
]
T = 0
Phn ng cng tch xy ra nhit v thnh phn xc nh.
c im ca hn hp cng tch l c bn v cng cao thch hp vi vic
sn xut cc sn phm yu cu c tnh tt. Tuy nhin vi cng cao dn n kh gia
cng p lc.
3.2.3.3. Thnh phn to nn hn hp c hc
- Hai dung dch rn
- Mt dung dch rn + mt pha trung gian (ph bin nht)
- Hai pha trung gian

3.3. Gin trng thi ca hp kim
3.3.1. Khi nim
Gin trng thi ca hp kim l th xy dng mi quan h gia t chc pha
ca hp kim ph thuc vo nhit .
Cc loi gin trng thi:
- Gin mt nguyn
- Gin hai nguyn
- Gin ba nguyn
- Gin bn nguyn
3.3.2. ngha v phng php xy dng gin trng thi
3.3.2.1. ngha
- Dng xc nh t chc ca hp kim theo cc iu kin bn ngoi v bn
trong (nhit v thnh phn).
- Xc nh cc trng thi ti hn ca hp kim tt c cc v tr phc v cho x
l nhit luyn hp kim.
- La chn phng n sn xut hp kim mt cch hp l nht.
3.3.2.2. Phng php xy dng
- H ta ca gin hai nguyn l nhit v thnh phn.

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- Thng thng l xy dng bng phng php phn tch nhit: Gi s cn xy
dng gin trng thi ca h hai nguyn A v B ngi ta ch to cc mu hp kim c
thnh phn thay i t 100%A 100%B. Sau nung n trng thi lng hon ton
cc mu ri cho kt tinh vi mt tc kt tinh chm o, nh du cc im
chuyn bin v ni cc im cng tnh cht li thu c gin trng thi.

Hnh 3.3. Phng php xy dng gin trng thi bng thc nghim

3.3.3. Mt s loi gin trng thi hai nguyn c bn
3.3.3.1. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng v trng thi rn
Phn ln trng hp hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng, nhng s
trng hp ha tan v hn trng thi rn li rt t, l trng hp ca h: Cu - Ni;
Au - Ag; Au - Pt; Fe - Ni; Au - Ni; Cr - Mo ...
- Dng gin :

Hnh 3.4. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng v trng thi rn

- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
m T
B
: l ng lng
100%A
I
100%B
T
B

T = 2
L
T = 1

L
T = 2
0
C

L +
m
L
1
T
A

2
0
C
n
100%A 100%B
I
L
A
R
A
L
B
R
B
A

B

100%A
II
100%B
T
B

0
C

L+
L
T
A

0
C
100%A 100%B I V IV III II I V IV III

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T
A
n T
B
: l ng c
: dung dch rn thay th ca B trong A hoc A trong B.
im T
A
v T
B
ng vi nhit nng chy ca hai kim loi nguyn cht to nn
h hp kim.
- S kt tinh ca kim loi in hnh:
Trn im (1) - hp kim lng.
T im (1) n (2) - lng chuyn sang rn.
Di im (2) - kt thc kt tinh .
- ng ngui ca hp kim in hnh: hnh v
Pha trn ng lng l vng tn ti ca dung dch lng, pha di ng c l
vng tn ti ca dung dch rn (), trong khong gia 2 ng lng v c gm c c
2 pha: dung dch rn v dung dch lng, y l vng ng vi s kt tinh hay nng chy
ca hp kim.
- c im ca hp kim:
C tnh do cao do ng nht l mt pha dung dch rn.
Lun xy ra s thin tch do t s dng sn xut c.
* Quy tc n by xc nh thnh phn pha trong hp kim:

Hnh 3.5. Quy tc n by xc nh thnh phn pha trong hp kim

Kho st hp kim cha x%B nhit t
0
trng thi ny c biu din bi im
Q. Gi s nhit cho, hp kim bao gm 2 pha M v N, trong pha M c cha
0
C
M Q N
n
m
0
C
100%B x
2
x

x
1
100%A

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x
1
%B, cn trong pha N ch cha x
2
%B. Ta cn tm lng tng i ca 2 pha l m
v n trong mt n v ca hp kim. Ta thy m.x
1
l lng cha ca B trong M; n.x
2
l
lng cha ca B trong N nn:
mx
1
+ nx
2
= x v m + n = 1

1 2
1
x x
x x
n
= v
1 2
2
x x
x x
m
= hay
MN
MQ
n = v m =
MN
NQ

Quy tc ny gip ta tnh c t l pha ca hp kim nu n cu to bi 2 pha.
3.3.3.2. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng, khng ha tan trng thi
rn v c to thnh cng tinh
Trong thc t, cng c gp trng hp hai nguyn ha tan v hn vo nhau
trng thi lng, nhng trng thi rn li hon ton khng ha tan vo nhau, l
trng hp ca cc h: Pb - Sb; Sn - Zn.
- Dng gin :

Hnh 3.6. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng,
khng ha tan trng thi rn v c to thnh cng tinh

- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
Q T
B
: l ng lng
P Q R: l ng c (ng cng tinh, im Q gi l im cng tinh).
ng lng v ng c phn gin lm 4 khu vc. Khu vc pha trn ng
lng l vng tn ti dung dch lng, khu vc gia ng lng T
A
Q v ng c l vng
tn ti ca 2 pha dung dch lng (L) v tinh th A, khu vc gia ng lng T
B
Q v
ng c l vng tn ti ca hai pha dung dch lng (L) v tinh th B, khu vc pha
di ng c l vng tn ti ca hai pha rn A v B.
100%A
I

100%B
B + [A + B] A + [A + B]
L + A
Q
L
0
C
0
C
L+B
R
A + [A + B]
(T = 1)
L
Q
[A + B]
(T = 0)
L A (T = 1)
L (T = 2)
[
A

+

B
]

P
T
A

T
B

L (T = 2)
L
Q
[A + B]
(T = 0)
[A + B]
(T = 1)
II

I

II

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Do 2 nguyn ha tan v hn vo nhau trng thi lng nn c th to nn dung
dch lng, v hn (L). trng thi rn chng khng ha tan vo nhau to nn dung
dch rn m vn nm trng thi gm cc nguyn nguyn cht A v B. Vy cc pha c
th to nn trong gin ny l dung dch lng, nguyn nguyn cht A v B nn s pha
ln nht F = 3.
- Hp kim c thnh phn ng vi im Q c c trng l c nhit nng chy
thp, kt tinh nhit khng i v kt tinh ra ngay hai pha rn mt lc. im Q
c gi l im cng tinh, phn ng cng tinh xy ra nh sau:
L
Q
[A + B] (cng mt lc kt tinh ra c A v B)
Hp kim bn tri im Q gi l hp kim trc cng tinh, sau im Q gi l hp
kim sau cng tinh.
- c im ca hp kim.
+ Tnh do km do s xut hin ca cng tinh [A + B].
+ Nhit nng chy ca hp kim gim dn, thp nht ti thnh phn cng tinh
nn hay dng sn xut c.
+ Cng do xut hin cng tinh [A + B] nn phn tn, cng cao dn n kh
gia cng p lc.
* Tam gic Tam man xc nh lng cng tinh:
- Theo quy tc n by:
Xt hp kim I, hp kim ny sau khi kt tinh xong c t chc A + [A + B] trong
tinh th A biu din im C v cng tinh [A + B] biu din ti im E. Do vy:
%A =
CE
HE
; %[A + B] =
CE
HC

- Theo cch tnh t tam gic Tamman:

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Hnh 3.7. Tam gic Tam man tnh lng cng tinh (a)cc
v cc pha A (b), pha B (c)
Ngoi ra, trong hnh v trn, nu coi EF l 100% lng cng tinh th cc on
thng vung gc vi CD v nm trong cc tam gic CEF v DEF s ch r lng cng
tinh ca cc hp kim tng ng (hnh a). Tng t, cng c th xc nh lng pha A
(hnh b) v pha B (hnh c).
3.3.3.3. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng, ha tan c hn
trng thi rn v c to thnh cng tinh
- Gin trng thi:

1
0
0
%
A

1
0
0
%
B

100%A 100%B 100%A 100%B
L
L + B
L + A
L
L + B
L + A
0
C
0
C
0
C
0
C
D
100%A
I
100%B
100% [A+B]
F
0
C
E
C
B
A
H
L
L + B
L + A
0
C
a,
c, b,

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Hnh 3.8. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn trng thi lng,
ha tan c hn trng thi rn v c to thnh cng tinh

- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
Q T
B
: l ng lng
T
A
P Q R T
B
: l ng c
P Q R: ng cng tinh
Q: im cng tinh
PE: ng gii hn ho tan ca B trong A theo nhit
RF: ng gii hn ho tan ca A trong B theo nhit
: dung dch rn xen k ca B trong A
: dung dch rn xen k ca A trong B
II
,
II
: vn l , nhng c tit ra trng thi rn
[ + ]: hn hp c hc cng tinh ca A v B
- c im ca hp kim: c hai vng
+ Dung dch rn
+ C hn hp c hc cng tinh
Tu theo thnh phn hp kim ngi ta c th la chn cc phng php gia
cng khc nhau:
+ Cc hp kim c %B<%P v > %R: y l hp kim do, c th gia cng p lc.
+ Cc hp kim c % B thuc khong [ P, R ]: y l hp kim c, tnh cht ph
thuc vo lng v .
3.3.3.4. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng v to thnh bao tinh
- Dng gin :
0
C
0
C
100%B
100%A
I II
L
L +
L +

+
II
+
[+]
[
I
I
]

[
I
I
]

[
]

L (T = 2)
L (T = 2)
L (T = 1)
L (T = 1)
(T = 2)
+
II
(T = 1)
L
Q
[
P
+
R
]
(T = 0)
+ [ + ]
(T = 1)
I II III III
+
II
+
[+]
Q P R
E F
L (T = 2)
L
Q
[
P
+
R
]
(T = 0)
[ + ]
(T = 1)
T
A
T
B

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Hnh 3.9. Gin h hai nguyn ha tan v hn lng v to thnh bao tinh

- Cc ng trn gin :
T
A
M T
B
: l ng lng
T
A
N P T
B
: l ng c
M N P: ng bao tinh, xy ra phn ng bao tinh
L
M
+
P

N

3.3.3.5. Mt s dng gin c bit
- Loi to cng tch

L
I
0
C
A
G

+
N
L+
B
0
C
+
M
L+
E

K
+
S P

100%A
R
T 100%B
S
[
p
+
k
]
(T=0)
L (T=2)
L(T=1)
(T=2)
(T=1)
[+]+
(T=1)
0
C
II
L
L+

+
II
(T = 1)
100%A 100%B
+
I
I

L
M
+
P

N
(T = 1)
L (T = 1)
L (T = 1)
L (T = 2)
0
C

II I
I
+
II

L +
M N P
Q
R
T
A
T
B
L (T = 2)
(T = 2)
L (T = 1)
(T = 2)
+
II

(T = 1)

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Phn ng cng tch : [ ]
K P
comt T
s
+
=

[
p
+
K
] gi l hn hp c hc cng tch
V d: Gin trng thi Fe + C (s nghin cu phn sau)
- Loi to thnh hp cht ha hc n nh
Cc hp cht ha hc to thnh lun n nh v thnh phn ha hc.

V d: Gin trng thi Mg - Ca

A
m
+B
n
+
[B+A
m
B
n
]
100%B
100%A
A
m
B
n

A
m
B
n

+

[
A
+
A
m
B
n
]

A
+
A
m
B
n

L+A
m
B
n

L+B
B
0
C
0
C
A
H
L
D
B+[B+A
m
B
n
]
B
+
A
m
B
n

L+A
m
B
n

C
L+A
A+
[A+A
m
B
n
]
100%Mg
18
100%Ca
52,5
Mg
4
Ca
3
+Ca
Mg+Mg
4
Ca
3

L
L+Mg
4
Ca
3
L+Mg
4
Ca
3
L+Ca

810

520

780

690

560

0
C
0
C
L+Mg

77

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Chng 4. Bin dng do v c tnh ca kim loi

a s cc vt phm kim loi c ch to bng cch gia cng bin dng.
Trong cc nh my luyn kim sau khi nu chy v c kim loi thnh nhng thi ln,
ngi ta em cn thnh nhng bn thnh phm khc nhau: dng thi, tm hnh vv...
cc nh my c kh ch to, cc chi tit c gia cng bng rn, rp, tin, phay bo ...
Trong tt c cc phng php gia cng , kim loi b bin dng do nhn
c hnh dng cn thit. Khi cn, rn, rp, qu trnh bin dng kim loi xy ra trong
ton b hoc hu ht th tch kim loi, cn khi tin phay, bo....ch xy ra trn mt
phn th tch (thng thng l lp b mt) vi kt qu cui cng ca bin dng l s
tch phai. Mc ch ca chng ny l nghin cu bn cht ca qu trnh bin dng
m ch yu l bin dng do c nu khi qut v bin dng n hi v s ph hu,
ng thi nghin cu nhng thay i v t chc v tnh cht do bin dng do gy ra,
nh hng ca nhit n trng thi sau bin dng.

4.1. Cc khi nim
4.1.1. Bin dng n hi, bin dng do v ph hy
4.1.1.1. Biu ko kim loi

O
P
(N,KN)
(N/m
2
)
A
B
C
D
K
N M
l
d
l
h
ch
dh
l

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Kho st qu trnh bin dng ca mu, ta c th rt ra 3 yu t bin dng sau
y: Bin dng n hi l bin dng b mt i ngay sau khi kh ti trng, bin dng
do c km theo s thay i hnh dng sau khi kh ti trng v s ph hy lm cho
mu tch ri thnh nhng phn ring l. Tng ng vi 3 yu t l 3 giai on ca
bin dng.
+ Bin dng n hi (on OA)
+ Bin dng do - ng cong AB
+ Bin cng - ng cong BC
+ Giai on ph hy - ng cong CD
Bin dng n hi khng nhng xy ra trong giai on n hi m ngay c
trong giai on bin dng do v ph hy. Chnh v vy, bin dng ca 2 giai on
ny gm 2 phn: n hi v do nn L = l
h
+ l
d

V d: Ti im K mun tm 2 thnh phn ny, ta phi k KN//OA; KM// trc
tung. Khi ON l l
d
on NM l l
h

4.1.1.2. Bn cht ca bin dng n hi. nh lut Hooke
+ Bin dng n hi l bin dng m b mt i sau khi kh ti trng. Bin dng
n hi tun theo nh lut Hooke tc l ng sut tc dng ln kim loi gy ra
bin dng t l thun vi sut : = E.
E: gi l muyn n hi php tuyn ca vt liu (MN/mm
2
; Mpa)
Vi trng thi ng sut tip th: = G.
gc lch ca tinh th khi chu ng sut
G: muyn trt ca vt liu (MN/mm
2
; Mpa)
+ Muyn n hi php tuyn E v muyn trt G l 2 c tnh quan trng ca
bin dng n hi. Gia chng c quan h sau: E = 2G(1 + )
: l h s poisson ty thuc vo tng loi kim loi thng thng
3
1

T cc biu thc trn, ta thy nh lut Hooke ch ng trong giai on bin
dng n hi.
+ Cc yu t nh hng n muyn n hi, nhit , nguyn t hp kim v t
chc ca vt liu.
4.1.1.3. Bin dng do

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

c trng ca bin dng do l bin dng sau khi b ti trng m vn tn ti
mt lng bin dng d lm mu b thay i v hnh dng v kch thc.
ngha: Lm thay i hnh dng, kch thc m kim loi khng b ph hy
cho php gia cng cc sn phm c hnh dng xc nh, lm c s l thuyt gia cng
kim loi bng p lc.
4.1.2. Bin dng do n tinh th
4.1.2.1. Dng ng sut gy bin dng do
Xt ng sut trn mt tinh th:
* Khi ng sut l ng sut php ()

Nu tc dng ln tinh th ng sut php thun ty (ko theo nn) th khong
cch nguyn t theo chiu trc giao vi mt tinh th s tng hoc gim. Nu ng sut
b th s thay i khong cch nguyn t cng b v khi kh ng sut, lc ht hoc
y s a nguyn t v v tr c, tc l bin dng s mt i. Nu ng sut php ln
lm cho s thay i khong cch nguyn t vt qu gi tr cho php th s xy ra qu
trnh ph hy. Nh vy, ng sut php khng lm cho tinh th bin dng do m ch c
bin dng n hi v sau ph hy dn, tc ph hy khng km theo bin dng do.
* Khi ng sut l ng sut tip ()

a
a

1

(a) (b) (c)
2

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Khi ng sut tip c tr s nh, cc lp nguyn t b x dch n hi mt gc
(hnh b) v khi kh ng sut, cc nguyn t tr li v tr c, do tinh th tr li vi
kch thc v hnh dng ban u. Khi ng sut ln, ngoi s x dch n hi c th
xy ra hin tng trt (hnh c) phn trn ca tinh th trt khi phn di mt on
bng mt khong cch nguyn t. Mt phng ni xy ra trt gi l mt trt. Khi
trt, nguyn t ph v mi lin kt vi nguyn t c xong li ti mi lin kt mi vi
nguyn t mi nn mi lin kt gia cc nguyn t khng b ph hy. Kch thc v
hnh dng ca tinh th thay i m khng b ph hy v nh vy xy ra bin dng
do. Vy, ch c ng sut tip mi gy ra bin dng do.
4.1.2.2. bn l thuyt v thc t ca kim loi
* bn l thuyt

xc nh bn ca kim loi cn nghin cu v tnh ton thng qua c ch
trt. to ra s x dch d th lp nguyn t trn phi trt tng ng vi lp
nguyn t di mt on t nht l bng 1 thng s mng.
V lc cc nguyn t chim cc v tr cn bng mi, trng vi cc nt mng
ca tinh th.
Gi x l x dch ca mi nguyn t v cng l x dch chung ca ton lp
nguyn t. Ti v tr trung gian
2
b
x = th lc tc dng ln nguyn t A bng 0 v lc ht
c cn bng t 2 pha. Khi x dch x >
2
b
th n chu tc dng lc ht t nguyn t
C nn lc tc dng ln nguyn t khi trt c tnh l:
b
x 2
. sin . k F

=
F
x
B
C
x
b
b/2

A
B
a

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

F: l lc trt cn thit m mi nguyn t phi thng dch chuyn vi x
dch x.
Mt khc, theo nh lut Hooke ta c
= F = G. G.
a
x
(do b)
nn
a
x
. G
b
x
sin k =
2

a
x
. G
b
x 2
. k =
(coi
b
x 2
b
x 2
sin

)
Nu coi a = b th G = 2k v k =
2
G

k: gi l bin ca lc, n l lc ln nht cn tc dng ln mt trt to ra
s trt. Do , bn l thuyt ca tinh th kim loi l
=
2
G
1

* bn thc t
bn thc t nh hn gi tr bn l thuyt t (10
3
10
4
) ln. S khc nhau ny
ch c th gii thch c khi xut hin l thuyt lch theo , cu trc mng tinh th thc
t l khng hon chnh v c cha nhiu lnh.

Ti trung tm lch n nh km do tng nng lng t do chnh v vy, ch
cn tc ng nh th n lm thay i trng thi v v tr. Khi , gi tr ng sut gy ra
chuyn ng ca lch gn bng vi ng sut thc t v c tnh theo cng thc Peiers
- Nabbaro
8
N P
10 . 8
G 3
b
a
.
1
2
exp
1
G 2

=

a: khong cch gia cc mt nguyn t song song vi mt trt
b: khong cch gia cc nguyn t theo hng trt
b

vng trung
tm lch

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Tm li, trong tinh th c cu to hon chnh l tng, trt xy ra bng cch
cc nguyn t trn mt trt x dch cng mt lc trn mt khong cch nguyn t do
cn phi c lc tc dng rt ln. Trong tinh th thc t, trt xy ra bng chuyn
ng ca lch, cc nguyn t trn mt trt x dch khng cng lc nn ch cn lc tc
dng tng i nh.
* Ngun to lch Frank - Read
Theo m hnh, bin dng mt lch to ra mt bc c tr s l mt thng s mng
b . Trong tinh th nu c n lch s to ra mt bc c tr s l n. b .
Thc t, mc bin dng to ra c tr s ln hn n. b rt nhiu. Gi thuyt
trong qu trnh bin dng do cc lch mi sinh ra. Ngun pht sinh lch trong khi
bin dng c gi l ngun Frank - Read vi nguyn l hot ng nh sau:

Gi s c mt on ng lch AB b kp cht. l nhng nt gp nhau ca
cc ng lch trn nhng mt trt khc nhau, nhng nguyn t tp cht hay cc
nguyn nhn khc. Di tc dng ca ng sut tip , ng lch phi chuyn ng
trn mt trt nhng do A, B b kp cht nn ng lch AB b cong dn. ng sut cn
thit ng lch c bn knh cong cc tiu gi l ng sut ti hn.
N P R F
l
b . G
R 2
b . G

= =
b: ln vct bragg
l: l khong cch gia hai im AB
4.1.3. Cc c ch bin dng do
4.1.3.1. Trt

l

A
B

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

L c ch bin dng do m trong qu trnh bin dng mt phn tinh th trt
tng i so vi mt mt c nh gi l mt trt. Trong mt trt theo cc phng xc
nh gi l phng trt.

+ Mt trt l mt c mt mt st cht M
s
ln nht.
+ Phng trt l phng c s nguyn t ln nht
+ H trt l tch s gia mt trt v phng trt. Kiu mng no c h trt
ln th kh nng bin dng cng cao.
V d: Vi mng A
1
K
12

Mt trt (111) c 6 mt
Phng trt (110) c 2 phng
nn c 12 h trt
Vi mng A
2
K
8
:
Mt trt (111) c 4 mt
Phng trt (111) c 3 phng
nn c 12 h trt
C 2 mng A
1
K
12
v A
2
K
8
cng c 12 h trt xong mng A
1
K
12
d bin dng
do hn do c s mt trt ln hn
Vi mng A
3
L
12
:
Mt trt (0001) c 1 mt
Phng trt (2110) c 3 phng nn c 3 h trt v vy mng A
3
L
12
rt kh
bin dng do
4.1.3.2. i tinh
i tinh l qu trnh bin dng do m cc phn tinh th dch chuyn i xng
nhau qua mt mt phng c nh gi l mt i tinh (song tinh)

mt trt

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

c im ca i tinh
+ Ging nh trt, i tinh cng xy ra theo nhng mt v phng xc nh.
+ Khi bin dng, qu trnh i tinh bt u khi ng sut vt qu tr s nht
nh.
+ i tinh xy ra t ngt tr khng phi t t vi tc xc nh nh qu trnh
trt. V vy, n c kh nng tin hnh d dng trong iu kin ti trng nhanh.
+ V s chuyn dch ca nguyn t trn mi mt phng xy ra ch mt ln trn
khong cch ngn nn bin dng d to ra khi i tinh c tr s rt, b nn nhng
tinh th khi bin dng do bng i tinh th qu trnh ph hy l ph hy dn.
+ i tinh xy ra th c tc dng lm cho qu trnh trt cng xy ra d dng hn.
4.1.3.3. Vai tr ca mt trt v phng trt trong bin dng do

mt i tinh

m

P
Phng trt
F
0
p
F

n

p
p
n

p
p

p
p
n

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

m
=
m
.sin -->
m
=
sin .
F
p

Mt khc, ng sut theo phng trt
=
cos .
m
v
cos
F
F
o

nn ta c:
cos
F
cos . sin . P
o

--> =
cos . 2 sin .
2
1
0
v
0
0
F
P
=
Coi = 0 ta thy nu = 0 v = 90
0
th cho d lc P c ln n u cng
khng xy ra trt v tr thun li nht ca mt trt (
)
max
l = 45
0

Khi :
max
=
2
1
0

4.1.4. S thay i t chc v cu trc tinh th sau bin dng do, cc phng
php nng cao bn vt liu
4.1.4.1. S thay i t chc v cu trc ca tinh th
+ Xut hin cc ng trt, di trt hoc ng i tinh, di song tinh. Ta
bit rng, mt lch i ra mt ngoi to ra mt bc c ln b . Tp hp cc im i ra
mt ngoi ca lch to thnh ng trt. Tp hp cc ng trt gi l di trt.
+ To thnh cc t chc ht nh v c tnh nh hng

+ To thnh th lm tng tnh d hng ca vt liu
+ Nng cao mt lch v khuyt tt trong tinh th
+ S to thnh Textua bin dng l t chc sau bin dng khng ng vi
gc ca mt trt do b hn ch phng trt hay cn gi l hin tng quay mt trt.
Sau khi c bin dng

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ To thnh ng sut d sau bin dng do nn to ra cc trung tm ng sut d
do tng mt khuch tn.
+ To ra ng sut d th i tn ti trong ton b th tch sau khi bin dng
+ To ra ng sut d t vi tn ti trong ni b mt ht tinh th do to nn
trung tm gy ra cc vt nt u tin lm ph hy kim loi v vy sau bin dng do
phi kh ng sut d.
+ Lm thay i c tnh ca kim loi m in hnh lm tng cng, gii hn
n hi, gii hn chy v gii hn bn. Lm gim do, dai, va p
+ Bin dng do lm tng mc sai lch mng lm tng ng sut d v ht
nh v vy lm gim tnh dn in, tnh dn nhit.
4.1.4.2. Cc phng php nng cao bn vt liu
* Nu kim loi c cu to mng hon ton l tng:

Trong kim loi m cu to mng l l tng tc l khng cha lch th n c
bn rt cao tng ng vi bn l thuyt. l do trong cc si n tinh th vi kch
thc nh, s lng sai lch mng l v cng nh b, do c ch bin dng gn
ging vi c ch i vi tinh th hon chnh. Tinh th si c ng knh cng nh th
s lng sai lch mng cng t v bn cng cao. Nh vy, vic ch to cc tinh th
kim loi si l mt phng hng nng cao bn ca vt liu.
* Nu kim loi c cu to mng thc t:
Do s c mt ca sai lch mng nn chng c bn thp v bin dng do gy
ra ch yu l do chuyn ng ca lch. Mun c bn cao th cn c bin php cn
tr chuyn ng ca lch tc l to ra cc yu t hm lch.
Mc sai lch mng
0
bn

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ Tng mt lch v phn b u trong th tch. Mt lch cng ln, khong
cch gia chng cng nh, tng tc gia chng cng mnh.
+ Tng cng tc dng hm lch ca bin gii ht v bin gii siu ht bng
cch to ra kim loi c ht nh v kch thc ht siu b.
+ To ra pha th 2 c bn cao hn di dng nhng ht nh phn tn.
+ To ra sai lch mng bng cch chuyn bin pha
4.1.5. Cc yu t hm lch trong tinh th
Khi lch chuyn ng trn mt trt, chng c th gp nhng chng ngi khc
nhau lm cho tc chm li hoc ng hn li, khng chuyn ng c na.
Nghin cu cc yu t cn tr chuyn ng ca lch l vn rt cn thit v
rng s hm lch c lin quan trc tip n c tnh ca kim loi, m trc ht l
bn. Lch c th b hm do nhng lch khc do nhng dng khuyt tt khc nhau trong
tinh th, cc nguyn t tp cht v nguyn t hp kim vv... chng ta s kho st ni
dung ch yu ca qu trnh hm lch do cc yu t k trn.
Khi nim: Khi kh nng linh ng ca lch gim dn n kh nng bin dng
km lm gii hn chy ca vt liu tng. tng bn ca vt liu ta cn tng cc
yu t cn tr chuyn ng ca lch.
4.1.5.1. Tng tc gia cc lch
Trong mt th tch vt liu khi tn ti nhiu lch th cc trc lch ct nhau. Do
hng chuyn ng ca cc lch khc nhau nn chuyn ng ca mt lch phi ko
theo chuyn ng ca lch khc c tng tc vi n nn lm gim tnh linh ng ca
lch (gi l chng ngi Lommer - Cottrell)
Chng ngi Lommer - Cottrell l chng ngi ch yu v tc dng rt mnh.
c bit l khi to thnh rng lnh v li lnh (c trng bi h s bin i in tr
theo nhit )
4.1.5.2. Cc nguyn t tp cht
Trong bt k tinh th no cng lun tn ti cc nguyn t tp cht. Cc nguyn
t tp cht c xu hng tp trung v trung tm lch dc theo trc lch nn chng to
thnh cc chui gn ng lch c gi l kh quyn Cottrell. S c mt ca kh
quyn Cottrell c tc dng hm lch v rng lch mun chuyn ng th phi ko theo
kh quyn m tc chuyn ng ca lch ln cn nguyn t tp cht chuyn ng
vi tc b. Lch c bao bc bi kh quyn cottrell (nn ch c th chuyn ng
trong cc trng hp sau).

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ Nu tc trt rt b m nhit cao lm cho kh nng khuch tn ca
nguyn t tp cht v ca lch gn bng nhau nn lch chuyn ng s ko theo kh
quyn ca cc nguyn t tp cht.
+ Nu ng sut tc dng ln c kh nng tch nguyn t tp cht ra khi
trng ht ca lch th lch c th c gii phng.
Nhc im: Ha bn khng mnh, c th to cc t chc khc theo yu cu
nn khng dng ha bn vt liu.
4.1.5.3. Bin gii ht v bin gii siu ht
Bin gii ht v siu ht l vng sp xp nguyn t khng c trt t, khng c
mt trt v phng trt xc nh nn s trt kh pht trin.
Khi lch chuyn ng qua bin gii ht th mt phn nng lng b mt i do
lm gim linh ng ca lch. V vy, ht cng nh th bin gii ht cng nhiu lm
cho lch cng kh chuyn ng.
4.1.5.4. Pha th hai phn tn
Trong t chc hp kim thng c s xut hin ca cc pha th hai l cc loi
pha trung gian di dng nhng ht nh phn tn. Chng cng c coi l yu t cn
tr chuyn ng ca lch kh hiu qu.
+ Nu khong cch gia cc ht nh lch c th i xuyn qua cc ht bng cch
ct chng theo mt trt. Kh nng ct ph thuc vo
B
muyn n hi ca pha th
2 nn thng xy ra vi cc pha mm.

Ct i pha th 2:

+ Nu khong cch gia cc ht ln di tc dng ca ng sut tip ln hn tr
s ti hn
l
b . G
th ng lch b un cong. Khi vt qua cc ht, lch b un cong
li nhng vng lch bao xung quanh chng lm cn tr chuyn ng ca cc lch
tip theo sau

Lch

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

C hai trng hp trn, lch mun vt qua cc ht phn tn u phi tn nng
lng. Nu ng sut tc dng khng tng th lch c th b hm v mun tip tc
chuyn ng th phi tng ng sut. chnh l mt trong nhng yu t ha bn c
hiu qu.
4.1.6. c im bin dng do a tinh th
a tinh th bao gm v s n tinh th c nh v phng mng khc nhau khi
chu ti trng s lng cc ht c nh v phng mng ph hp vi iu kin bin
dng theo cc phng l nh nhau nn a tinh th ng hng v tnh bin dng.
Vng bin gii ht l cc vng sai sp xp c mt khuyt tt ln nn lm cn
tr chuyn ng ca lch chnh v vy a tinh th kh bin dng do hn so vi n
tinh th.
Khi chu ti trng theo mt phng no th c nhng ht thun li, cho bin
dng nhiu, c nhng ht thun li cho bin dng t, c nhng ht khng c kh nng
bin dng. trnh ph hy, cc ht khng thun li cho vic bin dng phi c s
quay mt trt. Quan h gia bn v kch thc ht thng c biu din bng
cng thc Hall - Petch.
s
=
0
+ k.d
-1/2

s
: gii hn chy ca a tinh th
0
: hng s, ni ln kh nng chng trt ca trng thi t chc v cu trc ban
u ca tinh th
k: hng s, ph thuc vo kh nng hm lch ca tinh gii
d: kch thc trung bnh ca ht
Lch Lch i ra
A
B
A
B

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

4.1.7. Nung kim loi sau bin dng do
4.1.7.1. Mc ch
Kim loi sau bin dng do c mt khuyt tt tng, ng sut d xut hin
lm nng lng t do tng ln. V vy, kim loi sau khi bin dng do lun c xu
hng tr v trng thi n nh vi nng lng b. Mun tr v trng thi n nh ny
cn phi cung cp nng lng cho h bng cch nung tr li kim loi qua bin dng
do.
4.1.7.2. Cc giai on xy ra khi nung kim loi qua bin dng do
* Giai on hi phc: l qu trnh nung kim loi qua bin dng do vt qua
mt nhit xc nh ty thuc vo bn cht kim loi gi l nhit hi phc, T
0
hp
=
0,2T
0
nng chy
.
Cc hin tng xy ra trong giai on hi phc l:
- Gim ng sut d
y l mt trong nhng thay i quan trng. S tng cng tnh di ng ca
nguyn t khi nung lm cho chng c kh nng quay v v tr cn bng, khc phc
nhng sai lch b phn. Do nng lng cp nh nn di cc nguyn t x nh hn
thng s mng a nn lm cho ng sut d c phn b li trong ni b mt ht.
- Qu trnh a canh ha: l s tp trung cc lch v nhng v tr thng hng trn
cc mt tinh th khc nhau. S tng cng tnh di ng ca nguyn t khi nung lm
cho cc lch chuyn ng hoc dc theo mt trt hoc theo chiu trc giao vi mt
trt. Nu 2 lch khc du chuyn ng ngc chiu trong cng mt mt phng trt
chng s trit tiu nhau. Nhng lch cng du khi chuyn ng trn nhng mt trt
song song, do trng ng sut n hi ca chnh bn thn, chng sp xp thnh tng
dy theo chiu trc giao vi mt trt.
- S thay i tnh cht
Trong giai on phc hi, mt s tnh cht ca kim loi cng thay i c th l
lm tng dn in, c tnh thay i khng ng k, lm gim bn, cng mt
t.
* Kt tinh li: l qu trnh nung kim loi qua bin dng do vt qua mt
nhit xc nh gi l nhit kt tinh li.
T
0
kt tinh li
= (0,3 0,4) T
0
nng chy

Cc hin tng xy ra ca qu trnh ny:

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- S to mm kt tinh li l qu trnh to ra nhng ht tinh th mi m nhng ht
ny c pht trin t nhng trung tm ban u gi l mm. Thc nghim cho thy, s
to mm c cc c im sau y.
+ Mm c to ra trc tin nhng vng c mc sai lch mng ln nh
vng tinh gii, vng mt trt.
+ Mc bin dng cng ln mm c to ra cng nhiu
S to mm lm gim nng lng ca h nn kh c ng sut d k c ng
sut d th i. Bn cnh , n lm cho bn, cng gim ng thi do dai
tng ln. S to mm trng thi rn nn c t chc ht nh. S ln ln ca mm bng
cch st nhp cc ht nh vo ht ln v to s n nh v nng lng.
- Nhit kt tinh li
l t
0
nung ti thiu m y qu trnh kt tinh li (to mm v ln ln ca
mm) xy ra vi tc ng k. Kt tinh li c lin quan vi s dch chuyn cc
nguyn t trn nhng khong cch ln do lin quan n kh nng t khuch tn.
Nh vy nhit kt tinh li ph thuc vo bn cht kim loi, mc bin dng, thi
gian gi nhit v tp cht.
* S thay i tnh cht sau kt tinh li
Trong giai on kt tinh li ng sut d, in tr sut v nng lng t do tip
tc gim. Xu hng chung l cc t chc tr v trng thi ban u khi cha bin dng.
S thay i quan trng nht v tnh cht do kt tinh li l c tnh. Nu bin dng
do lm tng bn, cng, gim do th kt tinh li kh b nhng nh hng
tc lm gim , cng v tng do. Hay ni khc i kt tinh li c tc dng "thi
bn" ngc vi tc dng ha bn ca bin dng do.
- Khi nim v gia cng nng v gia cng ngui
Gia cng ngui l hnh thc bin dng c km theo s ha bn v phi tin hnh
nhit thp hn nhit kt tinh li.
Gia cng nng l hnh thc gia cng nhit cao hn nhit kt tinh li v
c km theo s thi bn.
Nhn chung, gia cng nng c s dng rng ri v c nhng u im chnh
sau:
+ t c kh nng nt hng khi bin dng, nht l khi rn, rp, cn v khi bin
dng nng kim loi hoc t khng b ha bn. Thm vo lch d chuyn ng hn,

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trt d hn, li c thm nhng mt trt mi vv... tc tng mnh kh nng bin dng
do ca kim loi m khng sinh ra vt nt.
+ Khi gia cng nng, kim loi c kh nng bin dng ln nn vi lc tc dng
tng i b cng c th gy nn bin dng cao. iu ny cho php gim cng sut
my hoc cng cng sut nh nhau, gia cng c nhng khi kim loi hoc chi tit ln
hn. l u im quan trng cho php ch to c nhng chi tit ln nh rn trc
khuu, trc tucbin nng hng chc hoc hng trm.
+ Nu bin dng nng tin hnh nhit cao v vi tc tng i chm
th khng cn phi nung (tc ) trung gian gia cc ln bin dng, iu thng phi
lm khi bin dng ngui. V d khi cn ngui, sau mi ln cn kim loi b ha bn nn
mun cn tip tc phi tin hnh trung gian. Cn nu cn nng, c th cn i cn li
nhiu ln, khng cn phi nung.
+ C kh nng iu chnh ht. T chc ht c to thnh khi bin dng
nng l kt qu ca hai qu trnh bin dng do v kt tinh li, ph thuc vo cc yu
t nh trnh by trn. Mun nhn c ht nh, phi ch cc im sau:
- Da vo gin kt tinh li chn mc bin dng nhn c ht nh.
Khng nn bin dng vi mc thp v ht ln.
- Bin dng phi tin hnh lin tc v nhit qu trnh ln ln ca ht xy ra
rt nhanh, nu ngng lu trong mt thi gian no th ht kp ln ln v ht
ln.
- Nhit kt thc bin dng ch nn chn cao hn mt t so vi nhit kt
tinh li v nhit cng thp, ht cng nh. Tuy nhin i vi nhng kim loi km
do, nhit kt thc bin dng phi chn th no kim loi khng b nt v.
Song gia cng nng cng c nhng nhc sau:
+ Kh khng ch nhit trong phm vi cho php, nht l i vi cc vt phm
c kch thc b nh l mng, si v.v... Mun khng ch nhit phi c thit b o v
iu chnh chnh xc, nh vy gi thnh s cao. Cng v th, i vi mi kim loi
ngi ta ra mt kch thc ti hn, nu vt phm dy hn - nn bin dng nng,
mng hn - bin dng ngui.
+ T chc v tnh cht t ng nht hn so vi bin dng ngui nht l i vi
kim loi c chuyn bin th hnh v kch thc ln.

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Mt loi khuyt tt b mt quan trng khi bin dng nng l lp oxyt trn b
mt chi tit i hi phi c nhng bin php kh b tip theo sau nh gia cng ct gt,
nh bng v.v....
+ Nhc im na ca gia cng nng l khng ch kch thc v hnh dng vt
phm v th tch kim loi nng ln hn, kh tnh ton lng d chnh xc, nht l trong
trng hp kim loi b oxy ha. Thm vo khi lm ngui do ng sut nhit, hnh
dng kch thc c th thay i.

4.2. Cc c trng c tnh ca vt liu
4.2.1. bn tnh v do
4.2.1.1. Nhm c trng cho bn
- Gii hn n hi
h
[KG/mm
2
]: l ng sut tc dng ln nht m khi ngng tc
dng ti trng th vt liu khng b bin dng hoc bin dng do rt b.
F
P
dh
dh
= [KG / mm
2
]
Trong :
P
h
: l lc sinh ra ln nht vt liu khng b bin dng do [KG]
F: l tit din ban u [mm
2
].
- Gii hn chy
ch
,
0,2
[KG / mm
2
; MN / m
2
; MPa]: l gi tr ng sut m khi
ng sut gy ra do ti trng tc ng vt qa n th vt liu bt u bin dng do.
F
P
ch
ch
= [KG / mm
2
]
P
ch
: l ti trng tc ng ti thi im chy [KG]
F: l tit din ban u [mm
2
].
- Gii hn bn
B
[KG / mm
2
, MN / m
2
, MPa): l gi tr ng sut ln nht m khi
ng sut gy ra do tc ng ca ti trng vt qua n th vt liu b ph hy.
F
P
b
b
= [KG / mm
2
]
P: l ti trng tc ng ti thi im ph hy [KG]
F: l tit din ca mu th [mm
2
].
4.2.1.2. Nhm c trng cho do
- gin di tng i ca vt liu (%):

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

% 100 .
l
l l
0
o
=
l: chiu di ca mu sau khi ko
l
0
: chiu di ban u ca mu
gin di tng i c trng cho tnh do ca vt liu.
- tht t i (%):
% 100 .
F
F F
0
0

=
F
0
: l tit din ban u ca mu
F: l tit din mu ti v tr b ko t
4.2.2. Ch tiu c tnh di tc dng ca ti trng tnh m khng ph hy mu
cng l kh nng chng li bin dng do ca vt liu khi chu tc ng ca
ti trng thng qua mt vt cng tc ng ln vt liu.
4.2.2.1. cng Brinell (HB)
+ Ti trng tiu chun: P = 3000KG
+ Mi m: vin bi bng thp c ti cng, ng knh tiu chun ca vin
bi d = 10mm
) mm / KG (
F
P
HB
2
=
F: din tch vt lm do vin bi gy ra trn b mt vt liu th
+) Phm vi ng dng vt liu mm (thp sau , hp kim ng, nhm)
4.2.2.2. cng Rocoel (HR)
C 3 thang A, B, C l HRA, HRB, HRC
* cng HRA
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 60KG
+ Mi m: kim cng hoc hp kim cng hnh thp c gc nh 120
0

HRA = a - bh
a, b: l hng s thc nghim
h

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HRA: l i lng khng th nguyn
+ Phm vi p dng: o cc vt liu rt cng (nh thp thm C, N)
* cng HRB
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 100KG
+ Mi m: vin bi c ng knh d = 1/16 inch
+ Phm vi p dng: o tng t nh HB nhng p dng cho tm mng
* cng HRC
+ Ti trng: P = 150KG
+ Mi m: Kim cng, hp kim cng hnh thp c gc nh 120
0

+ Phm vi p dng: Dng o vt liu c cng cao nh thp sau khi ti
4.2.2.3. cng Vicken (HV)
+ Ti trng tiu chun P = 2 50 (KG)
+ Mi m c dng hnh chp c gc nh l 136
0

+ Phm vi p dng: o vt liu c cng cao nhng mng
F
P
HV = (KG/mm
2
)
F: din tch vt lm (mm
2
)
4.2.2.4. cng t vi (H )
+ Ti trng: P = 1 500 (g)
+ Mi m: Kim cng hoc hp kim cng c gc nh l 120
0

F
P
H = (KG/mm
2
)
o cng ny v quan st c din tch vt lm phi i km vi knh hin
vi
+ Phm vi p dng: p dng o cng ca cc pha khc nhau trong t chc
ca vt liu.
4.2.3. Ch tiu c tnh di tc dng ca ti trng ng
Ti trng ng l ti trng tc ng ln vt liu di dng cc xung lc hay va
p.
Ch tiu c trng: dai va p a
k
(KG.m/cm
2
; kJ/cm
2
)

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dai va p l cng tiu ph ph hy mu c vt kha chia cho din tch ca
tit din ngang ch c vt kha.

F
A
a
k
k
= (KG.m/cm
2
)
4.2.4. bn ca vt liu di tc dng ca ti trng chu k (gii hn bn mi)
Ph hy mi l dng ph hy xy ra khi kim loi chu ti tc dng ca ti trng
thay i theo chu k theo mt quy lut bt k no . Hin tng mi ca vt liu m
hu qu ca n l ph hy mi c ht sc ch khi thit k cc chi tit my. Ph
hy mi c cc c im sau:
+ Kh nng ph hy mi khng ph thuc vo thi gian m thng qua s lng
chu k t ti trng.
+ Nu ng sut thc t b hn mt gi tr xc nh th ph hy mi khng bao
gi xy ra d s lng chu k l rt ln. Gi tr ng sut ny gi l gii hn mi
-1
;
-r

(kG/mm
2
)
Cch xc nh gii hn mi bng cch xy dng ng cong mi

Nh vy, gii hn bn mi l gi tr ng sut m khi s chu k ti trng ln hn
10
7
mu mi b ph hy.
+ Gii hn mi ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt liu v h s bt i xng ti
trng c trng cho chu k

max
min
r
=
r = -1 chu k i xng

+ Ph hy mi thng "nhy cm" vi yu t gy ra s tp trung ng sut
-1

10
7
S chu k
ti trng

thi gian
T
min
max

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Phn II. Nhit luyn thp

Chng 5. Gin trng thi st - ccbon
Trong phn ny nghin cu v gin trng thi st - ccbon, cc khi nim c
bn v gang - thp, cc phng php nhit luyn, ha - nhit luyn, c - nhit luyn v
s lc v cc thit b nhit luyn. Do vy cn hiu c cc chuyn bin khi nung
nng v lm ngui thng qua gin trng thi Fe - C v cc gin c lin quan,
bn cht ca cc t chc to thnh, mi quan h gia cc t chc.
C s nghin cu gang - thp v tm hiu cc tnh cht ca n l gin trng
thi Fe - C. nghin cu gin trng thi Fe - C trc ht phi kho st cc c
tnh ca cc nguyn thnh phn.
5.1. Cc bon v st
5.1.1. Cc bon
Cc bon l nguyn t kim thuc nhm IV trong bng h thng tun hon v c
th hai dng th hnh: Grapht v kim cng. Trong iu kin bnh thng Grapht l
dng th hnh n nh cn kim cng khng n nh. Trong hp kim Fe - C, cc bon
nguyn cht ch c th tn ti dng Grapht - n c mng lc gic v rt mm.
5.1.2. St
St l nguyn t hp kim thuc nhm VII trong bng h thng tun hon, n
thuc nhm kim loi chuyn tip. Cng ging nh cc nguyn t khc n khng th
tn ti dng tuyt i tinh khit m thng tn ti di dng hp cht. St c cc tnh
cht sau:
5.1.2.1. C tnh
- Gii hn bn ko
b
: 250 N/mm
2

- Gii hn chy
0,2
: 120 N/mm
2

- gin di tng i : 50 %
- tht t i : 85 %
- cng HB : 80 kG/mm
2

- dai va p a
k
: 3000 kJ/m
2

Nh vy so vi nhiu kim loi thng dng nh nhm, ng, st c bn,
cng cao hn hn, nhng vn cn thp so vi yu cu ca ch to c kh. l nguyn

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nhn ngi ta hu nh khng dng st nguyn cht trong ch to c kh, m dng hp
kim ca n v c c tnh cao hn r rt.
5.1.2.2. Tnh th hnh
- Mng lp phng th tm tn ti hai khong nhit : Di 911
0
C c gi l
Fe() v t (1392 1539)
0
C c gi l Fe().
- Mng lp phng din tm tn ti khong (911 1392)
0
C c gi l Fe().
Do mng lp phng din tm c mt mng M
v
ln hn mng lp phng th
tm nn khi nung nng qu 910
0
C c chuyn bin th hnh t Fe() sang Fe().

5.2. Gin trng thi Fe - C
5.2.1. Gin trng thi
Theo l thuyt, gin trng thi Fe - C phi c xy dng t 100% Fe n
100%C song do khng dng cc hp kim Fe - C vi lng cc bon nhiu hn 5% nn
ta ch xy dng gin n 6,67% cc bon tc l ng vi hp cht ha hc Fe
3
C.
Trong thc t, Fe vi C tn ti 3 dng hp cht l FeC, Fe
2
C, Fe
3
C song xmentt
(Fe
3
C) n nh v thnh phn ha hc mi nhit nh hn nhit nng chy nn
dng Fe
3
C lm cu t.

N
n
g

l
n
g

t

d
o

t
0
C 1392 911

Lp phng din tm
Lp phng th tm

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Bng 5.1. Bng ta cc im
im %C Nhit im %C Nhit
A 0 1539 E 2,14 1147
H 0,1 1499 C 4,3 1147
J 0,16 1499 F 6,67 1147
B 0,51 1499 R 0,02 727
N 0 1392 S 0,8 727
D 6,67 1600 K 6,67 727
G 0 910 Q 0,006 0

5.2.2. Cc t chc ca hp kim Fe - C
Trn gin , ng ABCD l ng lng
ng AHJECF l ng c
5.2.2.1. Cc t chc mt pha
1539
1499
1392
910
Fe
Q
0,02
0,8 2,14 4,3 6,67
Fe
3
C
727
1147
1600 D
L+Xe
I
F

Le+Xe
I
K

Le+Xe
I
L
e
=
[
+
X
e
]

L
e
=
[
P
+
X
e
]

Le+

P+Xe
II
+Le
+Xe
II
P+Xe
II
[
P
]

P+

+
X
e
I
I
I

R

+

S

E

G

N

J

+

H

L+

B

L+

L

C

A

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- Hp kim lng (L): l dung dch lng ca ccbon trong st, tn ti pha trn
ng lng ABCD.
- Xementit (k hiu l Xe hay Fe
3
C): l hp cht ha hc ca st vi cc bon -
Fe
3
C, ng vi ng thng ng DFK.
- Xementit th nht (Xe
I
): l loi kt tinh t hp kim lng, n c to thnh
trong cc hp kim cha nhiu hn 4,3% v trong khong nhit (1147 1600)
0
C. Do
to nn t pha lng v nhit cao nn Xe
I
c t chc ht to.
- Xementit th hai (Xe
II
): l loi c tit ra t dung dch rn Auxtenit trong
khong nhit (727 1147)
0
C khi ha tan ca cacbon trong pha ny gim t
2,14% xung cn 0,8% do vy Xe
II
c trong hp kim vi thnh phn cc bon ln hn
0,8%. Do to t pha rn v nhit khng cao lm nn Xe
II
c t chc ht nh hn,
do c tit ra t Auxtenit nn thng dng li bao quanh Auxtenit.
- Xemetit th ba (Xe
III
): l loi c tit ra t dung dch rn Ferit trong khong
nhit thp hn 727
0
C khi ha tan gii hn ca ccbon trong Ferit gim t 0,02%
xung 0,006%. Xe
III
c trong mi hp kim c thnh phn C ln hn 0,006% nhng
vi lng rt t. Do to nn t pha rn v nhit thp, kh nng khuch tn ca
nguyn t rt km nn Xe
III
thng dng mng li hay ht rt nh bn cnh Ferit.
Cc dng Xementit khng khc nhau v bn cht pha, ch khc nhau v kch
thc ht v s phn b do iu kin to thnh khc nhau.
- Ferit (k hiu l F hay ): l dung dch rn xen k ca cacbon trong Fe(), c
mng lp phng th tm nn kh nng ha tan ca cacbon trong Fe() l khng
ng k, ln nht 727
0
C l 0,02% v nh nht nhit thng l 0,006%.
- Auxtenit (k hiu l As hay ): l dung dch rn xen k ca cacbon trong Fe(),
c mng lp phng din tm nn kh nng ha tan cacbon ca Fe() kh ln, ln nht
nhit 1147
0
C vi 2,14% v nh nht 727
0
C vi 0,8%C.
Auxtenit rt do v dai khi cc nguyn t khc ha tan vo khng nhng lm
cng tng ln v do dai gim i ng k m cn lm thay i ng hc chuyn
bin do nh hng ln ti nhit luyn.
5.2.2.2. Cc t chc 2 pha
- Peclit (k hiu l P hay [+Xe]): Peclit l hn hp c hc cng tch ca Ferit v
Xementit ( + Xe) to thnh 727
0
C t dung dch rn Auxtenit cha 0,8%C. Trong
Peclit c 88% Ferit v 12% Xementit. T gin trng thi Fe - C ta thy trong qu

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trnh lm ngui, thnh phn cacbon ca Auxtenit s bin i v khi n 727
0
C c
0,8%C (cc hp kim c lng cacbon nh hn 0,8% th thnh phn Auxtenit bin i
theo hng tit ra Ferit lm tng cacbon cn cc hp kim c lng cacbon ln hn
0,8% th thnh phn Auxtenit bin i theo hng tit ra Xementit lm gim cacbon,
c 2 trng hp trn u a n lng cacbon trong Auxtenit l 0,8% 727
0
C). Lc
, Auxtenit c 0,8% C s chuyn bin thnh hn hp cng tch ca Ferit v Xementit:
[ [[ [ ] ]] ] C Fe
3 R
C 727
s
0
+ ++ +
hay [ ]
67 , 6 3 02 , 0
727
8 , 0
0
C Fe
C
+
Ty theo hnh dng Xmentit trong hn hp, ngi ta chia ra 2 loi peclit l
peclit tm v peclit ht (Peclit tm Xe dng tm phin cn Peclit ht th Xe dng
ht). Peclit l hn hp c hc nn c tnh cht trung gian. Kt hp gia tnh do, dai
ca v cng, dn ca Xe nn ni chung P c cng, bn cao, tnh do dai thp.
Tuy nhin c tnh ca n c th thay i trong phm vi kh rng ph thuc vo ht
ca Xe.
- Ledeburit (k hiu l Le hoc [+Xe] hay [P+Xe]): Ledeburit l hn hp c hc
cng tinh, kt tnh t pha lng c nng 4,3%C 1147
0
C.
Lc u mi to thnh n gm v Xe (trong khong 727
0
C 1147
0
C). Khi lm
ngui xung di 727
0
C, chuyn bin thnh P do vy Ldeburit l hn hp c hc
ca Peclit v Xementit. Nh vy cui cng Ldeburit c 2 pha l v Xe trong Xe
chim t l gn 2/3 nn Leeburit rt cng v dn.
5.2.3. Qu trnh kt tinh ca hp kim Fe-C
5.2.3.1. Phn pha trn ng c AHJECF
- Khu vc c thnh phn (0,1 0,51) %C:
Khi lm ngui n ng lng AB, hp kim lng s kt tinh ra dung dch rn
trc. Khi h nhit xung ti 1499
0
C, hp kim c 2 pha l dung dch rn cha
0,1%C v dung dch lng cha 0,51%C nn xy ra phn ng bao tinh to ra dung dch
rn Austenit cha 0,16%C.
0,1%C
+ L
0,51%C

C 1499
0

0,16%C
- Khu vc c thnh phn (0,51 4,3) %C:
Khi lm ngui hp kim ti ng lng BC n s kt tinh ra . Cc hp kim c
thnh phn t (0,51 2,14) %C kt thc kt tinh bng s to thnh dung dch rn cn

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cc hp kim c thnh phn t (2,14 4,3) %C kt thc kt tinh bng s kt tinh ca
dung dch lng c thnh phn ng vi im C to ra 2 pha c thnh phn ng vi
im E v Xe 1147
0
C.
Lc
C 1147
0
[
E
+ Xe
F
]
Hn hp c hc trn gi l hn hp c hc cng tinh Ledeburit
Khi T > 727
0
C t chc Le gm [ + Xe]
Khi T < 727
0
C t chc Le gm [P + Xe]
5.2.3.2. Phn pha di ng c AHJECF
Ti 727
0
C c thnh phn 0,8%C s chuyn bin thnh P l hn hp ca 2 pha
v Xe gi l hn hp c hc cng tch.
s

C 727
0
[
R
+ Xe
K
]

5.3. Phn loi hp kim Fe - C theo gin trng thi
phn loi hp kim Fe - C ngi ta da vo hm lng ca cacbon trong hp
kim .
5.3.1. Thp
L hp kim ca Fe vi C m hm lng C trong n nh hn 2,14%. Do vy, ta c
th phn ra lm 3 loi thp.
- Thp trc cng tch: Thp c hm lng cacbon < 0,8%
T chc ca thp trc cng tch l (P + )

- Thp cng tch: Thp c thnh phn cacbon = 0,8%. T chc ca thp cng tch
l hn hp c hc cng tch P.

P

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Thp sau cng tch: L thp c hm lng cacbon nm trong khong (0,8
2,14) %. T chc ca thp sau cng tch l P + Xe
II
. Lng Xe
II
t c tit ra di
dng mng li bao quanh ht P nn c tnh dn cao chnh v vy, trn thc t ngi ta
ch dng thp c hm lng cacbon nh hn 1,3%.

5.3.2. Gang
L hp kim ca Fe vi C m hm lng C trong n ln hn 2,14% v nh hn
6,67%. Da vo hm lng cacbon v tng t i vi thp, ta c th phn ra lm 3
loi gang sau:
- Gang trc cng tinh l loi gang c hm lng cacbon < 4,3%.
T chc ca gang trc cng tinh l P + Xe
II
+ Le. y l loi gang thng c
s dng trong thc t

- Gang cng tinh l loi gang c hm lng cacbon l 4,3%
T chc ca gang cng tinh l Le

P
Xe
II

P
Le
Xe
II
P

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Gang sau cng tinh: l loi gang c hm lng cacbon ln hn 4,3%
T chc ca gang sau cng tinh l Le + Xe
I

Cc loi gang trn c gi chung l gang trng, cacbon trong gang trng u tn
ti di dng Xe.
5.3.3. c im c tnh ca thp v gang theo gin trng thi
5.3.3.1. Thp
- Thp trc cng tch, lng cacbon t nn lng Xe cng t v vy thp c tnh
do cao.
- Thp sau cng tch v cng tch, hm lng cacbon tng nn t l pha Xe tng
do vy lm tng cng, tnh dn ng thi lm tht t i , gin di tng i
gim xung. V nhng l do trn m trn thc t, ngi ta khng dng thp c hm
lng cacbon qu cao (%C > 1,3%).
5.3.3.2. Gang
Gang sau cng tch c lng Xe qu nhiu gy dn v cng, khng c kh nng
ct gt do vy khng c s dng. Thc t, ngi ta s dng gang trc cng tch c
hm lng cacbon nh hn 3,5%.

Le
Le
Xe
I

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

5.4. Cc nhit ti hn hp kim Fe - C theo gin trng thi
5.4.1. Nhit phn ng cng tinh (T = 1147
0
C)
Vi hm lng cacbon ln hn 2,14% c dng xc nh ch nu luyn
ca hp kim.
5.4.2. Nhit phn ng cng tch (T = 727
0
C)
[F + Xe] (khi lm ngui) v [F + Xe] (khi nung).
Hm lng cacbon ln hn 0,02% v c p dng nhiu trong nhit luyn l
ng A
1
.
Trong thc t, nhit chuyn bin khi nung nng v lm ngui bao gi cng
khc vi gin . biu th qu trnh nung nng khi c s chuyn bin pha trn thc
t ngi ta gi l ng AC
1
v khi lm ngui l ng Ar
1

T
0
Ar
1
< T
0
A
1
< T
0
Ac
1

5.4.3. Nhit ng gii hn ha tan ca Ferit ( ) trong Auxtenit ( ) l ng
A
3

Nhit gii hn ha tan c thay i theo hm lng cacbon gi l ng A3.
Khu nung vt qua nhit AC
3
th kt thc qu trnh ha tan ca Ferit () vo
Auxtenit (). ng thi, khi lm ngui xung nhit nh hn Ar
3
th bt u tit ra
Ferit () t Auxtenit().
Nh vy: T
0
Ar
3
< T
0
A
3
< T
0
Ac
3

Fe
0,006
0,2 0,8
A
C1
A
1
Ar
1
Ar
cm
Ac
cm
A
cm
Ac
cm
Ar
cm
911

727

Fe
3
C
%cacbon

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

ngha: Dng chn ch nhit luyn thp trc cng tch.
5.4.4. Nhit ng gii hn ha tan ca Xementit (Xe) vo Auxtenit ( ) l
ng A
cm

Nhit gii hn ha tan c thay i theo hm lng cacbon gi l ng A
cm
.
Khi nung vt qua nhit Ac
cm
th kt thc qu trnh ha tan ca Xementit (Xe) vo
Auxtenit (). ng thi, khi lm ngui xung nhit nh hn Arcm th bt u c s
tit ra Xementit (Xe) t Auxtenit ().
Nh vy: T
0
Ar
cm
< T
0
A
cm
< T
0
Ac
cm
.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Chng 6. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi Nung
v lm ngui thp

Nhit luyn thp chim a v ch yu trong nhit luyn ni chung v l mt khu
quan trng, khng th thiu c trong ch to c kh, s d nh vy v thp c s
dng nh l vt liu ch yu v quan trng nht trong s cc kim loi ng thi c th
p dng nhiu phng php nhit luyn khc nhau ci bin c tnh v tnh cng
ngh ca n.
Tc dng ca nhit luyn l 2 im sau:
- Lm tng bn, cng, tnh chng mi mn ca chi tit bng thp (gang)
m vn bo m yu cu v do v dai. Do vy c th lm cho chi tit chu c
ti trng ln hn hoc c th lm nh, gn hn, s dng c bn, lu hng hn.
Trong thc t sn xut c kh thy r tc dng ny. Nhiu loi thp sau khi
nhit luyn bng cch ti + ram bn, cng tng ln 2 - 3 ln (tuy do dai c
gim) rt c li trong vic ho bn cc chi tit ny, cc chi tit my chu ma st nh
bnh rng, trc ... Nu khng ho bn bng nhit luyn rt chng mn, hng (thi hn
lm vic gim i t hng chc n hng trm ln). i vi dao ct, khun rp tc
dng ny ca nhit luyn li cng c ngha quyt nh. Cc sn phm ny nu khng
qua ti v ram th khng th lm vic c. Mt trong nhng yu t quan trng quyt
nh cht lng cc sn phm c kh l trnh ca nhit luyn.
- Ci thin tnh cng ngh
Ngoi tc dng ho bn k trn, nhit luyn cn c kh nng ci thin tnh cng
ngh. Khi thnh hnh sn phm khng th khng ch n tnh thch ng ca thp i
vi cc phng php gia cng khc nhau: c, rn hn, ct, gt ... Ci thin cc tnh
cng ngh lm qu trnh gia cng ch to c thun li v c th tin hnh vi
nng sut cao hn, gp phn nng cao sut lao ng. Trong ch to c kh thng
gp hin tng sau khi rn, thp b bin cng mt phn rt kh (c trng hp khng
th ct gt, trong trng hp ny phi tin hnh nhit luyn bng phng php thch
hp () cng gim i, ct gt tr nn d dng. i vi thp cacbon thp, cng
ca n trng thi qu thp cng kh ct gt phi tin hnh thng ho tng thm
cng m bo ct gt d. p dng cc phng php nhit luyn thch hp gia

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

cc khu gia cng c kh l mt trong nhng bin php nng cao nng sut lao ng
trong ngnh c kh (nh nng cao tc ct gt, kh nng rp su ...)
Do tc dng quan trng nh vy nn hu ht cc chi tit quan trng cc my
u c qua nhit luyn. V d chi tit qua nhit luyn trong t - my ko chim (70
- 80)% trong my cng c (60 - 70)%, tt c cc dng c u phi nhit luyn.
6.1. Khi nim v nhit luyn
6.1.1. nh ngha
L phng php gia cng kim loi bng cch nung kim loi ti mt nhit xc
nh, gi nhit mt thi gian v lm ngui vi tc ngui c xc nh trc nhm
t c t chc v tnh cht ca vt liu kim loi theo yu cu.
m t cng ngh nhit luyn dng h to T
0
- t:

ngui
0
v
dt
dT
tg = =
Khi nhit luyn khng c php nung nng kim loi n trng thi nng chy
hay chy b phn. Trong mi qu trnh nhit luyn kim loi lun lun trng thi rn,
hnh dng v kch thc ca sn phm hu nh khng thay i hoc thay i rt t.
6.1.2. Cc c im ca nhit luyn
- Trong qu trnh nhit luyn th sn phm khng thay i v hnh dng v kch
thc m ch thay i v t chc v c tnh ca vt liu.
- Cc thng s cng ngh c xc nh nh gin trng thi ca cc loi hp kim.
- Sn phm sau khi nhit luyn phi thu c y cc thng s ca hp kim.
6.1.3. Cc yu t c trng cho qu trnh nhit luyn
Cc yu t quan trng nht c trng cho qu trnh nhit luyn l: nhit nung,
thi gian gi nhit v tc lm ngui.
- Nhit nung nng t0 nung l nhit cao nht phi t n khi nung nng.

T
0

T
0

Thi gian gi nhit
t (thi gian)

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Thi gian gi nhit g.n l thi gian cn thit duy tr kim loi nhit nung.
- Tc ngui v
ngui
l gim ca nhit theo thi gian sau khong thi gian gi
nhit.
6.1.4. Phn loi nhit luyn
Tu theo v tr ca nhit luyn trong qu trnh gia cng c kh, ngi ta phn n
thnh 2 nhm:
- Nhit luyn s b: l nhng dng nhit luyn m sn phm sau nhit luyn cn
tip tc gia cng c kh.
- Nhit luyn kt thc: l dng nhit luyn m sn phm sau nhit luyn khng
tip tc gia cng.
6.2. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung thp
6.2.1. M t th nghim
S dng mu th nghim l thp cha 0,8% cacbon, c t chc l Peclit
(P=[+Xe]) lm hng lot mu c kch thc v hnh dng ging nhau v tin hnh
nung ti nhit ln hn nhit Ac
1
. Gi cc mu ti nhit nung vi cc thi gian
khc nhau sau tin hnh lm ngui nhanh. o lng chuyn bin P thnh theo thi
gian.

Trn c s o lng chuyn bin , ta xy dng ng cong phn trm lng
theo thi gian t: % = f(t)
ng cong trn chnh l ng cong ng hc chuyn bin P thnh .
OA: giai on phi thai, bt u to cc trung tm sinh mm.
AB: giai on bt u chuyn bin P thnh . giai on ny, c s thay i
nng lng t do.
G = G
th tch
+ G
b mt
+ G
n hi

T
0

Ac
1
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
100%P

t

t
n

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Do vy, ta thy rng qu trnh to mm trng thi rn l kh khn v chm
hn do bin thin nng lng cao hn.
BC: giai on chuyn bin xy ra nhanh do lng mm to ra nhiu v kh nng
ln ln mnh do G
n hi
cha qu ln.
CD: giai on chuyn bin chm li do G
n hi
ln

6.2.2. Nhit chuyn bin Peclit thnh Auxtenit
6.2.2.1. ng cong ng hc chuyn bin khi nung nng thp cng tch
T gin trng thi Fe-C thy rng chuyn bin P thnh xy ra 727
0
C,
nhng iuny ch ng vi khi nung nng bng tc v cng b. Vi tc nung
nng thc t, nhit ti xy ra chuyn bin ny lun lun cao hn 727
0
C, tc
nung cng ln, nhit xy ra chuyn bin cng cao v chuyn bin thc t xy ra
trong mt khong nhit . iu ny c th hin trn gin chuyn bin p thnh .

%
100%
D
T
1
B

O

A

T
2
T
3
C
t

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

(1): ng bt u qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2): ng kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P
t
T
o
Ac
1
T
1
T
2
T
3
100%
t
T1<T2<T3
T3 T2 T1
ng cong ng hc
Gin chuyn bin ng nhit P
V
1
V
2
P
P
P qu
nung

%

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

S dng 2 trc tra to l thi gian v nhit , ta c th t trn cc
ng biu din tc nung nng xt nh hng ca tc nung n nhit
chuyn bin. Nu nung nng vi tc v
1
th thi im bt u v kt thc qu trnh
chuyn bin l a
1
, b
1
cn nu nung nng vi tc v
2
ln hn v
1
l im a
2
, b
2
. Do
ta thy rng tc nung nng cng cao, chuyn bin P xy ra nhit cng
cao v vi thi gian cng ngn.

ngha ca vic xy ra dng ng cong ng hc chuyn bin P :
- Tnh c nhit bt u v kt thc chuyn bin P vi cc tc nung
khc nhau. T nh ra cng ngh nhit luyn.
- Xc nh mc n nh ca cc pha ph thuc vo thng s cng ngh
6.2.2.2. ng cong ng hc chuyn bin khi nung nng thp v sau cng tch
- Thp trc cng tch: i vi thp trc cng tch t chc bao gm P + F. Nn
c chuyn bin hon ton thnh cn nung thp vt qu nhit Ac
3
. Khi ng
cong ng hc c dng nh sau:

(4)
(3)
(2)
F
+ F
P
P +F
P +F
t
Ac
1
Ac
3
T
0

(1)
v
2

b
2

b
1

v
1

a
1

p
Ac
1
t

p
qu nung
P
T
0

a
2

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

(1): ng cong bt u qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2): ng cong kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P
(3) ng cong bt u ho tan F
(4): ng kt thc ho tan F
- Thp sau cng tch: i vi thp sau cng tch t chc bao gm P + Xe
II
. Nn
c chuyn bin hon ton thnh cn nung thp ti nhit ln hn nhit Ac
cm
.
Khi ng cong ng hc c dng nh sau:

(1): ng cong bt u qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2): ng cong kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P
(3) ng cong bt u ho tan Xe
II

(4): ng kt thc ho tan Xe
II

6.2.3. C ch hnh thnh khi nung
Qu trnh nung nng thp cng tch l qu trnh chuyn ho
P[F
0,02
+ Xe
6,67
]
0,8

Qu trnh ny ch xy ra khi c s ba ng v nng lng m ba ng v thnh
phn ho hc l nguyn nhn ch yu to ra ba ng nng lng. Qu trnh ba
ng to ra nhng vng c thnh phn cacbon gn bng 0,8%. ranh gii gia Xe
v F lun c hm lng cacbon cao nht nn thun li cho qu trnh to mm. Do vy,
mm u tin s xut hin trn ranh gii 2 pha F v Xe. Cc mm pht trin, thc
hin qu trnh chuyn bin P .

(4)
(3)
(2)
XeII
+ Xe
II

P
P +Xe
II

P +Xe
II
t
Ac
1
Ac
cm
T
0

(1)

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Tc pht trin ca mm v 2 pha Xe v F l khc nhau
v
/Xe
=
Xe /
C
k
v
F /
F /
C
k
v
=
Nhn thy
Xe / F /
C C

<< nn
Xe / F /
v v

> v vy F b ho tan ht trc sau
Xe mi b ho tan ht vo .
Qu trnh trn c th m t trn hnh v nh sau:

6.2.4. ht ca v biu din ht trn gin trng thi
Khi nung nng n nhit AC
1
trong thp xy ra chuyn bin P . Chuyn
bin ny cng c c ch nh qu trnh kt tinh. To mm v pht trin mm. Cc mm
c to ra trn b mt phn chia gia 2 pha F
v Xe. Nh vy, bin gii gia 2 pha

F v Xe trong P rt nhiu nn ny sinh nhiu mm v khi kt thc chuyn bin bao
gi cng c nh min. Chuyn bin P bao gi cng lm nh ht. Sau khi thu
c nh mn nhit AC
1
, nu tip tc nng cao nhit , ht s tip tc pht
trin nh qu trnh st nhp cc ht vi nhau. S pht trin cc ht ph thuc vo
nhit nung v thi gian gi nhit. Nhit nung cng cao, thi gian gi nhit cng
di th ht cng ln.
6,67
%C
0,8
0,02

X
e

X
e

X
e

cha
ng u
ng u
t
X
e
F

F

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

6.3. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi lm ngui thp
Nu cc thp c nung nng n nhit thp hn Ac
1
, trong thp cha c
chuyn bin g, do khi lm ngui tip theo cng khng c chuyn bin g. y, ch
xt trng hp lm ngui thp c nung ti trng thi (ln hn nhit Ac
1
) v
n gin ch xt cho thp cng tch. V phng thc lm ngui c phn ra 2
trng hp: lm ngui ng nhit v lm ngui lin tc.
6.3.1. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi lm ngui ng nhit Auxtenit
6.3.1.1. M t th nghim: Lm th nghim vi thp cng tch (0,8%C)
Lm hng lot mu c hnh dng v kch thc nh nhau. Nung n trng thi
hon ton , gi nhit t c s ng u ton b th tch c t chc . Tin hnh
lm ngui xung di nhit Ac
1
, gi ng nhit cc nhit khc nhau. Do
chuyn bin ca thnh P. Trn c s xy dng th lng chuyn bin theo thi
gian.

0
C
%C
G
R
S
E
A
1

P
F
P
P
Xe
II

Xe
II

F

A
3
Ac
cm
Q
O

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

6.3.1.2. nh hng ca qu ngui n chuyn bin
Trn l thuyt P i vi thp cng tch l 727
0
C song cng ging nh khi
nung nng, chuyn bin ny khng xy ra 727
0
C m nhit thp hn. Nh vy,
chuyn bin xy ra vi qu ngui T = T
A1
- T
Ar1
. Tc chuyn bin thnh hn
hp c hc cng tch P ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:
- S chnh lch gia nng lng t do ca hn hp F + Xe v . qu ngui
T cng ln th s chnh lch ny cng nhiu khi cng d chuyn bin thnh hn
hp F + Xe.
- Tc khuch tn ca cacbon. Chuyn bin thnh F v Xe l chuyn bin
khuch tn v cacbon phn b u trong phi sp xp li to nn 2 pha c thnh
phn cacbon rt khc nhau l F (hu nh khng cha cacbon) v Xe (cha 6,67%
cacbon).
6.3.1.3. Gin chuyn bin ng nhit ca qu ngui
(1) ng bt u xy ra qu trnh chuyn bin P
(2) Kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin P

T
0

Ac
1
Thi gian gi nhit
T
3

T
2

T
1

t

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

6.3.1.4. Cc sn phm ca s phn ho ng nhit ca Auxtenit qu ngui
- Chuyn bin Peclit (500 727)
0
C:
+ Chuyn bin P xy ra vi s to thnh hn hp F + Xe dng tm. Nu qu
ngui phn ho nhit st A
1
tc ng vi qu ngui b (t < 50
0
C) s c hn
hp ca F + Xe, trong Xe dng tm c kch thc ln. Hn hp gi l Peclit.
Maxten xit
T
o
Ms
t
t
100 %
T3
T2
T4
T1

qu
ngui
Peclit
Xoocbit
Trutxtit
Bainit trn
Bainit di
T1<T2<T3<T4
1
2
ng cong ng hc
Gin chuyn bin ng
nhit ca

qu ngui

P
%P
T
4
T
3
Ac
1
T
1
T
2

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ Nu qu ngui phn ho nhit thp hn (vi T= 50
0
n 100
0
C) cng
c hn hp c hc ca F + Xe trong Xe dng tm vi kch thc ht b. Hn
hp ny gi l Xoocbit (X).
+ Nu qu ngui c phn ho nhit thp hn na khong 500 600
0
C
ng vi nhit khi qu ngui km n nh nht, khi cng c hn hp c hc
F + Xe trong Xe cng dng tm xong b hn dng tm Xoocbit. T chc ny
gi l Trutxtit (T).
Vy Peclit, Xoocbit, Trutxtit u l hn hp c hc ca F + Xe nhng vi
nh mn ca Xe khc nhau. Do vy, khi tng qu ngui, s mm to ra cng nhiu
do hn hp cng tr nn nh mn v cng, bn cng cao.
- Chuyn bin trung gian (240
0
C 500)
0
C
di 500
0
C, qu ngui phn ho thnh hn hp c hc ca F v Xe vi c
ch v c im ring. Chuyn bin ny gi l chuyn bin trung gian to nn t chc
Bainit (B). Ngi ta phn ra thnh 2 loi Bainit l: Bainit trn (B
t
) v Bainit di (B
d
)
trong B
t
c to ra t (350 500)
0
C cn B
d
c to ra t (240 350)
0
C.
Bainit cng gn 2 pha l F v Xe, nhng trong Xe c dng tm rt nh mn.
c im ca chuyn bin ny l xy ra khng hon ton, tc l sau chuyn bin vn
cn mt lng d. C tnh ca 2 loi Bainit cng khc nhau B
d
c cng, bn
cao hn ng thi vn c do, dai nn c dng nhiu hn.
6.3.1.5 Gin chuyn bin ng nhit qu ngui ca thp trc cng tch v sau
cng tch

0
C
Ac
3
Ac
1
Ms

Ac
1
Ms

Ac
cm
0
C
Xe
P+Xe
X
T
Bt
Bd
P
qu ngui

Mactenxit Mactenxit
P
qu ngui

P+F
X
T
Bt
Bd
F
Thp trc cng tch Thp sau cng tch

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

6.3.2. Chuyn bin P khi lm ngui lin tc
Trong thc t, nhit luyn hay dng cch lm ngui lin tc, tc l nhit
lun lun gim theo thi gian. So vi loi gin chuyn bin ng nhit, phn trn
ca ng cong ch "C" ca loi gin lm ngui lin tc dch chuyn sang phi v
xung di mt cht. Do vy, v nguyn tc c th s dng gin ng nhit thay
cho trng hp lm ngui lin tc m khng b sai s ln. Khi lm ngui lin tc c
cc c im sau:
+ Vi cc tc ngui khc nhau s t c cc t chc khc nhau.

Gi s lm ngui vi tc v
1
th s phn ho thnh F + Xe nhit cao
nn Xe c dng tm th. Khi lm ngui vi tc v
2
th vn phn ho thnh F + Xe
nhit thp hn nn Xe thu c s nh mn hn. Cn khi lm ngui vi tc v
3

s thu c t chc Truxtit xong khng hon ton sau bin thnh Mactenxit.
+ Tnh n nh ca qu ngui tng do ng cong ch "C" dch sang bn
phi.
+ T chc Bainit ch t c khi lm ngui ng nhit.
* ngha: Xc nh tc ngui hp l nhm thu c cc t chc sau nhit
luyn theo yu cu ca sn phm.
* C ch hnh thnh Peclit
P-ban u c dng hnh cu (to cc qu cu Peclit)
Ac
1

0
C
Ms
qu ngui
P

T

v
2
X

P
v
1
Bt

Bd

v
3
Mactenxit

t

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Nu gi nhit cc nhit khc nhau, qu cu P pht trin v c th to thnh
cc dng tm ln P, tm nh X, hay dng kim T.
6.3.3. Chuyn bin ca khi lm ngui nhanh - chuyn bin Mactenxit
6.3.3.1. Khi nim: Khi tin hnh lm ngui tht nhanh xung nhit thp. Cacbon
khng kp khuch tn nn ton b cacbon trong gi li trong mng ca Ferit (
0,8%

0,8%
) gi l chuyn bin Mactenxit.
Theo gin trng thi, %C trong ln nht l 0,02% nn khi %C trong l
0,8% s to ra t chc qu bo ho cacbon trong do vy to ra t chc khng cn
bng ca gi l t chc Mactenxit (M).
6.3.3.2. Tc ngui ti hn xy ra chuyn bin Mactenxit

Tc ngui nhanh chuyn bin M phi ln hn hay bng mt gi tr ti
hn, tc ng vi cc ng biu din khng ct ng cong ch "C"
v
ngui ti hn
=
th
0 1
t
T T
(
0
C/s)
t
th
: l thi gian km n nh nht ca qu ngui
T
0
: l nhit ng vi thi gian ti hn
T
1
: l nhit nung
Vi mi loi thp xc nh th c mt tc ngui ti hn xc nh. Vi mi
v
ng
> v
ng.t.h
u cho chuyn bin Mactenxit.
%C
T
1

T
0

Ms
t
th
Mactenxit

t

qu ngui

P

T

X

Bt

Bd

P

Ac
1

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6.3.3.3. c im ca chuyn bin Mactenxit
- Ch xy ra khi tc ngui ln hn mt tc ngui xc nh
- Ch xy ra khi lm ngui lin tc trong mt khong nhit xc nh vi nhit
bt u M
s
v kt thc l M
f
. trong khong M
s
M
f
nu ta dng lm ngui th
chuyn bin M b dng li.
V tr ca hai im M
s
v M
f
ca chuyn bin M ch ph thuc vo thnh phn
cacbon v nguyn t hp kim trong , ngoi ra khng ph thuc vo cc yu t khc
k c tc ngui nhanh hay chm. Auxtenit cng cha nhiu cacbon v nguyn t
hp kim (Si, Al, Co) th cc im M
s
v M
f
cng h thp.

- Chuyn bin M xy ra theo dng bng n: Cng mt lc to ra hng lot cc
kim M v pht trin vi tc rt nhanh (10
8
cm/s). S va p ca cc kim M to ra
cc vt nt t vi trong t chc M.
- Chuyn bin M xy ra nhit thp (thng < 200
0
C), cacbon hu nh
khng khuch tn nn gi nguyn v tr hoc nu c dch chuyn th dch chuyn
x < a
Mng chuyn thnh mng tng ng l mng A
1
chuyn thnh mng A
2

theo c ch trt mng gy x lch mng nn b bin cng. Cc nguyn t cacbon i
vo l hng khi 8 mt ca mng lm gin chiu cao ca mng to ra mng M l
mng chnh phng th tm. Gia mng v M c mi quan h
500
400
300
200
100
0
20
-100
-200
0,2 0,4 0,6 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 0,8
0
C
%C
M
s

M
f

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- Mt (110) ca M // mt (100) ca
- Mt (111) ca(M) // mt (110) ca
C ch trt mng:

Cacbon ng sn l hng khi 8 mt lm gin chiu cao
ca mng to mng chnh phng th tm.
* Chuyn bin M l chuyn bin khng hon ton:
Khi kt thc qu trnh chuyn bin, trong t chc M bao gi cng cn mt
lng d. ( d: l t chc tn ti trong M nhit thng).
Nguyn nhn: Do th tch ring ca M ln hn th tch ring ca m c th l
17 , 1
V
V
M
>
nn khi chuyn bin thnh M s to trng ng sut d qu ln do vy

chuyn bin dng li v tn ti d.

Lng d trong thp ph thuc vo cc yu t sau:
+ V tr im M
f
. im M
f
cng thp di 20
0
C th lng
d
cng nhiu. Vy
mi yu t hm h thp im M
f
u lm tng lng d.
%M
100 %
0 M
S
20
0
C M
f
T
0
%

c
a

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+ Thnh phn ho hc ca : Ta bit rng lng cacbon trong 2 pha v M l
bng nhau khi hm lng cacbon ca M cng cao th chnh phng
a
c
v th tch
ring cng ln nn cng nhiu khng chuyn bin c do vy cng nhiu d.
* Nhit bt u v kt thc chuyn bin:
M thay i theo thnh phn ho hc ca thp vi thp cacbon v cc nguyn t
hp kim th M
s
v M
f
nh.
6.3.3.4. C tnh ca M
* cng ca M:
Mactenxit l dung dch rn qu bo ho ca cacbon trong , do vy cng
ca M ch ph thuc vo lng cacbon trong n. Cacbon cng cao, chnh phng
ca M cng ln, mng tinh th cng x lch, cng cng cao, kh nng chu mi
mn tt.
Thp c lng cacbon qu thp (%C < 0,25%) th M c to ra khng th t
c cng cao, khng chng mi mn. Thng thng dng thp c hm lng
cacbon ln hn 0,4% th M to ra c cng cao mi kh nng chng mi mn
xong vi thp c %C > 0,6% th lng d sau chuyn bin M nhiu, lc ny cng
ca thp l cng chung ch yu l ca M v d do s thp hn cng ca
bn thn pha M.

* dn ca M:

c
h
n
h

p
h
n
g

c
/
a

0 0,2 0,4 0,6 %C
cng
HRC
60
50
40
30
20
0,2 %C

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nhc im ca M l tnh dn cao, c im ny c lin quan n cng v
ng sut d trong n. Tuy nhin, tnh dn ca M cng dao ng trong mt phm vi
kh rng ph thuc vo mt s yu t sau:
+ cng ca M cng cao th th dn cng ln, do vy M cng cha nhiu
cacbon th cng cng v cng dn. Tuy nhin, vi cng thnh phn cacbon nh nhau,
cng nh nhau nhng tnh dn c th khc nhau nu kch thc ht M khc nhau.
+ ng sut d to thnh c nh hng ln n tnh dn gm c ng sut nhit
(do thay i nhit xut hin khi nung v lm ngui) v ng sut t chc (do s
chuyn bin t chc).

6.4. CHUYN BIN KHI NUNG THP TI
Sau khi ti, t c t chc M v mt lng d do vy, ngi ta phi nung
nng li n cc nhit thp hn Ac
1
. Nguyn cng ny c gi l ram. Mc ch
ca vic lm trn l a t chc sau khi ti v t chc n nh hn.
6.4.1. Tnh khng n nh ca M v d
Theo gin trng thi Fe - C, t nhit thng n 727
0
C t chc n nh
ca thp l hn hp + Xe (gi chung l P), nh vy M v d l hai pha khng n
nh v c xu hng tr v trng thi t chc n nh k trn.
M l dung dch rn qu bo ho ca cacbon trong Fe(), lng cacbon ca M
bng lng cacbon ca . Khi nung nng, bo m cng ca thp ti phi
nung nng ti nhit d thch hp cacbon ho tan vo , khi lm ngui nhanh tip
theo lng cacbon cc nh li trong , do tr nn qu bo ho. Phn cacbon
vt qu gii hn ho tan lun lun c xu hng i ra khi cc v tr xen k cc l
hng, tp trung v mt vng no , kt hp vi st to nn Xe. Xu th chuyn bin ca
M s l: (M) Fe
(c) Fe
()
+ Fe
3
C (Xe)
Chnh phng th tm Lp phng th tm
l dung dch rn ca cacbon trong Fe(). trng thi n nh Fe() vi mng
lp phng din tm khng th tn ti di 727
0
C, ti cc nhit ny Fe() c xu
hng chuyn sang Fe() vi lng ho tan cacbon rt t, c th coi nh st nguyn
cht v lng cacbon tha ra cng to nn Xe. Xu th chuyn bin ca s l:
Fe
(C) Fe() + Fe
3
C (Xe)

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Tuy c hai pha M v u khng n nh v c xu hng chuyn bin thnh
hn hp + Xe, nhng iu kin c xy ra c hay khng li ph thuc ch yu vo
nhit . Nung nng, tc l cung cp nng lng cho s dch chuyn cc nguyn t s
lm cho chuyn bin trn xy ra c d dng. nhit thng, qu trnh chuyn
bin xy ra v cng chm c th coi bng khng.
Cn ch rng, khi nung nng M v d khng chuyn bin ngay thnh hn
hp ca + Xe m bao gi cng qua t chc trung gian l Mactenxit ram.
6.4.2. Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi ram
phn tch cc pha to thnh trong qu trnh ram c th dng phng php
phn tch t chc bng ria Rnghen hay phng php o gin n. o gin n l
phng php thng dng xc nh cc chuyn bin khi ram, n da trn s khc
nhau v th tch ca P, M v (V
M
> V
p
> V
). Khi nung nng thp thp ti (c t

chc M v d) thy th tch mu gim i t M chuyn bin thnh P, th tch mu m
tng ln tc l chuyn bin thnh P. Quy lut trn c biu din nh sau:

a: S thay i chiu di ca mu i vi thp
b: S thay i chiu di ca mu khi nung nng thp sau khi ti
6.4.2.1. Giai on I (T
0
< 200
0
C)
- Khi nung nhit nh hn 80
0
C, chiu di mu khng thay i tc l khng
c chuyn bin g, trong t chc vn cn M +
d

- Khi nung khong 80 200
0
C, chiu di ca mu gim i mt cht chng t
M chuyn bin. Mt phn cacbon trong M tit ra di dng cacbit (k hiu l vi
L
I II III IV
a
0
100 200 300 400 600
T
0
C
80
260
b

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kiu mng lc gic c thnh phn ho hc gn vi cng thc Fe
2
C v dng tm rt
mng. Do tit cacbon di dng cacbit nn phnM cn li tr nn ngho cacbon. n
200
0
C lng cacbon cn li trong M ti a khong 0,25 0,4% v c chnh phng
a
c
gim tin gn n 1 (do vy mu co li).
Cui giai on ny, t chc thu c l M ngho cacbon v cacbit () c gi
l Mactenxit ram. Mactenxit ram c cng gn nh Mactenxit ti nhng c ng sut
bn trong nh hn do s tit ra cacbon lm gim x lch mng.
c trng ca giai on I l chuyn bin ca Mactenxit ti thnh Mactenxit ram
(M
ram
)
6.4.2.2. Giai on II (200
0
C < T
0
< 260
0
C)
Khi nung n nhit 200 260
0
C s tit ra cacbon khi M dng cacbt nh
giai on I vn tip tc, lng cacbon ho tan, trong M gim ti ch cn 0,15 0,2%
cui giai on ny. ng thi vi qu trnh trn, chuyn bin mi xy ra trong giai
on ny l d chuyn bin thnh M
ram
(do vy mu di ra mt cht). Vy cui giai
on ny t chc ca thp ti ch l M
ram
gm cacbt v M ngho cacbon (0,15
0,2%C).
n y, cng c th gim i hoc tng ln cht t l tu thuc vo lng
d

sau khi ti. Nu lng
d
t, cng c th gim i cht t, cn nu lng
d
nhiu,
cng c th tng l do chuyn bin M c th vt qua hiu ng gim cng
do phn ho M. Hin tng ny c gi l cng th hai ch xy ra khi ram thp
dng c hp kim cao.
6.4.2.3. Giai on III (260
0
C < T
0
< 400
0
C)
Khi nung nng n nhit 260 400
0
C c hai qu trnh sau xy ra:
- Tt c cacbon qu bo ho c tit ht ra khi M di dng cacbit,
chnh phng ca M b mt i ( 1
a
c
= ) thc M ngho cacbon bin thnh F.
- Cacbt c to thnh t M mt lin kt cng mng vi Fe() v chuyn
bin thnh Xe(Fe
3
C) c dng ht c hai qu trnh ny u lm gim chiu di mu.
Vy n cui giai on III, thp c t chc l hn hp ca F + Xe dng ht rt
nh mn v phn tn. Hn hp gi l Trutxit ram (T
ram
).

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cng ca thp ti trong giai on ny gim i r rt do tt c cacbon qu
bo ho c tit ht ra khi Fe() tuy nhin do Xe c to thnh kh nh mn v
phn tn nn vn gi c cng cao v c tnh n hi tt. T chc T
ram
c tnh
n hi tt nht chnh l do hiu ng tit cacbon ra khi Fe() lm mt hon ton ng
sut bn trong.
6.4.2.4. Giai on IV (T
0
> 400
0
C)
Khi nung nng n nhit ln hn 400
0
C, trong thp ti khng xy ra
chuyn bin pha, lc ny ch c cc thay i v hnh dng v kch thc v F v Xe.
Trong giai on III, Xe c to thnh tuy bt u c dng ht nhng vn cn chu
nh hng ca dng tm ban u, giai on ny cng vi s tng ca nhit xy ra
hin tng kt t v cu ho: cc phn t Xe ln dn ln v dn dn c dng cu. T
chc F cng c thay i: gim mt lch, cc ht F ln dn ln v c dng a cnh
gn ti trng thi n nh.
Hn hp F v Xe dng ht to nn nhit 500 600
0
C c gi l
Xoocbit ram (X
ram
). T chc ny c c tnh tng hp tt. Nu tip tc ram nhit
gn Ac
1
, s kt t v cu ho Xe rt mnh to nn hn hp F + Xe nhn c l P ht.
Trong giai on ny, chiu di ca mu gim i cht t, khng ng k, song
song vi n l cng cng gim i do s thay i v hnh dng v kch thc ht.
6.4.3. C tnh ca thp sau nhit luyn ti v ram
T chc nhn c sau khi ti v ram l M
ram
, T
ram
v X
ram
bao gi cng cho
cc ch tiu c tnh tt hn t chc tng ng nhn c do s phn ho trc tip t
(M
ti
, T
ti
v X
ti
). Do vy, s kt hp gia ti v ram c ng dung rng ri trong
nhit luyn to cho thp c tnh cui cng ph hp vi iu kin lm vic.
6.4.3.1. Gia M
ti
v M
ram
: C cng khng khc nhau nhiu lm. cng ca
M
ram
nh hn cng ca M
ti
khong (12) HRC. Ko theo , bn gim xong
do v dai ca M
ram
ln hn M
ti
.
6.4.3.2. Gia T
ti
v T
ram
: Vi 2 t chc ny cho thy t chc c khi ram cho gii
hn n hi cao nht v trong t chc ny khng c ng sut d v ht Xe dng ht
nh. Cn T ti to thnh do phn ho trc tip nn to ra Xe tm. Gii hn n hi
ca thp cao nht t c khi ram khong 400
0
C.

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6.4.3.3. Gia X
ti
v X
ram
: Vi X
ram
c s kt hp gia
chy
v do tt v do Xe
dng ht nn t chc ny c dai cao do vy ch tiu c tnh nh dai va p (a
k
)
cao. Cn X
ti
th Xe dng tm v l pha dn nn nh hng xu n tnh do.
Vy, t chc T
ram
p ng tt nht yu cu lm vic ca cc chi tit n hi cn
X
ram
p ng tt cc chi tit chu ti trng tnh v va p.

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Chng 7. cc phng php nhit luyn thp

Nhit luyn l nhng qu trnh cng ngh bao gm vic nung nng, gi nhit v
lm ngui vt phm kim loi vi mc ch thay i t chc (cu trc) v tnh cht ca
chng.
Nhit luyn p dng cho cc thi c, vt c, bn thnh phn, mi hn, chi tit
my v dng c cc loi.
Cc dng c bn ca nhit luyn bao gm: , ti, ram v ho gi. Nu nh do
kt qu ca ti nhit 20 25
0
C m gi c trng thi dung dch rn nhit
cao th s ho bn ng k ca hp kim trc tip sau khi ti s khng xy ra, s ho
bn ch yu xy ra khi nung tr li nhit thp (ram) hoc l trong thi gian gi
nhit 20 25
0
C (ho gi t nhin).
Vi hp kim c tnh cht c bit, ti c th lm thay i nhng tnh cht (ho
l) nhy cm vi s thay i cu trc nh lm tng in tr sut hoc l lc kh t,
lm gim bn chng n mn...
Ram v ho gi l cc phng php nhit luyn sau khi ti m kt qu ca n
l xy ra s chuyn pha, a t chc v gn trng thi cn bng.
Thc t s kt hp ti v ram hay ho gi lun lun nhn c cc tnh cht tt
hn ( cng, cc c trng bn, lc kh t, in tr sut...) so vi trng thi .
Phn ln cc hp kim sau khi ti nhn c dung dch rn qu bo ho (hoc
l hn hp cc dung dch rn) trong trng hp ny qu trnh c bn xy ra khi ram
hoc ho gi l s phn r dung dch rn qu bo ho .
Nhit v thi gian gi nhit c chn nh th no sau khi gia cng t
c t chc v tnh cht nh mong mun m khng phi l t chc cn bng nh sau
khi . Tc ngui khi ram hay ho gi, tr mt s trng hp c bit, khng nh
hng n t chc v tnh cht ca hp kim.
V nguyn tc, vic la chn phng php nhit luyn no u c th da trn
c s gin cn bng pha ca hp kim. Do c th chia thnh cc nhm hp kim
c bn sau:
- Cc hp kim khng c chuyn pha trng thi rn
- Cc hp kim c ho tan thay i trng thi rn

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- Cc hp kim c chuyn bin cng tch
Bt k mt qu trnh cng ngh nhit luyn no cng bao gm ba giai on c
bn sau: nung nng, gi ng nhit v lm ngui.

7.1. V THNG HA THP
7.1.1. thp
7.1.1.1. nh ngha v mc ch ca thp
* nh ngha: thp l phng php nung nng thp n nhit nht nh,
gi nhit ri lm ngui chm cng vi l, t c t chc n nh theo gin
trng thi vi cng thp nht v do cao. T chc t c sau khi thp l P
(c th c thm F hay Xe
II
tu loi thp trc hay sau cng tch).
* c im:
- Nhit khng quy nh theo quy lut chung m tu thuc vo tng phng
php
- Qu trnh lm ngui tin hnh rt chm, thng l ngui cng vi l (vi
tc khong 10 50(
0
C/h)) phn ho nhit A
1
cho ra P.
* Mc ch ca thp:
- Lm gim cng (lm mm) thp d tin hnh gia cng ct gt.
- Lm tng do dai tin hnh rp, cn vo ko thp trng thi ngui.
- Lm gim hay lm mt ng sut bn trong sau cc nguyn cng gia cng c
kh (mi, qun ngui, ct gt ... )v c, hn.
- Lm ng u thnh phn ho hc trn ton tit din ca vt c thp b thin
tch
- Lm nh ht thp nu nguyn cng trc lm ht ln
- To t chc n nh chun b cho nhit luyn kt thc
- Cu ho Xe c t chc ht khc vi Xe dng tm.
Vi mc ch a dng nh vy th khng phng php no t c c cc
mc tiu trn. Thng thng mi phng php ch t c mt hoc vi trong s
cc ch tiu k trn.
7.1.1.2. Phn loi

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

C nhiu phng php . Theo chuyn bin pha P khi nung nng, ngi ta
chia cc phng php thnh 2 nhm: c chuyn bin pha v khng c chuyn
bin pha.
* Cc phng php khng c chuyn bin pha:
Cc phng php khng c chuyn bin pha c nhit thp hn Ac
1
, khi
khng xy ra chuyn bin P .
+ thp ( non):
- nh ngha: thp l phng php nung nng thp ti nhit nh hn
Ac
1
khng c chuyn bin pha xy ra.
- Mc ch v c: thp c tc dng lm gim hay kh b ng sut bn trong
cc vt c hay cc sn phm thp qua gia cng c kh.
+) Nu nhit thp (200 300
0
C) ch c tc dng lm gim mt phn ng
sut bn trong nhng nhng nhit cao hn (450 600
0
C) tc dng kh b ng
sut bn trong c th hon ton hn.
+) Do lm ngui nhanh, khng u, do chuyn pha khi c, trong vt c tn
ti ng sut bn trong. i vi mt s vt c c yu cu c bit khng cho php tn
ti ng sut d . kh b hon ton ng sut d, ngi ta tin hnh nung nng
n 450 600
0
C, sau lm ngui chm tip theo trnh to li ng sut d. i
vi trng hp yu cu khng cao, ch cn gim ng sut d n mc nht nh, c
th tin hnh bo qun t
0
thng trong khong 9 12 thng, qu trnh ny cn gi l
ho gi t nhin. Do nhit thp nn phng php ny khng lm thay i
cng v kch thc ht.
+ kt tinh li:
- nh ngha: kt tinh li l phng php nung nng thp ti nhit nh
hn Ac
1
khng c chuyn bin pha xy ra.
- Mc ch v c im: kt tinh li c tin hnh cho cc thp qua bin
dng ngui b bin cng cn khi phc li tnh do, cng trc khi gia cng c kh.
+) Nhit kt tinh li cho thp cacbon l t 600 700
0
C tc l thp hn
nhit Ac
1
. Loi ny lm thay i c kch thc ht v gim cng, nhng rt
t p dng cho thp v kh trnh to nn ht ln.

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+) i vi kim loi a tinh th, do khng ng nht v phng mang gia cc
ht nn ng sut tc dng v bin dng phn b khng u, phn thp b bin dng
vi mc ti hn sau khi c kch thc ln, lm dn thp. trnh hin tng
ny, thng dng cc phng php c chuyn bin pha.
Cc phng php c chuyn bin pha:
Cc phng php c chuyn bin pha c nhit cao hn Ac
1
, khi c
xy ra chuyn bin P .
+ hon ton:
- nh ngha: hon ton l phng php gm nung nng thp ti trng thi
hon ton , tc l phi nung cao hn nhit Ac
3
hoc Ac
cm
.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Lm nh ht. Nu ch nung qu nhit Ac
3
khong 20 30
0
C ng vi nhit
trong khong 780 860
0
C, ht nhn c vn gi c kch thc b, sau
lm ngui chm c t chc F + P ht nh. T chc ny c dai tt.
+) Lm gim cng v tng do, d ct gt v rp ngui. Do lm ngui
chm, phn ho ra t chc F + P (tm) c cng trong khong 160 200HB, bo
m ct gt tt v do, d rp ngui. Nh vy nhit hon ton l T
0
hon ton
=
0
Ac
3
T + (20 30)
0
C.
Loi ny ch p dng cho thp c hm lng cacbon ln hn hoc bng 0,3
0
C
+ khng hon ton:
- nh ngha: L phng php gm nung nng thp ti trng thi cha hon
ton l , nhit cao hn Ac
1
nhng thp hn Ac
3
hay Ac
cm
.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Lm gim cng n mc c th ct gt c, s chuyn bin pha y l
khng hon ton ch c P cn F hoc Xe
II
vn cn (do vy khi lm ngui khng
lm thay i kch thc ht ca 2 pha ).
+) i vi thp trc cng tch, loi thp c yu cu dai cao v khng lm
nh c ht F nn khng p dng dng ny. Do vy, khng hon ton thng
c p dng ch yu cho thp cng tch v sau cng tch vi hm lng cacbon >
0,7%.

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+) i vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,7% m ch yu l thp cng tch v
sau cng tch (thp c cng kh cao, kh ct gt). Nu tin hnh hon ton thp
ny, t chc nhn c l P tm, cng c th ln hn 220HB gy cho vic ct gt
gp kh khn. Nu tin hnh khng hon ton, th nhit nung do t c t
chc v cc phn t Xe
II
cha tan ht nn khi lm ngui, cc phn t ny nh l
nhng mm gip cho to nn P ht. Sau khi khng hon ton, thp c t chc P ht
vi cng thp hn (khong 200HB) nn m bo ct gt tt hn.
Vy nhit khng hon ton cho mi thp cacbon lngi
T
0
.k.h.t
= T
0
Ac1
+ (20 30
0
C)
Dng c bit ca khng hon ton l cu ho, trong nhit nung dao
ng tun hon trn di A
1
: nung n 750 770
0
C ri li lm ngui xung 650
680
0
C, c th trong nhiu ln. Vi cch lm nh vy, khng nhng cu ho c Xe
ca P m c Xe
II
thng dng li trong thp sau cng tch.

+ khuch tn:
- nh ngha: L phng php gm nung nng thp n nhit rt cao 1100
1150
0
C v gi nhit trong nhiu gi (khong 10 15
h
)
- Mc ch v c im:
+) To ra ht qu ln do nung lu nhit cao, v vy ch p dng cho vt c
trc khi gia cng p lc. Nu khng qua bin dng do lm nh ht th sau phi
li bng cch hon ton lm nh ht.
+) Lm u thnh phn ca thp do hin tng thin tch gy ra. Cch ny p
dng cho cc thi c bng thp hp kim cao, thng c hin tng khng ng nht
v thnh phn ho hc.
+ ng nhit:
3050
0
C
3
0
5
0
0
C

t
lm ngui cng l
0
C
Ac
1

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- nh ngha: l phng php gm nung nng thp ti nhit (xc nh
theo l hon ton hay khng hon ton), gi nhit ri lm ngui nhanh xung di
A
1
khong 50 100
0
C tu theo yu cu v t chc nhn c.
- Mc ch v c im:
+) Vic gi nhit lu trong l nhit di A
1
phn ho thnh phn hn
hp F + Xe
+) Thi gian gi nhit tu thuc vo tnh n nh qu ngui ca thp nhit
gi ng nhit (thng gi hng gi)
+) Gim cng thu c cng thp nht ng vi t chc ca P. Kh
nhiu thp hp kim cao, do tnh n nh ca qu ngui qu ln nn lm ngui chm
cng l khi cng khng t c cng thp do vy phi lm cho tc ngui
chm hn na nhng rt kh khn nn khng ch tnh n nh ca qu ngui bng
qu ngui.
7.1.2. Thng ha thp
7.1.2.1. nh ngha
Thng ho l phng php nhit luyn gm nung nng thp n trng thi
hon ton (cao hn Ac
3
hoc Ac
cm
); gi nhit ri lm ngui tip theo trong khng kh
tnh (thng ko ra ngui trn sn) phn ho thnh P phn tn hay X vi
cng tng i thp.
Nhit thng ho l :T = T
0
(Ac
3
hay Ac
cm
) + (20 30)
0
C
7.1.2.2. c im ca thng ho thp
- So vi thp, thng ho kinh t hn do khng phi lm ngui trong l do
vy thng c p dng.
- Tc ngui ngoi khng kh tnh ln hn tc ngui trong l khi , tc
ngui tng tc l qu ngui T cng ln do vy ht thu c c kch thc nh hn
so vi khi lm cho c tnh c tng ln.
- Tng nng sut ca qu trnh cng ngh
- Vi thp sau cng tch th ph c li Xe
II
v to ra t chc ph hp trc
khi nhit luyn kt thc.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Vi thp c hm lng cacbon trung bnh (%C = 0,35 0,5%) th thng ho
to ra t chc P c cng tng i cao (24 28HRC) nn c th dng lm nhit
luyn kt thc thay ti v ram vi chi tit khng quan trng.
7.1.2.3. Mc ch p dng ca thng ho
Trn c s phn tch cc c im ca thng ho, ta c th thy s dng
thng ho c th t c cc mc ch yu cu sau:
- t cng thch hp gia cng ct gt vi thp cacbon thp (%C < 0,25%)
i vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,3% thng tin hnh cn i vi thp
c hm lng cacbon thp cn tin hnh thng ho. Thp c hm lng cacbon thp
nh vy nu em hon ton s cho cng rt thp (nh hn 140HV), thp do,
phi kh gy, qun ly dao, khi thng ho s cho cng cao hn (khong 140
180HB), thch hp vi cc ch gia cng ct gt.
Nh vy, m bo tnh gia cng ct gt, vi thp c hm lng cacbon <
0,25% phi thng ho, t 0,3 0,65% cn hon ton v thp c hm lng > 0,7%
cn khng hon ton ( cu ho).
- Lm nh Xe chun b cho nhit luyn kt thc.
Khi thng ho to ra t chc P phn tn hay X vi Xe c kch thc b. Mt
khc, Xe ng nh bin gii ht cng nhiu, do vy khi ho s to ra nhiu mm ,
nhn c ht nh mn v chuyn bin xy ra nhanh. Yu cu ny rt cn thit i
vi trng hp ti b mt.
- Lm mt Xe
II
dng li ca thp sau cng tch
Nhiu trng hp sau khi lm ngui chm sau khi thp sau cng tch hay b
mt thp thm cacbon, trong t chc xut hin Xe
II
dng li lin tc bao quanh P
lm thp rt dn v nh hng n nhn bng khi gia cng ct gt. Thng ho c
th khc phc c trng thi ny, do lm ngui nhanh hn, Xe khng kp tit ra
dng lin nhau m dng t ri. Cc xa nhau lm thp t dn hn, b mt t c
nhn bng cao hn.
7.1.2.4. Nhit v thng ho thp theo gin trng thi

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

100
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8%C
200
300
600
700
900
1000
1100
U khuech tan
U
h
o
a
n
th
a
n
h
+
727
0
C
Uket tinh lai
F+P
U thap
P
P+Xe
II
+ Xe
II
U khong hoan toan
Thng hoa
%C
0
911

7.2. TI THP
7.2.1. nh ngha
Ti thp l phng php nhit luyn nung thp ln cao qu nhit ti hn
(Ac
1
) lm xut hin t chc , gi nhit ri lm ngui nhanh thch hp chuyn
bin thnh M hay cc t chc khng n nh khc vi cng (nh B, T khi ti ng
nhit) v tnh chng mi mn cao.
7.2.2. c im
- Phi lm ngui trong cc mi trng c tc ngui ph hp (v
ng
> v
ng.ti hn
)
- T chc thu c sau khi ti l t chc khng n nh nn phi kt hp vi
ram to t chc n nh hn.
- Do ti ngui nhanh c im ca chuyn bin M nn chi tit sau khi ti d
tn ti bin dng v ng sut d.
- cng ca sn phm sau khi ti ph thuc vo hm lng cacbon trong thp
v tc ngui (mi trng hay phng php lm ngui).
7.2.3. Mc ch ca ti

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn ca thp do ko di c thi
gian lm vic ca cc chi tit chu mi mn. cng ca thp ti ph thuc vo lng
cacbon. Thp c lng cacbon qu thp < 0,25% khi ti c cng khng cao, khng
chu mi mn. Vy, mun t c mc ch ny thp ti phi c hm lng
cacbon trung bnh v cao t 0,3% cacbon tr ln.
- Nng cao bn do nng cao c sc chu ti ca chi tit my. N tnh
cht ny m ngi ta tin hnh ti thp cho cc chi tit my quan trng (chu ti nng,
chng mn v gy), cc chi tit quyt nh kh nng lm vic lu di ca my. Nguyn
cng ti thp ng v tr quan trng c bit trong nhit luyn v cc l do sau:
+) N quyt nh c tnh ca thp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic do vy quyt
nh tui th ca chi tit my.
+) L mt trong nhng nguyn cng gia cng cui cng, chi tit dng
thnh phm.
Cc mc ch nu trn ch t c bng s kt hp vi ram tip theo.
7.2.4. Tc ti ti hn v thm ti
7.2.4.1. Tc ti ti hn
- nh ngha: L tc ngui nh nht cn thit chuyn bin thnh M vi
tng loi thp khc nhau.
v
ng.ti hn
= ) s / C (
t
T T
0
h . g
o 1

T
1
: nhit ti hn di ca thp; T
0
: nhit cng vi qu ngui km n
nh nht; T
gh
: thi gian km n nh nht ca
V
th
t
t
gh T
0
T
1
0
C

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- c im:
+) Tc ti hn ca thp cng nh cng d ti cng v lc ch cn dng cc
mi trng ngui chm cng t cng.
+) Tc ti ti hn ca cc thp khc nhau cng khc nhau.
N ph thuc vo v tr ca ng cong ch "c" hay l tnh n nh ca qu
ngui. Tnh n nh ca qu ngui cng ln, ng cong ch "c" hay l tnh n nh
ca qu ngui. Tnh n nh ca qu ngui cng ln, ng cong ch "c" dch
sang phi cng nhiu, tc ti ti hn cng nh.
7.2.4.2. thm ti
- nh ngha: l chiu dy lp c chuyn bin M khi ti
Gi s c mt chi tit hnh tr, vi tc ngui ti hn xc nh trn, nhng
vng no c tc ngui ln hn tc ngui ti hn s cho chuyn bin M, vng
cn li l chuyn bin P.
Chuyen bien
P
V
ngchi tiet
V
ngth
Chieu day lp co
chuyen bien M
(o tham toi)

- c im v ngha:
+) thm ti hay chiu dy ca lp c chuyn bin M nh hng n tnh
nng lm vic ca chi tit. Trn c s , vic chn la v tnh ton thm ti ca
chi tit ph thuc vo vic la chn mi trng v phng php lm ngui.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+) Tnh ton ng nhng vng c ti cng ca thp, lm c s xc nh
kh nng lm vic ca chi tit.
7.2.5. Xc nh nhit ti
Khi ti thp, t nht phi nung thp qu nhit Ac
1
, tuy nhin i vi thp c
lng cacbon khc nhau th cch xc nh nhit ti cng khc nhau.
i vi thp trc cng tch v cng tch (%C < 0,8%):
- Nhit ti ly cao hn Ac
3
tc l nung nng thp n trng thi hon ton l
. Cch ti ny gi l ti hon ton
T
0
ti
= Ac
3
+ (30 50)
0
C
Vy, khong nhit ti c xc nh nh sau:
T
0
khoang nhiet o toi
Ac
3
A
c
c
m
Ac
1
%C

Nh vy, nhit ti ca thp ging nhau v khng ph thuc vo hm lng
cacbon.
- Vic chn nhit ti nh vy v l do sau: Vi thp sau cng tch khng th
tin hnh ti hon ton v thp ny c hm lng cacbon cao (>0,8%). Khi nung qu
Ac
cm
tt c Xe
II
ha tan ht vo lm cho pha ny c lng cacbon cao (bng lng
cacbon ca thp) nn khi lm ngui nhanh c M vi hm lng cacbon cao, th tch
ring ln v do cn li nhiu
d
. Mc d, trong cch ti ny M c cng cao nht
nhng cng chung ca thp ti (M +
d
) li thp do vy thp khng t yu cu v

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

cng. Mt khc, nung thp qua Ac
cm
tc l nhit cao s lm ht ln (gy dn
cho thp ti), oxy ha v thot cacbon b mt. Do vy, i vi thp sau cng tch cn
ti khng hon ton t chc nhn c sau khi ti gm M + Xe
II
+
d
, c cng
chung cao nht khong 62 65HRC. Trong t chc ny, Xe
II
cn c cng cao hn
M cht t hn na Xe
II
do cha ha tan ht vo nn tn ti dng ht nh phn b
u lm tng tnh chng mi mn.
7.2.6. Cc phng php ti
7.2.6.1. Yu cu i vi mi trng lm ngui
- Mi trng ti phi to c chuyn bin M. Mun vy, mi trng ti phi
c kh nng lm ngui thp vi tc ln hn hay bng tc ti ti hn.
- Gim c tc chuyn bin trnh bin dng v ng sut d. Lm ngui
chm thp trong khong nhit trn 600
0
C v di 500
0
C c bit l trong khong
nhit chuyn bin M (di 300
0
C), tc ngui cng chm cng tt v chuyn bin
ny gy ra ng sut t chc ln. t c yu cu ny s m bo thp ti khng b
nt v t cong vnh.
iu kin lm ngui l tng nht c m t trn hnh v sau:
0
C
qua nguoi
Ac
1
Ms
%C
P
X
T
P
B
t
B
d
M

thu c t chc M v trnh to ng sut d ta cn ch l trong khong
550 650
0
C nn lm ngui nhanh v khong 200 300
0
C cn lm ngui chm.
- Ngoi 2 yu cu quan trng bn trn, cn ch cc yu cu khc i vi mi
trng ti nh: d kim, s dng an ton, khng c tng tc ha hc, in ha, c
bm vo b mt cao mi trng tip xc u vi chi tit.
7.2.6.2. Cc phng php ti thng thng
* Ti mt mi trng:

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti m chi tit ch c lm ngui trong mt mi
trng duy nht (ng (1))
- c im:
+) n gin, d thao tc
+) Khng hn ch c tc ngui khi c chuyn bin M do chi tit d b
bin dng v nt
- Phm vi p dng: Do cc c im trn m ti mt mi trng ch p dng
cho cc chi tit khng quan trng, kt cu n gin.
* Ti 2 mi trng:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti m chi tit c lm ngu trong 2 mi trng c
tc ngui khc nhau. Mi trng 2 c tc ngui chm hn mi trng 1 (ng
(2))
0
C
Ac
1
Ms
M
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
T
X
P
B
t
B
d
t
P

- c im:
+) Li dng c u im ca 2 mi trng ti. Lc u khi cn nhit
cao, thp c lm ngui mi trng c tc ngui mnh, su khi gn n nhit
chuyn bin M thp c chuyn sang lm ngui trong mi trng c tc ngui
b hn. Chuyn bin M xy ra trong mi trng ngui chm nn gim bt ng sut
bn trong, t nt. y l cch ti thch hp cho thp cacbon (c bit cho thp cacbon
cao) va bo m t cng, va t xy ra bin dng, nt.
+) Kh xc nh c thi im chuyn chi tit t mi trng mt sang mi
trng hai. Thi im chuyn mi trng tt nht l khi thp c nhit cao hn M
s

khong 100
0
C. Nu chuyn qu sm, thp b ngui trong mi trng hai c v
ng
nh s
d khng t c cng yu cu, nu chuyn qu mun, chuyn bin M s xy ra
ngay trong mi trng mt, ng sut bn trong ln, gy bin dng v nt.

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- Phm vi p dng:
Do cc c im ca ti 2 mi trng m thc hin n phi i hi cng
nhn c tay ngh cao (xc nh thi im chuyn mi trng), kh c kh ha, thng
p dng cho sn xut tng loi nh hoc n chic.
* Ti phn cp:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ti s dng mi trng lm ngui l mt loi mui
nng chy nhit ln hn M
s
; T
0
= M
s
+ (30 50)
0
C. Thp c lm ngui v gi
ng nhit trong mt thi gian nht nh t c nhit ca mi trng mui
nng chy, sau chuyn sang mi trng khng kh lm ngui chm to chuyn
bin M (ng (3)).
- c im:
+) ng sut bn trong thp do qu trnh ngui c chia lm 2 cp nn chynh
lch nhit gia li v b mt thp, chuyn bin M xy ra vi tc ngui rt chm.
+) C th tin hnh nn, sa cong vnh trong cc g c bit khi lm ngui
thp trong khng kh t nhit "phn cp".
+) Khng p dng c cho cc chi tit c tit din ln v mi trng lm
ngui c nhit cao (300 500)
0
C kh nng lm ngui chm nn vi chi tit c tit
din ln kh t n v
ng.th

+) Mi trng mui nng chy d b n, gy mt an ton v rt c hi
- Phm vi p dng: Cc dng c bng thp hp kim vi tnh n nh ca qu
ngui ln (v
t.h nh
) c tit din b.
* Ti ng nhit:
- nh ngha: l qu trnh ti cng dng mi trng mui nng chy, gi chi
tit trong mui mt thi gian phn ha hon ton thnh F + Xe c cng tng
i cao v dai tt (thng gi ng nhit 250
0
400
0
C c Bainit) (ng
(4)).
- c im:
+) T chc sau ti l B, c cng nh hn M sau khi ti ng nhit, khng
cn Ram
+) Vi thp cacbon v hp kim cao, sau khi ti phi tin hnh gia cng lnh
nhm mc ch chuyn bin M hon ton.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Gia cng lnh phi tin hnh ngay sau khi ti v lu nhit thng s lm
n nh ha , hiu qu s km.

- Phm vi p dng: Ch p dng cho cc thp hp kim c tnh n nh ca qu
ngui ln v vi tit din nh. Do to nn t chc tm khng tt nn phm vi p dng
ca ti ng nhit b hn ch. C th p dng cho mt s chi tit v dng c c dng
tm mng.
7.2.6.3. Cc phng php ti c bit
* Ti b phn:
- nh ngha: L phng php ti m ch c mt phn chi tit c ti cng tc
l c chuyn bin M.
- Cc cch thc hin: C 2 cch ti b phn.
+) Nung nng b phn: Ch nung nng phn cn ti cng n nhit ti, sau
lm ngui bnh thng trong mi trng ti thch hp, phn c nung nng s
c ti cng, cc phn cn li vn m bo do.
+) Nung nng ton b, lm ngui b phn: Nung nng ton b chi tit ln n
nhit ti, nhng ch lm ngui bng mi trng ti thch hp nhng phn cn cng.
- Phm vi p dng: Thng p dng ti cc chi tit nh li ca, c hay
u mt xupp ca ng c.
* C nhit luyn:
- nh ngha: L qu trnh ha bn cho php nh s kt hp gia qu trnh c
hc (bin dng do) vi qu trnh nhit luyn (ti) thp.
- Bn cht:
Gia cng
lnh
Ti
0
C
0
Ram
t

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+) C nhit luyn l qu trnh cng tin hnh 2 c ch ha bn l bin dng do
v ti trong mt qu trnh cng ngh duy nht. Sau c nhit luyn, thp c ram
thp 100 200
0
C. T chc nhn c l M
ram
.
+) Do bin dng do, cc ht tr nn nh hn, to nn nhiu block, mt
lch cao v th khi ti tip theo s c t chc M rt nh, mn nn c s kt hp cao
gia bn, do v dai m cha c phng php ha bn no c c.
- Phn loi:
Ty thuc vo nhit bin dng cao hay thp hn nhit kt tinh, ngi ta
chia c - nhit luyn nhit cao v nhit thp.
+) C nhit luyn nhit cao
Trong c nhit luyn nhit cao, ngi ta bin dng thp nhit cao hn
Ac
3
ri ti ngay tip theo cho s kt tinh li khng kp tin hnh. C nhit luyn
nhit cao c cc c im: phm vi p dng rng ri cho loi thp k c thp
cacbon, d tin hnh (v nhit cao hn Ac
3
th do v n nh); c do, dai
cao song bn thp do vy c nhit luyn nhit cao thng c thc hin trong
cc xng cn nng thp thnh cc bn thnh phm.

C nhit luyn nhit cao C nhit luyn nhit thp
+) C nhit luyn nhit thp
Trong c nhit luyn nhit thp, ngi ta bin dng thp nhit ca qu
ngui c tnh n nh tng i cao (400 600
0
C) nhit ny phi cao hn M
s

nhng thp hn nhit kt tinh li nhng cn phi trnh chuyn bin thnh T hoc
B. C nhit luyn nhit thp c cc c im ch p dng cho thp hp kim l thp
c tnh n nh ca qu ngui cao, kh tin hnh v cng ngh phc tp, bn t
c cao nhng do, dai khng cao.
Bin dng do
0
C
Ac
3

Ac
1

M
s

M
t
Bin dng do
0
C
Ac
3

Ac
1

M
s

M
t

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nu sau c - nhit luyn li tin hnh bin dng ngui M
ram
s lm tng bn.
- Phm vi p dng: Hin nay, c nhit luyn c p dng cc xng cn
thp ca cc nh my luyn kim sn xut cc bn thnh phm (thp tm, thp hnh).
7.2.6.4. Mt s mi trng ngui hay dng
* Nc:
- c im:
+) L mi trng ti d kim, r tin v an ton
+) C tc ngui nhanh
+) D ph o hi v linh ng cao
+) D gy nt, cong vnh do tc ngui vng chuyn bin M ln
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti cho thp cacbon (%C trung bnh) v nhng chi tit
n gin.
* Du:
- c im:
+) Lp mng hi ca du n nh do tc ngui chm hn so vi nc.
+) linh ng km v o hi kh ph ha
+) Mi trng ti t an ton, d chy
Du thng dng l du mazut, du my
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti theo c hm lng cacbon cao, thp hp kim trung
bnh vi t cch l mi trng ti th hai.
* Mui nng chy:
- c im:
+) Trnh c hin tng oxi ha thp
+) To tc ngui n nh nhng tc ngui chm
+) c hi v d n
- Phm vi p dng: Dng ti thp hp kim cao

7.3. RAM THP
7.3.1. nh ngha v mc ch

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73.1.1 nh ngha: Ram l phng php nhit luyn nung thp ti thnh t chc M
ln n cc nhit thp hn Ac
1
gi nhit mt thi gian v lm ngui theo yu cu
M v d phn ha thnh cc t chc thch hp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic quy
nh.
7.3.1.2 Mc ch: Sau khi ti thp t c cng cao, do v dai thp v tn
ti nhiu ng sut bn trong. Vi trng thi nh vy, tuy c tnh chng mi mn tt
nht thp d b ph hy dn. V vy, sau khi ti t t chc M, phi tin hnh nung li
gim bt cng, tng do, dai, gim hay kh b ng sut bn trong, lm c
tnh ca thp ph hp vi iu kin lm vic ca chi tit hay dng c.
Ch : Nhit ram khng c > Ac1 v lc s xut hin v ph thuc vo
tc ngui tip theo. Yu t quyt nh t chc v do quyt nh c tnh ca thp
ram l nhit , thi gian gi nhit khi ram. Do vy, vi mc ch l lm gim hoc mt
ng sut d, bin t chc M + d sau khi ti thnh cc t chc khc c do v
dai cao hn nhng cng v bn ph hp th ram c th coi l nguyn cng nhit
luyn cui cng, ch p dng cho thp ti.
7.3.2. Cc phng php ram
i vi thp cacbon v thp hp kim thp, theo nhit ram v t chc to
thnh ngi ta chia thnh 3 loi ram: ram thp, ram trung bnh v ram cao.
7.3.2.1. Ram thp
- nh ngha :l phng php nung thp ti trong khong 150 250
0
C t
chc t c l M
ram
.
- Mc ch: lm gim ng sut d trong M, tit ra mt phn cacbon khi M lm
cng gim i rt t (1 3HRC).
- Phm vi p dng: Cc sn phm chu ram thp sau khi ti l cc chi tit v
dng c cn cng v tnh chng mi mn cao: dao ct kim loi, khun rp ngui,
dng c o, vng bi.
7.3.2.2. Ram trung bnh
- nh ngha: L phng php nung thp ti trong khong 300 450
0
C t
chc thu c l T
ram
.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Mc ch: Lm gim gn nh ton b ng sut d, tit cacbon ra khi M tuy
nhin cng ca thp vn cn kh cao, gii hn n hi t c gi tr cao nht,
do, dai tng ln.
- Phm vi p dng: Cc sn phm cn ram trung bnh sau khi ti thng l cc
chi tit yu cu c tnh n hi cao nh l xo, nhp, dng c cn dai cao nh khun
rp nng, khun rn.
7.3.2.3. Ram cao
- nh ngha: L phng php nung thp ti trong khong 500 650
0
C t
chc thu c l X
ram
.
- Mc ch: cng ca thp ti gim mnh, ng sut bn trong b trit tiu,
bn gim i, cn do, dai tng ln mnh.
- Phm vi p dng: Ti v ram cao cn c gi l nhit luyn ha tt nn
thng c p dng ch to cc chi tit c yu cu v c tnh tng hp cao, chnh
v th nhit luyn ha tt thng c p dng cho cc chi tit chu va p nh trc
khuu, trc truyn lc, thanh truyn, xupp np, bnh rng...Thp dng nhit luyn
ha tt thng c hm lng cacbon trong khong 0,3 0,5%.
7.3.3. Cc khuyt tt xy ra khi nhit luyn
Nhit luyn ci thin rt nhiu c tnh ca thp, song nu thc khng ng s gy
ra cc h hng. Cc h hng xy ra khi nhit luyn, c bit khi nhit luyn kt thc (ti +
ram) s gy ra lng ph ln. Cn hiu r cc nguyn nhn gy ra cc h hng , cng nh
cc bin php ngn nga v khc phc chng.
7.3.3.1. Bin dng, nt
- Hin tng: S khng m bo v hnh dng ban u hoc xut hin cc vt
nt t vi trn sn phm sau khi nhit luyn (c bit nguy him khi ti).
- Nguyn nhn: Do ng sut d pht sinh bn trong gy ra bin dng v nt.
Khuyt tt ny c th xy ra c khi nung nng ln khi lm ngui. Nung nng nhanh v
c bit l i vi cc thp dn nhit km (thp hp kim cao) s gy ra ng sut nhit
ln, trong dng ny thng xy ra khi lm ngui. Lm ngui nhanh trong qu trnh ti,
ng sut nhit v ng sut t chc u ln.
Nu ng sut bn trong vt qu gii hn bn, thp s nt l dng khuyt tt
khng th cha c. Nu ng sut bn trong vt qu gii hn chy, chi tit s b
bin dng (cong vnh).

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- Tc hi: C hai loi bin dng v nt u gy ph phm.
- Cch khc phc: Ngn nga xy ra bin dng v nt bng cch gim ng sut
bn trong.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt trong qu trnh nung bng cc bin php:
+) Xc nh tc nung nhanh hp l trnh nt. i vi thp hp kim cao
c tnh dn nhit km, khi nung nng khng a t ngt vo l c nhit ti cao
ngay, m trc cn nung trc cc l c nhit thp hn.
+) Cn xc nh ng cch thc nung chi tit cho hp l.
i vi cc trc di, khi nung trong l khng nn t nm ngang trn sn l m
nn treo thng ng.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt trong qu trnh ngui khi ti bng cc bin php:
+) Chn mi trng v phng php ti thch hp c chuyn bin M
+) Chn phng php nhng chi tit, dng c vo mi trng ti. Khi nhng
phi tun theo cc nguyn tc: Chi tit gm nhiu b phn dy, mng khc nhau th
phi nhng phn dy trc, chi tit di, nh v l xo phng, mng phi nhng thng
ng. Cc chi tit hnh ng phi m bo trc vung gc vi mt cht lng.
+) gim ng sut nhit do lm ngui khi ti thng p dng bin php ti h
nhit tc l chi tit ngoi khng kh t ngui khong 50 70
0
C sau mi nhng
vo mi trng ti. Cch lm ny thng p dng cho thp ti nhit cao nh thp
thm cacbon, thp dng c hp kim.
+) i vi cc chi tit d cong vnh nh tm mng, bnh rng th bin php
chng bin dng l lm ngui khi ti trong khun p.
Ngn nga bin dng, nt bng bin php thit k:
C gng to cho chi tit c thnh dy u, cn i khng c gc nhn v nhng
phn thay i tit din t ngt.
7.3.3.2. Oxi ha v thot cacbon
- Hin tng: Oxy ha l hin tng to nn cc vy oxyt trn b mt thp, lp
oxt st khng bn, d b bong ra, lm sai kch thc v xu b mt sn phm.
Thot cacbon l hin tng hm lng cacbon b mt thp b gim i do n
b chy v vy lm c tnh lp b mt - phn quan trng nht ca chi tit - b gim
thp.

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- Nguyn nhn:
+) xi ha: Do khi nung n nhit cao (ln hn 570
0
C) trn b mt ca thp
xut hin mng oxuyt st, c xp cao nn khng ngn cn c oxi n tip xc do
vy gy ra hin tng xi ha b mt thp.
+) Thot cacbon: Cng vi hin tng xi ha b mt thp, th cacbon cng kt
hp vi xi to ra cc xuyt cacbon (CO, CO
2
) lm gim cht lng b mt ca chi
tit.
Thot cacbon thng xy ra vi thp c hm lng cacbon > 0,6%. Do tn ti
chnh lch nng cacbon gia sn phm v mi trng nn to thun li cho qu
trnh khuch tn cacbon b mt thp. nhit cao, h s khuch tn tng mnh.
D
c
= D
0
.e
-Q/KT

Khuyt tt ny hay xy ra cc nguyn cng nhit luyn v thng ha thp.
- Tc hi
+) Lm hao ht kim loi gy sai hng v kch thc cho chi tit
+) Lm gim c tnh ca sn phm m in hnh l gim cng
- Cch khc phc
i vi cc nguyn cng nhit luyn s b, v sau cn tin hnh gia cng c
nn nu chiu su lp khuch tn ny nh hn lng d gia cng th khng cn lu
v lp s b bc i, khng cn li trn sn phm.
Bin php ngn nga tt nht l to ra mi trng nung khng gy ra cc tc
dng xy ha st v cacbon. Trong k thut thng dng cc mi trng sau.
+) Kh quyn bo v: l mi trng kh vi t l xy rt thp v gm c cc
kh CO
2
, CO, H
2
O, H
2
, CH
4
v N
2
trong N
2
chim t l ch yu t 50 75% v vi
cc t l nht nh gia nhng thnh phn ca cc kh xy ha v hon nguyn ca cc
kh lm thot cacbon v thm cacbon
2
4
2
2 2
H
CH
;
H
O H
;
CO
CO
. Vi t l thch hp ca cc kh
c tc dng ngc nhau s lm cho thp khng b xy ha v thot cacbon.
+) Kh quyn trung tnh: Kh quyn bo v ch p dng cho thp cacbon v thp
hp kim thp. Vi cc thp crom cao c cc lc mnh vi xy do vy khng dng
c quyn bo v nn phi dng cc kh nh H
2
, N
2
, NH
3
.

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+) Nung trong chn khng: l phng php nung trong cc l c chn khng
cao khong 10
-2
10
-4
mmHg nn c kh nng chng xy ha v thot cacbon rt tt
song y l phng php rt t nn t c s dng.
Trong iu kin khng c cc bin php bo v k trn, phi dng cc bin
php khc nh: ri than trn sn l, cho chi tit vo hp c ph than, kh xy trit
trong cc l mui...
7.3.3.3. cng khng t
- Hin tng: cng khng t l dng khuyt tt cng cao hoc thp hn
so vi cng m thp c th t c tng ng vi loi thp v phng php nhit
luyn cho.
- Nguyn nhn:
+) cng cao: Khi v thng ha xy ra hin tng ny lm kh khn cho ct
gt v bin dng do tip theo. Nguyn nhn c th l do tc ngui ln.
+) cng thp: Khi ti xy ra hin tng ny lm cho thp khng c tnh
lm vic. Nguyn nhn c th l: thiu nhit (nung cha n nhit yu cu, thi
gian gi nhit cha ), lm ngui khng nhanh xy ra chuyn bin M hay
do thot cacbon b mt.
- Tc hi: Lm gim tui th v tin cy ca chi tit
- Cch khc phc:
+) nh li chnh xc cng ngh nhit luyn
+) Kim tra cht ch qu trnh thc hin
7.3.3.4. Tnh dn cao
- Hin tng: Sau khi ti, thp b dn qu mc v lm gim t ngt dai va p.
- Nguyn nhn: Khi nung nng thp nhit cao qu quy nh lm ht ln
nn khi ti c t chc M hnh kim ln, tnh dn cao.
- Tc hi: Lm gim tui th v tin cy ca chi tit
- Cch khc phc:
+) Thng ha thp ri ti li nhit ng quy nh.
+) Kim tra cht ch nhit nung
7.3.3.5. Dn ram

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Hin tng: Khi ram, nu tng nhit ram ko theo dai va p tng song
trn thc t, khi ram thp hp kim li c hin tng gim cc b dai va p a
k
khi
tng nhit ram.
- Nguyn nhn: Do trong thp cha cc nguyn t c li gy dn thp l P v S.
- Tc hi: Lm gim kh nng lm vic ca chi tit, gy nguy him khi s dng.
- Cch khc phc: Dn ram t c kh nng khc phc nn trnh hin tng ny
cho chi tit. Trn thc t, dn ram ch c th khc bng cch ram nhit cao hn
vng dn ram 2 sau lm ngui nhanh.

7.4. S LC V CC THIT B NHIT LUYN
7.4.1. c im ca l nhit luyn
Cc l nhit luyn l cc l dng nung nng thp, gang v cc kim loi khc
khi nhit luyn. Chng c nhng yu cu ring so vi cc loi l khc dng trong ch
to my v luyn kim.
7.4.1.1. Yu cu i vi l nhit luyn
bo m cht lng khi nung nng, l nhit luyn phi m bo c cc
yu cu sau y:
- D dng khng ch nhit, tc phi iu chnh nhit mt cch d dng, v
nh th bin nhit cao hoc thp hn gi tr quy nh u gy h hng. Nhit
phi c khng ch trong phm vi hp +(5 10
0
C). Tt nht l dng l s dng nng
lng in c thit b o v khng ch nhit . Cng c th dng l vi nhin liu kh
hoc lng.
- Nhit gia cc vng trong khong khng lm vic ca l khng sai khc nhau
nhiu.
- Kh quyn ca l cng t xy ha, t thot cacbon cng tt.
- D c kh ha, t ng ha.
- An ton v t c hi.
7.4.1.2. Phn loi l nhit luyn
C nhiu cch phn loi khc nhau ph thuc vo cng dng ,cch thc s
dng hay phng thc lm vic.

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-Theo cng dng: - Theo cng dng cc l nhit luyn c th c chia ra : ,
ti, ram, thm cacbon, ti b mt...Tuy nhin, theo nhit lm vic mt l c th c
nhiu cng dng. V d loi l bung in tr c nhit lm vic n 950
0
C c th
dng ti, , thng ha, thm cacbon th rn.
- Theo phng thc lm vic: cc l nhit luyn c phn ra l lm vic gin
on (theo chu k, t): cho vo v ly ra theo tng m v l lm vic lin tc.
- Theo ngun nhit: Theo ngun pht ra nhit nung c cc loi sau:
+)L in: Loi dng in pht ra nhit, hnh thc c th khc nhau nh
dng in tr, dng in cm ng, dng in trong cht in phn (l mui in
cc)...Phn ln cc l nhit luyn thuc loi ny.
+) L dng than: dng than t nh l phn x dng than , l dng than
qu bng...Nhc im ca loi l ny l kh khng ch nhit , nhit cc vng
chnh lch, iu kin lm vic.
+) L du: loi l t bng du mazut
+) L kh: loi l t bng kh t
Hai loi l sau cng t ph bin nc ta.
- Theo mi trng truyn nhit: c th chia ra cc loi:
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l khng kh: loi l t bng dy in tr. y l
loi l dng ph bin nc ta.
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l khi bo v: kh quyn c th khng ch kh tr...
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l kh chy: l phn x t than, l du, l kh
+) Mi trng truyn nhit l cht rn: l lp si
7.4.2. Cc nhm thit b nhit luyn
7.4.2.1. Nhm thit b nung (gia nhit)
* L phn x t nhin liu rn
S nguyn l
1. Bung t
2. Tng chn
3. Bung nung phi
4. ng khi
5. Chi tit
2
1
3
4
5

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- Nguyn l lm vic: Nhin liu (than ) c t trong bung (1). Nhit
lng bc x nung nng vm bung (3),vm bung (3) bc x xung vt nung trn
y l v nung nng vt cn gia nhit. Tng l, bung t xy bng gch chu
la(samt)
- c im:
+) Kt cu n gin, d xy dng, r tin
+) C kch thc a dng kh nng p dng rng ri
+) S dng nhin liu sn c
+) Thao tc d dng, d sa cha
+) Kh to mi trng kh bo v
+) Khng ch t
0
khng chnh xc
+) Khi cn m bo mi trng khng tt, hiu qu km
- Phm vi p dng: p dng cho nhit luyn s b
* L s dng nng lng in
- Nguyn l: Dng bin p h in li xung in p lm vic c 24 - 48V,
cng dng qua thanh (dy) in tr tng nn nhit ta ra. Dng nhit ta ra
nung nng khng gian bung l v chi tit. Tng l xy bng gch chu v v ngoi
bng kim loi

- c im:
+) Kch thc khng th qu ln
+) t tin: Thit b, nhin liu
buong ot
ien tr

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+) Khng gian bung l kn c th to c mi trng bo v
+) Lun c cc thit b khng ch t
0
chnh xc
- Phm vi p dng: c dng nung thp khi ti
K hiu: CHO, CHz, N, KDE
CHO - 30 - 45 - 60 - 25c
CHO: mi trng b xi ha
30-45-60: kch thc l
250: cng sut
CHz - 30 - 45 - 60
CHz: mi trng c kh bo v
M - 30 - 45 - 60
M: l cht lng thng
* L mui (l mui in cc)
- Nguyn l: Dng mi trng mui nng chy nung thp khi ti.
- c im:
+) Bo v chi tit rt tt
+) Trng nhit ng u
+) c hi, d mt an ton
- Phm vi p dng: c p dng cho chi tit c bit quan trng
* L ging
- c im: Dng hnh tr, khi lp, 80% l chm trong lng t
- Phm vi p dng: Ti, ram cc chi tit trc, bc c chiu di ln
7.4.2.2. Nung nng thp v xc nh thi gian nung nng ti
* Cc phng php nung
Trong nhit luyn tn dng phng php nung nhanh do t dng phng
php cht chi tit vo l ri cng nng nhit vi l. Thng p dng cch nung nng
bng cch cho chi tit vo l c nung nng c nhit gn bng hoc cao hn
nhit cn nung.
- Cho chi tit cn vo l nhit 500 600
0
C, sau nung chi tit cng vi
l n nhit quy nh, gi nhit ri lm ngui chm cng l.

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- Cho chi tit vo l khi t n nhit quy nh. Cch nung ny nhanh
thng p dng cho nung nng ti.
- Cho chi tit vo l khi l t nhit cao hn nhit quy nh, lc ban u
s lm nhit ca l h thp xung nhit quy nh mt cch d dng. Cch nung
ny nhanh nht.
- Trong cng nghip cn dng cc loi l nung lin tc, chng c dy bung v
nhit khc nhau t nhit thp n nhit quy nh, khi chi tit chuyn ng
dc qua ht dy bung s hon thnh c qu trnh nung nng
* Xc nh thi gian nung nng ti
Xc nh ng thi gian nung nng l yu t quan trng xc nh cht lng
nhit luyn, c bit l khi ti thp. Nh vy khi nung nng thp c 2 qu trnh l:
nng nhit - qu trnh nng nhit chi tit ln n nhit ca l v gi nhit - qu trnh
gi chi tit nhit khng i ca l.
Do , t
nung
= t
nng nhit
+ t
gi nhit

7.4.2.3. Nhm thit b lm ngui v thit b kim tra
- Nhm thit b lm ngui: Rt a dng ph thuc vo yu cu ca sn phm.
- Nhm thit b kim tra: o c nhit nung nng mt cch chnh xc l
yu t quan trng u tin m bo cht lng nhit luyn. Khng kim tra v khng
ch c nhit nhung s gy ra phn ln cc khuyt tt nhit luyn v vy kim tra
nhit nung l vic rt quan trng v kh trong qu trnh nhit luyn. C th kim tra
bng cc phng php sau: Kim tra bng ha quang k hoc kim tra bng cp nhit,
hay dng phng php khng ch nhit t ng - t chnh xc cao nhng ch
hp vi khng gian bung l trung bnh v nh.

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Chng 8. ho bn b mt thp

8.1. B MT CHI TIT V CC PHNG PHP HA BN B MT
8.1.1. B mt chi tit v cc yu cu lm vic ca b mt
B mt chi tit l phn ranh gii gia chi tit my v mi trng lm vic hoc
vi chi tit my khc trong c cu, b phn.
iu kin lm vic:
- Chu nh hng trc tip cc tc ng mi trng nh cc tc ng c, l ha.
- L ni u tin tip nhn ti trng nn thng xuyn chu ma st, mi mn
trong cc c cu.
- D b bin dng hoc trc r b mt.
Cc iu kin lm vic trn cho thy, b mt chi tit l ni c iu kin lm
vic khc nghit nht do vy vic cn thit phi ha bn b mt nng cao tin cy
ca chi tit. Cc thng s tin cy ca chi tit bao gm (
B;
0,2
;
-1
; cng HRC,
do dai v ; a
k
; do
d
). Mc ch ca ha bn b mt l tng tin cy ca
chi tit trong qu trnh lm vic.
8.1.2. Cc phng php ha bn b mt thp
B mt ca chi tit bng thp l b phn c yu cu cao nht v b mt chnh l
ni lm vic chu ng sut tc dng ln nht, chu mi mn khi chu ma st vi chi tit
khc. Rt nhiu chi tit ch yu cu b mt c cng, bn cao trong khi li vn
gi nguyn do dai tt.
C 3 phng php lm tng cng ca b mt so vi li:
- Phng php c hc
- Phng php nhit luyn b mt
- Phng php ha nhit luyn

8.2. PHNG PHP C HC
8.2.1. Nguyn l
Nu bng phng php c kh lm bin dng c b mt ca thp n chiu
su nht nh, th lp ny do mng tinh th b x lch s b bin cng ( cng v

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bn tng ln). Nh vy, chi tit c cng b mt cao, cn trong li vn gi c
do dai tt.
Bin cng b mt c cc c im sau:
- Lp b mt c cng cao do chng mi mn tt hn.
- To nn lp ng sut nn d lp b mt do vy lm tng gii hn mi.
- Khi bin dng nh vy lm mt i kh nhiu tt hng b mt nh vt kha,
r, do vy lm gim ngun gc sinh ra cc vt nt mi.
- Di tc dng ca ng sut khi bin dng, trong thp ti c chuyn bin d
thnh M, do vy lm tng tnh chng mi mn ca b mt thp ti. Bin cng b mt
c p dng khng nhng cho thp m c cho thp ti.
8.2.2. Cc phng php c hc
8.2.2.1. Phun bi
Phun bn nhng vin bi cng lm bng thp l xo hay gang trng vi kch
thc (0,5 1,5) mm l b mt chi tit. Tc ca bi t n (50 100) m/s bng
my ly tm quay nhanh s va p do phun bn cc vin bi ln b mt c tc dng to
ra trn b mt chi tit v s cc vt lm nh. Chiu su lp bin cng b mt t n
0,7mm.
c im ca phun bi l t bin dng do ng u, cht lng cao, thit b
n gin d iu chnh, khng to c lp ha bn c chiu di ln.
8.2.2.2. Ln p
Ln bng con ln hay bng bi vi p lc ln nh l xo hay my nn thy lc.
Chiu su lp bin cng c th t ti 15mm. Thng p dng cho cc chi tit ln nh
c trc toa xe la, c trc khuu.
8.2.2.3. p
p l hnh thc bin dng b mt bng va p to nn bi cc dng c va p,
g lp va p bng l xo v c thc hin trn my cng c. Lp bin cng c th
sau ti 35 mm, v vy thng dng p trong ch to ha bn cc chi tit ln ca
thit b rn p v my nn thy lc.

8.3. PHNG PHP NHIT LUYN B MT
8.3.1. nh ngha

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Ti b mt l phng php nung nhanh b mt thp ti nhit ti sau lm
ngui thu c b mt c t chc M, phn li vn gi nguyn c tnh tng hp cao.
8.3.2. Nguyn l
C nhiu phng php ti b mt song song chng u da trn nguyn l
chung l nung nng tht nhanh b mt vi chiu su nht nh ln n nhit ti,
trong khi phn ln tit din khng c nung nng, khi lm ngui nhanh tip theo
ch c b mt c ti cng cn li khng c ti vn m bo mm, do. C th
nung nng nhanh b mt ti bng cc phng php sau:
- Nung nng bng dng in cm ng c tn s cao
- Nung nng bng ngn la ca hn hp kh C
2
H
2
+ O
2

- Nung nng bng tip xc gia 2 phn gip nhau khi c dng in chy qua
- Nung nng trong cht in phn
8.3.3. Cc phng php ti b mt
8.3.3.1. Phng php ti b mt bng dng in c tn s cao
- Nguyn l:
Khi mt chi tit kim loi t trong t trng bin thin s sinh ra sc in ng
cm ng nn trong chi tit s c dng in cm ng cng tn s. Nh tnh cht ny
ngi ta dng dng in c tn s cao hng nghn n hng chc vn Hz nn dng
cm ng cng c tn s cao nh vy. c tnh ni bt ca dng in cm ng c tn s
cao l n c mt ln nht b mt v gim nhanh v pha li vt dn, nh c
kh nng nung nng nhanh b mt ln n nhit ti. Chiu su ca lp c dng in
chy qua ph thuc vo tn s ca dng in, in tr sut v t thm ca vt nung.
= 5030 ) cm (
f .
S

: t thm (gaus/ecstet)
f: tn s (Hz)
: in tr sut (.cm)
Nh vy, tn s cng cao, chiu su lp nung nng v lp ti cng mng. Thc
t, ngi ta dng dng in c tn s trong khong 2.500 250.000 (Hz)

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- S :

1. Thit b to dng in c tn s cao
2. ng dn
3. Vng cm ng v nc lm mt
4. Chi tit
Vng cm ng thng lm bng ng c dng hnh ng hoc l xo xon rut
g vi ng kmh trong ln hn ng knh ln nht ca chi tit. Khi nung nng, chi
tit c t trong vng cm ng sau b mt i dng in cm ng nung nng n
nhit ti (qu trnh ny ch ko di t vi n vi chc giy), ngi ta nhc chi tit
ra ri nhng vo mi trng ti (thng thng lm ngui bng cch phun nc hoc
dung dch lm ngui) ngy trong vng cm ng.
- Chn tn s v thit b to dng tn s cao:
Tn s ca dng in quyt nh chiu dy lp nung nng do quyt nh chiu
su lp ti cng. Chiu su lp ti cng i vi cc chi tit khc nhau cng khc nhau,
cc chi tit vi tit din ln cn chiu su lp ti cng dy hn so vi cc chi tit vi tit
din b hn. Thng thng, chiu su lp ti cng c chn theo 2 mc (4 6) mm
i vi chi tit ln v (1 2) mm i vi chi tit b.
Cc chi tit ln chn tn s t (2500 8000) Hz cn cc chi tit b c tn s t
(50.000 250.000) Hz.
Thit b to dng c tn s cao s dng my pht c cng sut t (400 500)
KW v thit b iu ch c cng sut t (15 75) KW.
- c im ca chuyn bin pha khi nung nng bng dng in cm ng c tn
s cao:
Khc vi phng php nung nng thng thng trong cc l nung th tch c
tc nung nng chm, nung nng bng dng in cm ng rt nhanh, nn chuyn
bin pha ca thp c cc c im sau:
+ Do nung vi tc cao, cc nhit chuyn bin pha u nng cao. Do vy,
nhit ti phi ly cao hn nhit ti chn theo cch thng thng t 100 200
0
C.
1
2
3
4
~

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+ Do nung vi qu nhit cao nn tc chuyn bin pha khi nung rt nhanh,
thi gian nung nng rt ngn.
+ Do thi gian nung ngn, mc d nhit cao, ht vn khng kp ln ln,
nn sau khi ti c c M hnh kim rt nh (gi l M khng t chc (tc l khng thy
hnh kim phng i 500).
T chc ny c c tnh rt tt, tc l khng nhng c cng cao hn M thng
thng m li t dn hn.
m bo t c t chc , trc khi ti cao tn, thp nn c t chc X-
ram
, vi t chc F + Xe nh mn ny, khi nung cm ng vi tc cao, to nn rt
nhiu mm . V vy trc khi ti cao tn, thp thng c nhit luyn ha tt.
- Thp dng ti cao tn:
Do yu cu ca chi tit em ti cao tm l lm tng cng ca t mt m li
vn m bo do, nn thp em dng phi l thp cacbon trung bnh, trong khong 0,4
0,6%. Vi thp c hm lng cacbon hn 0,4% th khi ti cng b mt khng t
chng mi mn, cn thp vi lng cacbon cao hn 0,6% th sau khi ti b mt rt
cng nhng li li km do, d nt do s truyn nhit. V vy, thp dng ti cao tn
thng l thp 40, 45, 40x, 50x.
- Ch ram v c tnh t c:
m bo cng cao b mt, sau khi ti cao tn, ngi ta ch tin hnh
ram thp. Lc , b mt s c t chc M
ram
rt cng, cn li c t chc P hay X, c
bn v do cao. Mt trong nhng u vit ca phng php ti b mt bng dng
in c tn s cao l to nn b mt lp chu ng sut nn d, c th t n gi tr
800MN/mm
2
. Nguyn nhn to thnh ng sut nn d l do c chuyn bin M
lm tng th tch cn trong li khng c chuyn bin g, 2 phn ny cn tr ln nhau
nn lp ngoi chu nn v trong chu ko. Lp ng sut nn d c nh hng tt n
tnh chu mi ca thp.
- u im ca ti cao tn:
+ Nng sut cao do thi gian nung ngn
+ Cht lng tt do nhit c to thnh chnh trong lp kim loi b mt trong
thi gian rt ngn nn gim rtn hiu nhng khuyt tt c th xy ra khi nung nng.
+ Gim nh iu kin lao ng ca cng nhn do mi trng lm vic sch,
khng c kh c, d c kh ho v t ng ho.

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3200C
0
T
0
1 3 2
8.3.3.2. Ti b mt bng nung nng bi ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2

Ti b mt theo phng php ny c thc hin bng cch dng m t hn
hp kh C
2
H
2
+ O
2
ca thit b hn hi.
Ngn la ca m t hn hp kh trn rt nng, c ch ti 3000
0
C do vy c kh
nng nung nng nhanh b mt n nhit cao, trong khi li vn ngui. Sau khi
lm ngui nhanh ch c lp b mt c ti cng.
- Cu to ngn la:

1. Vng nhn
2. Vng lm vic
3. Vng nung s b v lm sch

Cu to ca ngn la gm 3 vng: Vng nhn, vng lm vic (c nhit cao
nht) v vng nung s b. Vng c nhit cao nht chnh l vng c s dng
nung chi tit n nhit ti.
- c im ca phng php ti bng ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2
:
+ Thit b n gin, d thc hin: Tnh c ng cao (d lp t, di chuyn v c
th t ngay trong xng c kh). C th ti nhng chi tit ln hoc b.
+ Cht lng kh bo m tt. Ngn la C
2
H
2
+ O
2
c nhit qu cao do vy
b mt thp d b qu nhit, ht ln (M hnh kim ln) do vy c th gy ra oxy ho v
d b chy b mt. Chiu dy lp ti khong 5 10mm v kh iu chnh lp nung
nng.
+ Nng sut thp, ch thch hp vi sn xut n chic.

8.4. Phng php ho nhit luyn
8.4.1. Khi nim
L phng php nhit lm bo ho (khuych tn) vo b mt ca thp mt hay
nhiu nguyn t lm thay i thnh phn ho hc, do lm thay i t chc v
tnh cht ca lp b mt theo mc ch nht nh.

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8.4.2. Mc ch
- Tng cng v tnh chng mi mn, bn mi ca chi tit. Mc ch ny
ca ho nhit luyn ging phng php ti b mt nhng t hiu qu cao hn.
- Nng cao tnh chng mi mn in ho v ho hc (chng oxi ho nhit
cao), chu axit ca lp b mt chi tit thp.
8.4.3. C s l thuyt ca qu trnh ho nhit luyn
Thng thng, khi ho - nhit luyn ngi ta t chi tit thp vo mi trng
(rn, lng hoc kh) c kh nng phn ho ra nguyn t hot ng ca nguyn t nh
khuch tn, ri nung nng n nhit thch hp. Cc qu trnh xy ra theo 3 giai
on ni tip nhau.
Phn ly: L qu trnh to ra cc nguyn t hot tnh ca nguyn t cn a vo
chi tit (nguyn t cn thm) c nng lng v kh nng khuch tn cao. C th tin
hnh bng phn ng ho hc hoc phn ly nhit.
Hp th: Sau giai on phn ly, cc nguyn t ht c hp th vo b mt thp
sau chng khuch tn vo kim loi c s to nn dung dch rn hoc cc pha phc
tp: Pha trung gian hoc hp cht ho hc. Kt qu ca s hp th l to nn b mt
thp lp c nng nguyn t nh khuch tn cao, to nn chnh lch v nng
gia b mt v li c ch ca qu trnh hp th c th nh: lc ho hc, lc lin kt
hoc lc ht tnh in.
Khuch tn: L qu trnh cc nguyn t cht thm i su vo bmt ca chi tit
cn thm, tng tc vi cc nguyn t nn (chi tit) v to thnh lp thm. Qu trnh
khuch tn l quan trng nht, n quyt nh chiu dy ca lp thm to thnh.
C s khuch tn: L mt qu trnh t pht, xy ra khi c s chnh lch nng
ca cc nguyn t. Qu trnh ny tun theo nh lut Fick.
- nh lut Fick 1
C Dgrad J =
c: nng
D: h s khuch tn
J: Chiu chuyn ng ca dng vt cht

T
2

T
1

T
3

C
0

0 x
3
x
2
x
1
x
C
b mt
C

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- nh lut Fick 2
Phng trnh vi phn ca nh lut
2
2
x
c
D
dt
dC
= c iu kin t = 0 C = C
0

x = 0 C = C
b mt
t: thi gian
x: kh nng phn b theo to
Trong :
C(x,t) = C
b mt
- (C
b mt
- C
0
).erf (
t . D 2
x
)
|
\
|
t . D 2
x
erf gi l hm sai ca nghim.
+ Khi T = const th coi D = const cn khi T thay i th D thay i
+ S thay i h s khuch tn theo nhit c biu th nh sau:
|
\
|
=
T . R
Q
exp . D D
0

Q: hot nng khuch tn
+ thay i x dng phng php thay i thi gian cn gi nguyn nhit .
8.4.4. Cc c ch khuch tn
- C ch nt trng: Cc nguyn t ca nguyn t cn thm i vo cc nt trng
trong mng ca nguyn t cu to nn chi tit do vy lp b mt to thnh dung dch
thay th.

- C ch nt xen k: i vo l hng ca mng tinh th ca nguyn t nn to
dung dch rn xen k hoc pha xen k.

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+ Dung dch rn xen k nu 59 , 0
d
d
A
B
<
+ Pha xen k nu 59 , 0
d
d
A
B
>
- C ch i ch theo vng: Cc nguyn t s i ch cho nhau to dng vt
cht chuyn ng hoc i ch tng cp.
8.4.5. Cng ngh thm cacbon
8.4.5.1. nh ngha
Thm cacbon l phng php nhit luyn lm bo ho (thm, khuch tn)
cacbon vo b mt ca thp cacbon thp (thng l 0,1 0,25% cacbon) to ra lp
b mt c t chc thp sau cng tch (P + Xe
II
) nng cao cng v tnh chng mi
mn nhng vn gi nguyn tnh do ca li.
8.4.5.2. Mc ch v yu cu i vi lp thm, chn loi thp thm
Mc ch: Mc ch ca thm cacbon l lm cho b mt ca thp cng ti trn
60HRC, c tnh chng mi mn cao, chu mi tt, cn li vn gi c tnh do, dai
ca thp ban u em thm. Do , chi tit em thm cacbon l chi ti chu ti trng va
p m b mt chu ma st. Mc ch trn ch t c nu chi tit c ti v ram
thp sau thm.
Yu cu i vi lp thm:
t c cc mc ch trn, lp thm ccbon v li phi t c cc yu
cu sau:
- Lp thm c nng cacbon trong khong 0,8 1% thm di gii hn ny
sau khi ti lp thm khng cng v tnh chng mi mn, cao hn gii hn ny
lp thm c th b dn, trc. Thc nghim cho thy, vi nng cacbon ca lp thm
nh vy chi tit va c cng, tnh chng mi mn tt li t c bn ln nht.
- T chc t vi ca b mt v li sau khi thm, ti v ram thp phi t: b mt -
mactenxit v cc phn t cacbit nh mn phn b u, li - mactenxit v khng c ferit.
Chn loi thp thm: Thp thm cacbon s dng cc loi thp c hm
lng cacbon thp (< 0,25%C)
8.4.5.3. Chn nhit v thi gian thm
Nhit thm:

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- Nguyn tc chn nhit thm cacbon l sao cho ti thp c t chc hon
ton (v ch c t chc ny mi c kh nng ho tan nhiu cacbon).
- Nhit cng cao, qu trnh khuch tn cng mnh, cng nhanh t chiu su
lp thm. Do vy, ngi ta s dng nhit thm cacbon cao song khi nhit cao th
lm ht ln nn lm tng tnh dn.
- Theo thc nghim D
cmax
(920 950)
0
C nn ngi ta thng chn nhit
thm khong c qu trnh khuch tn mnh nht.
- Sau khi thm, nng cacbon s tng t C
0
C
1
ng thi lm thay i t
chc b mt ca chi tit. C th l trong li, chi tit ca t chc P + Fe (m bo tnh
do ca li) tip l P v b mt chi tit c t chc l P + Xe
II
(m bo cng ca
b mt). Hay ni khc i, t chc ca thp thay i t trc cng tch cng tch
sau cng tch tng ng t li ra b mt ca chi tit.
- Nng cacbon lp b mt t t (0,9 1,1)% v chiu su lp thm m bo
tnh chng mi mn phi t t (0,8 1,2)mm.

Thi gian thm:
Thi gian thm cacbon ph thuc ch yu
vo chiu dy lp thm yu cu, nhit thm v
mi trng thm.
- Chiu dy lp thm yu cu cng ln,
thi gian thm cng di, mc tng thi gian thm
ln hn nhiu so vi mc tng chiu dy lp
thm.
T
0

G
Q C
0
0,8 C
1
2,14 %C
S
B E
A
x
C
0

0,8
C
1
C

P+Fe
II
P

P
+Xe
II

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- Nhit tng cng cao, thi gian thm cng ngn. Nhit thm ph thuc
vo loi thp ang dng.
- Mi trng thm khc nhau thi gian thm cng khc nhau. Thm trong mi
trng lng thi gian ngn nht, sau n khi, di nht l thm trong mi trng rn.
8.4.6. Cc phng php thm cacbon
Tu theo trng thi cht thm khc nhau m ngi ta phn ra lm cc phng
php thm khc nhau: Thm th rn, thm th lng v thm th kh.
8.4.6.1. Thm cacbon th rn
Phng php thm: Hn hp than hoa v cht tr dung (dng cc mui
cacbonat).
- Than hoa c p vn (c ht t 0,5 1m) trn u vi cht tr dung
(BaCO
3
) v cng vi chi tit cn thm c ng vo hp kn, trong cc chi tit
cch nhau v cch thnh hn hp khong 25 40mm. Sau a hp vo nung n
nhit thm.
- nhit thm, thp c t chc hon ton l v trong iu kin rt thiu oxi
nn xy ra phn ng ho hc 2C + O
2
2CO
Khi gp b mt thp v di tc dng xc tc ca n, kh CO b phn ho v to
thnh cacbon nguyn t.
2CO CO
2
+ C
nguyn t

Cc mui cacbonat y ng vai tr quan trng v n phn ho nhit cao
thnh kh CO
2
v kh ny c li cho vic to thnh cacbon nguyn t theo phn ng:
BaCO
3

0
t
BaO + CO
2

CO
2
+ C
than
2CO
2CO
phanhoa
CO
2
+ C
nguyn t

Cacbon nguyn t c to thnh b mt thp c tnh hot cao, b hp th v
khuch tn vo lp b mt n chiu dy nht nh. Nguyn t cacbon xen k vo
trong mng ca v lm thnh phn ca pha ny tng ln.
c im:
- n gin, d thc hin, r tin
- Khng th iu chnh c nng cacbon thm vo lp b mt theo yu cu,
thng nng cacbon t trn 1,2% tc l ng vi gii hn ho tan cacbon trong .

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- Thi gian thm rt di do mt nhiu thi gian nung nng hp cha than.
- Kh c kh ho, t ng ho, iu kin ng hp bi, bn, nng sut thp.
Do nhng c im trn, m thm cacbon th rn khng p dng cho cc chi
tit quan trng.
8.4.6.2. Thm cacbon th lng
Phng php thm: Dng hn hp mui nng chy gm:
(75 85%) Na
2
CO
3
+ (10 15%) NaCl + (6 10%) SiC
nhit 840 860
0
C. Trong SiC l thnh phn chnh thm cacbon nn
thnh phn ca n gim i trong qu trnh lm vic.
c im:
- Thi gian ngn, nung nng v thm ng u
- Khng iu chnh c nng cacbon lp b mt
- Kh thao tc l, iu kin lao ng khng tt
- Kh c kh ho, t ng ho, nng sut rt thp
- Khng thm c cho cc chi tit ln do phi dng l mui in cc c kch
thc b.
8.4.6.3. Thm cacbon th kh
Phng php thm: Dng kh CH
4
to ra cacbon nguyn t theo phng trnh
phn ng.
CH
4

phanhoa
C
nguyn t
+ 2H
2

Cacbon nguyn t c kh nng hp th tt vo b mt thp. Trong thc t, ngi
ta khng th dng ch hn hp CO, CH
4
v cc hirocacbon khc thm v nh vy to
ra qu nhiu cacbon nguyn t v lp thm c nng cacbon qu cao. Hn hp kh
thm cacbon thng dng, ngoi cc thnh phn kh c tc dng thm nh CH
4
, CO v
cc hirocacbon khc cn phi c mt lng nht nh cc thnh phn kh khc nh
CO
2
, N
2
, H
2
, O
2
l nhng kh ln vo hoc c a vo iu chnh nng kh thm
nhm khng ch lng cacbon b mt thp.
c im:
- Cht lng tt do m bo iu chnh c nng cacbon lp b mt thp
theo yu cu.
- Thi gian ngn do khng phi nung nng hp cha than
- D c kh ho, t ng ho

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- iu kin lao ng tt, khng c hi
- Thit b t tin nn thng p dng cho cc chi tit quan trng.
8.4.6.4. Nhit luyn sau thm cacbon
Do thm cacbon nhit cao (920 950)
0
C nn thp c trng thi ht ln do
vy khi lm ngui thu c t chc M th, sut hin nhiu vt nt t vi v ng ng sut
d ln chnh v th buc phi nhit luyn sau thm cacbon
Ch nhit luyn:
- Nhm c ht di truyn ht ln:
Ti nhit thm, to ht ln nn lm xu c tnh. Nhit luyn sau khi thm
khng nhng phi m bo b mt cng m cn phi khc phc c khuyt tt . Do
vy phi tin hnh hai ln ti: ln th nht - cho li lm nh ht, ln th hai - cho b
mt t cng cao. Nh vy, nhit ca 2 ln ti phi khc nhau v li l thp
trc cng tch c nhit ti cao hn b mt l thp sau cng tch v cng tch. Nn
ch nhit luyn ca loi thp ny: Ti 2 ln + ram thp.
Ti ln 1: Cho phn li m T
ti
= 850 870
0
C vi 2 mc ch:
+ Lm nh ht thp, do nung ti nhit > Ac
3
ca li c chuyn bin F + P
ht nh
+) Lm mt li Xe
II
lp b mt do lm ngui nhanh pha ny khng kp tit ra
khi .
Sau ln ti ny, cng b mt khng t c gi tr cao nht chng mi
mn, do vy phi ti tip ln na.
Ti ln 2: Cho b mt nhit 760 780
0
C b mt l thp sau cng tch
v cng tch c cng ln nht. Ln ti ny khng nh hng xu n kt qu t
c ln ti trc.
Ram thp: Nhit 180 280
0
C vi mc ch kh b 1 phn ng sut m vn
gi c cng cao b mt.
c im v phm vi p dng: Thp thu c c c tnh tt (ht nh, do
ca li cao, b mt cng), nhng do nung nng lm ngui nhiu ln d sinh oxy ho,
thot cacbon v bin dng, chu trnh cng ngh di, tn km hn, do vy ch p dng
cho chi tit quan trng, c yu cu cao v c tnh v lm bng thp cacbon.

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- Nhm c ht di truyn ht nh:
i vi cc chi tit t quan trng, lm bng thp cacbon hoc hp kim c th p
dng phng n ti 1 ln v ram thp v khi , ti ch tin hnh cho ti b mt.
i vi thp c ht bn cht nh, d gi nhit lu nhit cao, ht vn gi
c kch thc b do vy khng cn nguyn cng nhit luyn lm nh ht v c th
tin hnh ti trc tip ngay sau khi thm cacbon m khng cn c qu trnh nung nng
li.

Ti ln 1: Nhit t 750 770
0
C
Ram thp: Nhit ram t 180 220
0

c im: Rt ngn thi gian thc hin, d c kh ho, t ng ho, cho nng
sut cao nn thng c p dng cho cc chi tit n gin.
8.4.6.5. T chc v c tnh ca chi tit thm cacbon
Sau khi nhit luyn, ton b chi tit thm cacbon c t chc M
ram
. b mt do
nng cacbon cao, M c cng cao cng vi 1 lng nht nh cacbt d s m
bo tnh chng mi mn cao. trong li, do thnh phn cacbon thp, M c cng
trung bnh vi bn tt v do tng i cao.
920950
0
C
850870
0
C
750770
0
C
180220
0
C
t
2

t
3

t
3
< t
2

t
T
0

920950
0
C
750770
0
C
180220
0
C
t
2

t
3

t
3
< t
2

t
T
0

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- cng b mt phi t 60 63 HRC, cng ca li 30 40 HRC.
- cng b mt cao hn v do c tnh chng mi mn tt v th thng
chn cng ngh thm cacbon cho cc chi tit lm vic trong iu kin "nng" (V d
nh bnh rng gim tc).
Ch :
Vi thp hp kim cao, sau thm cacbon phi kt hp gia cng lnh. Thp c Ti,
V (thp c ht di truyn ht nh), ch tin hnh ti 1 ln + ram thp.
8.4.7. Thm Nit
8.4.7.1. nh ngha v mc ch
Thm nit l phng php ho nhit luyn nhm bo ho lp b mt thp bi
nit to ra cc pha xen k c cng v phn tn cao. Do vy lm tng cng,
bn v tnh chng mi mn ca chi tit.
8.4.7.2. Cu to ca lp thm nit
Thm nit ch tin hnh th kh. Ngi ta tin hnh thm nit bng cch nung
nng chi tit trong dng kh amoniac (NH
3
) nhit 480 650
0
C l nhit m ti
n b phn ho mnh nht theo phn ng.
NH
3

0
t
3H + N
Nit nguyn t c hot tnh cao, b hp th v khuch tn vo mt thp. C s
xc nh t chc ca lp thm nit l gin trng thi Fe - N.

8%N %N 6%N
c
u
n
g

t
c
h
%Fe
650
591
+
+'
+
+'
'
+'
'
]
2%N
0
C
0
C

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Cc pha trong h Fe - N gm c:
- dung dch rn xen k ca nit trong Fe
- Fenitnit
- dung dch rn xen k ca nit trong Fe
- Auxtenit nit
Ch tn ti nhit cao hn 591
0
C, ti nhit ny khi lm phn ho thnh
hn hp cng tch [ + '].
': dung dch rn trn c s ca pha xen k kiu Fe
4
N - l pha c cng cao
(>1200HV)
: dung dch rn trn c s ca pha xen k kiu Fe
2
N
8.4.7.3. Cng ngh thm nit
- Khi thm nit, t cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, ngi ta khng
dng thp cacbon thng thng, v cc nitrit st c khuynh hng kt t nhit cao,
do vy c kch thc ln, lp thm khng c cng v tnh chng mi mn tht cao
v tr nn dn, d trc. Do vy, thm nit ngi ta thng dng thp hp kim c
bit vi cc nguyn t Cr, Mo, Al. (V chng c p lc mnh hn st) c tnh phn tn
ln, n nh nhit cao nn lp thm c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, chc,
khng trc.
- Mc ch thm nit l to ra pha ' v trn lp b mt nn khng cn nng
nhit n trng thi hon ton. Mt khc, h s khuch tn D
max
500
0
C nn
ngi ta chn nhit thm khong 500
0
C. Thi gian thm ko di, to ra cc
pha xen k.

- Khng th ti v ram sau khi thm nit, v lp thm mng, nung nng t
0
cao
d gy ra h hng. Do nhit thm thp hn nhit ram nn qu trnh thm khng
lm gim c tnh cao ca li t c khi ti v ram cao trc .
+' '
'+ ' +'
nhit
thm
Vng ho bn bng
chiu dy lp thm
Sau khi thm v
lm ngui

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8.4.7.4. c im ca lp thm nit
+ cng rt cao, tnh chng mi mn tt, kh nng dnh bm tt. So vi thm
cacbon, thm nit c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao hn r rt. Hn na, tnh cht
ny ca lp thm gi c ti nhit cao 500 600
0
C v theo gin trng thi Fe-N
cu trc ca lp thm khng thay i nhit di 591
0
C.
+ Nng cao bn mi do to nn lp ng sut nn d b mt
+ Nng cao tnh chng mi mn trong kh quyn. B mt ngoi cng lp thm
nit c t chc l pha , pha ny c c tnh l cu to rt xt cht, do vy c tnh bo
v tt.
+ Thi gian ca qu trnh thm rt di v ch c th tin hnh thm nit th kh.
V nhng l do trn, m thm nit thng p dng cho cc chi tit my quan
trng nh trc khuu v cc trc quan trng.
8.4.8. Thm Cacbon - Nit
8.4.8.1. nh ngha v mc ch
- Thm cacbon nit l phng php lm bo ho (thm, khuch tn) ng thi
cacbon v nit vo b mt thp nng cao cng v tnh chng mi mn. cng
v tnh chng mi mn ca lp thm cacbon - nit cao hn so vi thm cacbon nhng
thp hn so vi thm nit.
- Tu thuc cc t l ca cacbon v nit m lp thm c th gn vi thm
cacbon hn hoc nit hn. Nu qu trnh xy ra nhit cao (920 950
0
C) th qu
trnh ch yu l thm cacbon, cn nhit thp (500 550
0
C) th qu trnh ch yu
l thm nit.

0,04
0,08
0,12
0,16
0,2
%N
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
%C
900 800 700 600 1000
0

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8.4.8.2. Cc phng php thm
- Thm cacbon nit th rn. Tin hnh ging nh thm cacbon th rn.
Trong cht th m c 20 40% mui K
4
Fe (CN)
6
hoc mui K
3
Fe(CN)
6
; 10%Na
2
CO
3

cn li l than g. Phng php ny thng dng cho cc dng c bng thp gi, thp
crm cao tng cng, tnh chng mi mn v tnh cng nng song do mi trng
rt c, nng sut thp nn t dng.
- Thm cacbon - nit th lng: Thm cacbon - nit th lng tin hnh
trong cc b mui m thnh phn gm cc mui xianua: NaCN; KCN, K
4
Fe(CN)
6
,
K
3
Fe(CN)
6
v cc mui trung tnh Na
2
CO
3
, NaCl, KCl. Tu theo nhit thm m
phm vi p dng cng khc nhau song phng php b hn ch p dng do mi trng
thm rt c.
- Thm cacbon - nit th kh: V c bn, cch thm ny khng khc thm
cacbon th kh nhiu nhng c nhiu u im hn, to pha cabon - nitrit (Fe
3
CN)
phn tn, rt cng lm tng tnh chng mi mn, thi gian thm ngn, nng sut cao,
thi gian s dng thit b thm c ko di nn phng php ny thng c p
dng rng ri hn v thng c s dng trong sn xut cc chi tit t, my ko,
ng c...
Ngoi 3 phng php thm cacbon, nit, cacbon - nit, ngi ta cn thm mt
s nguyn t khc nh Bo, Cr, Al, Si nhm t c cc mc ch khc nhau ca ngi
s dng.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Phn III. Cc vt liu kim loi

phn ny, ta i nghin cu cc loi vt liu kim loi thng dng trong ch
to c kh l gang, thp, hp kim mu. i vi ngi lm k thut yu cu quan trng
l nm c cc c tnh v t chc t vi, thnh phn ho hc, c tnh, phng php
nhit luyn t c c tnh cn thit theo yu cu ra ca chi tit v cng dng
ca cc vt liu kim loi thng dng. Do vy, cn phi nm vng mt cch h thng
mi quan h gia thnh phn ho hc - t chc t vi - c tnh.
Ngi ta quy c phn chia cc vt liu kim loi ra lm 2 nhm ln l: kim loi
en v kim loi mu. Cc kim loi en c s dng vi lng ln l st v cc hp
kim ca n: thp v gang, chng chim v tr quan trng trong ch to c kh. Cc kim
loi mu c dng nh l nhm, ng, ch, km, la tng, brng...v c s dng vi
s lng hn ch trong k thut song cng c nhng cng dng ni bt ring.

Chng 9. gang v nhit luyn gang

9.1. Gii thiu chung v gang
9.1.1. nh ngha
- Theo thnh phn ho hc: Gang l hp kim ca Fe vi C m trong thnh
phn C > 2,14%.
- Theo t chc t vi: Gang l hp kim ca Fe vi C m trong t chc c Le.
Cc cch nh ngha trn u tng ng vi trng thi cn bng gi n nh theo
ng gin trng thi Fe - Fe
3
C
9.1.2. Phn loi
Trong qu trnh s dng tin phn loi ngi ta da vo t chc t vi ca
gang. Trn c s , gang c phn thnh cc loi sau:
- Gang trng: L gang c cacbon tn ti dng Xe(Fe
3
C). Nh vy, t chc t vi
ca gang trng hon ton ph hp vi gin gi n nh Fe - Fe
3
C lun lun c cha
hn hp cng tinh Le.
- Gang xm, cu, do l loi gang trong phn ln hay ton b cacbon di
dng t do - graphit vi cc hnh dng khc nhau: tm, cu, bng. Trong t chc khng

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c Le, do t chc t vi khng ph hp vi gin trng thi Fe - C. T chc t vi
ca gang c Graphit v Xe. Ngi ta chia t chc ca chng ta ra hai phn: phn phi
kim loi - Graphit v nn kim loi gm F v Xe. Khi tt c cacbn dng t do th nn
kim loi ca t chc ch gm c F, cn khi mt phn cacbon dng lin kt th nn
kim loi ca t chc c th l F - P; P hoc P - Xe.
Chnh do c im v t chc t vi nh vy m cc loi gang c c tnh v cng
dng khc nhau.
9.1.3. C tnh v tnh cng ngh
- C tnh: Nhn chung gang l loi vt liu c bn do thp, dn cao Xe l
pha cng v dn, s tn ti ca n vi mt lng ln v tp trung trong gang trng lm
d dng cho s to vt nt di tc dng ca ti trng ko. Do , gang trng c bn
ko thp v dn cao.
Trong gang xm, do, cu t chc Graphit nh l cc l hng c sn trong gang,
l ni tp trung ng sut ln, lm gang km bn. Mc tp trung ng sut ph thuc
vo hnh dng graphit, ln nht gang xm vi graphit dng tm v b nht gang cu
vi graphit dng cu trn. V vy, gang cu c bn cao nht, tnh do tt nht trong
cc loi gang. Song s c mt ca graphit trong gang c mt s nh hng tt n c
tnh nh tng kh nng chng mn do ma st, lm tt rung ng v dao ng cng
hng
- Tnh cng ngh
Gang c tnh c v tnh gia cng ct khng tt: cc loi gang thng dng c
thnh phn gn cng tinh nn nhit chy thp, do chy long cao v l mt
trong nhng yu t quan trng ca tnh c, graphit trong cc gang xm, do v cu
lm phi d gy vn khi gia cng ct.
9.1.4. Cng dng
Ni chung gang c c tnh tng hp khng cao nh thp nhng c tnh c tt
v r nn dng ngi ta dng gang lm rt nhiu cc chi tit my nh: b my, v,
np, cc b phn t phi di chuyn hay c th dng gang cu lm trc khuu thay
cho thp.
9.1.5. S hnh thnh graphit trong gang
Cc loi gang c thnh phn cacbon ging nhau (>2%) nhng c loi ch to
nn Xe nh gang trng, c loi li to nn Graphit. Trong gang, graphit c th c 3
dng ch yu: tm, cu, nhng dng tm ca graphit trong gang xm l dng t nhin.

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9.1.5.1. Graphit
Graphit c mng lc gic, trong cc nguyn t cacbon nh c xp thnh
tng lp mt: khong cch gia cc nguyn t trn mi lp rt gn nhau -1,42A
0
; cn
gia cc lp li rt xa nhau -3,4A
0
. Do cu trc nh vy nn khi to thnh t trng thi
lng, graphit pht trin rt nhanh (theo cc phng v mt c mt nguyn t ln),
lm cc lp ny di, rng ra rt nhanh c dng tm (phin) cong. Chnh v vy,
graphit tm l dng t nhin ca graphit trong gang.
9.1.5.2. S to thnh graphit trong gang
xt kh nng to thnh graphit trong gang hy ln lt xt cc yu t nng
lng t do v cng ngh to mm ca graphit v Xe.
* iu kin nng lng: Nng lng t do ca Graphit lun lun nh hn ca
Xe mi khong nhit . Nh vy, v phng din ny s to thnh Graphit c li
hn. Nhng nng lng t do ch l yu t quyt nh chiu hng ca qu trnh, s kt
tnh ra Graphit c thc hin c hay khng cn ph thuc vo cng to mm na.

* Cng tc mm: Cng to mm ca Xe nh hn ca Graphit rt nhiu. Do vy
v phng din ny, s to thnh Xe c li hn s d, cng to mm Graphit ln hn
Xe l do:
G
L
4,3
L
4,3

2,14
+ Fe
3
C
6,67
L
4,3

2,14
+ Gr
100
1147 1153

T
0
(
0
C)

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- V thnh phn ho hc: Graphit c 100%C, cn Xe c 6,67%C cn gang lng
khong 34%C, <2,14%C. T thy rng, t gang lng v t , to nn Xe,
cacbon phi khuch tn, ba ng t hn so vi khi to nn Graphit.
- V cu to mng tinh th: c mng lp phng gn vi Xe hn l vi Graphit
c mng lc gic.
+) S to thnh Graphit t gang lng v t khi lm ngui ch xy ra trong
phm vi nhit hp, mun xy ra phi lm ngui vi tc rt chm.
+) S to thnh graphit t gang lng v t l qu trnh chm chp v cng to
mm graphit ln v cn s khuch tn nhiu ca cacbon.
9.1.5.3. Cc yu t nh hng n qu trnh hnh thnh Graphit khi kt tinh
* Thnh phn ho hc: thnh phn ho hc ca gang nh hng ln n s to
thnh graphit. Gang l hp kim ngoi Fe, C ra cn cha nhiu cc nguyn t khc nh
Mn, Si, P, S...chng c nh hng khc nhau n s to thnh Graphit.
Si l nguyn t thc y mnh s to thnh Graphit v n lm gim kh nng
ho tan ca cacbon trong gang lng v trong . iu chnh mc to thnh
graphit, lng Si trong cc loi gang thay i trong phm vi t 0,3 0,5% i vi gang
trng v t 1 3% i vi cc loi gang cn li.
Mn l nguyn t ngn cn s to thnh Graphit, Mn qu nhiu d lm gang, ho
trng. Tuy nhin, Mn l nguyn t c li v mt c tnh.

1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I II III
%Si
%C

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* Tc ngui
Tc ngui khi kt tinh lc c gang c nh hng mnh n s to thnh
Graphit. Tc ngui cng chm cng thc y qu trnh to ra Graphit. V vy, c
trong khun ct d to thnh gang xm hn c trong khun kim loi. nh hng tng
hp v thnh phn ho hc (%C + %Si) v tc ngui n mc to thnh Graphit
c biu th nh sau:

I- Gang trng (vng khng c Gr)
II- Gang xm Peclit (vng Gr ho b phn)
III- Gang xm Ferit (vng Gr ho hon ton)
* S phn ho ca Xe
Ngoi s to thnh Graphit t trng thi lng v t khi kt tinh, cn c s to
thnh Graphit t Xe trng thi rn. Xe l pha khng hon ton n nh, iu kin nhit
nht nh, n s b phn ho thnh hn hp + Gr hoc F + Gr.
nhit cao hn 727
0
C, lc khi gi nhit lu Xe s phn ho thnh v Gr
cn nhit thp hn 727
0
C, lc Xe s phn ho thnh F v Gr. Qu trnh phn
ho Xe trng thi rn c s dng nhit luyn gang t n mc to thnh
lng graphit mong mun.

9.2. T chc t vi v c tnh cc loi gang
9.2.1. T chc t vi v c tnh ca gang xm
9.2.1.1. T chc t vi
Gang xm l loi gang m phn ln hay ton b cacbon ca n nm di dng
t do - Graphit rt t hay khng c cacbon di dng lin kt vi st - Xe (lng

7
6
5
4
25 50
I II
III
(mm) (Chiu dy vt c)
(%C+%Si)

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cacbon lin kt khong di 1% cacbon trong tng lng cacbon ca gang thng l
34%). Do trong t chc c nhiu Gr, mt gang c mu xm ti.
T chc t vi gm 2 phn: phn nn v graphit
* Phn nn: ph thuc vo mc Gr ho m c cc loi nn khc nhau.
- Nn Peclit - gang xm peclit: C mc to thnh Graphit bnh thng, trong
lng cacbon lin kt khong 0,6 0,8% to nn peclit tng ng vi thp cng
tch. Khi , t chc ca gang gm Graphit tm v nn kim loi Peclit.
- Nn peclit - Ferit - gang xm P-F c mc to thnh Graphit mnh trong
lng cacbon lin kt ch khong 0,1 0,6% to nn nn kim loi F-P, tng ng vi
thp trc cng tch. T chc ca gang gm: Graphit tm v nn kim loi F-P.
- Nn Ferit - gang xm Ferit: c mc to thnh Graphit mnh nht, trong
tt c ccbon u dng t do - Graphit lng cacbon lin kt khng c, tc l khng
c Xe. Gang ch c hai pha Graphit tm v nn kim loi l F.
* Graphit: Graphit trong gang xm c dng tm cong ( l dng t nhin
thng gp trong gang) chia ct ton b nn gang v khng c chuyn bin khi nhit
luyn.
Thnh phn ho hc: Thnh phn cc nguyn t trong gang xm phi m bo
mc to thnh Graphit v c tnh theo yu cu.
Cacbon: Cacbon cng nhiu, kh nng to thnh Graphit cng mnh, nhit
chy cng thp, cng d c. Tuy nhin, khng th dng gang vi hm lng cacbon
qu cao v lc s c qu nhiu Graphit lm gim c tnh ca gang. Xu hng l
dng gang vi lng cacbon cng thp cng tt. Thng thng, hm lng cacbon t
2,8 3,5%.
Silic: Silic l nguyn t thc y mnh s to thnh graphit, n l nguyn t
quan trng nht trong gang xm. Theo mc to thnh graphit nn ngi ta khng
ch lng silic ca gang xm trong khong 1,5% 3%. Ngoi ra, trong gang silic ho
tan vo F lm tng rt mnh cng v bn ca pha ny.
Mangan: Mangan l nguyn t cn tr s to thnh graphit tc lm ho trng
gang. m bo yu cu to thnh graphit, gia Mn v Si cn phi c t l tng ng.
Thng dng gang xm vi lng 0,5 1%Mn.
Lu hunh: L nguyn tn cn tr mnh s to thnh graphit ca gang, ngoi ra
cn lm xu tnh c ca gang do lm gim chy long. Do vy, phi hn ch lng
lu hunh trong mi loi gang.

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Photpho: L nguyn t khng nh hng g n s to thnh graphit nhng
photpho c ch trong nhng trng hp sau:
- Lm tng tnh chy long
- Lm tng tnh chng mi mn do to nn cng tch
9.2.1.2. C tnh
Do nh hng ca graphit dng tm m gang xm c c tnh km hn thp
nhiu.
- Chu nn tt.
- Chu ko v un km graphit l pha c bn rt thp nn trong gang n
nh nhng vt rng, nt lm mt s lin tc ca nn kim loi do vy lm gim mnh
bn ko.
- C kh nng dp tt dao ng do tc dng hp th ca graphit.
- Tnh c cao do tc dng ca Si nn tnh chy long cao
Cc yu t nh hng n c tnh ca gang:
* nh hng ca graphit
- C tnh ca gang xm ph thuc vo s lng, ln v s phn b ca
graphit. Graphit cng nhiu tc l s vt rng cng nhiu th c tnh ca gang cng
km.
- ln hay kch thc ca graphit nh hng ln n c tnh ca gang xm.
Graphit tm cng di tc s chia ct nn kim loi cng ln, c tnh ca gang xm cng
thp. nng cao c tnh ca gang xm phi dng cc bin php lm nh mn graphit
lm graphit cng ngn, cng nh, cong th cng tt.
* Cc bin php nng cao c tnh ca gang xm
- Gim lng cacbon ca gang: Thc hin bin php ny gp kh khn v nng
cao nhit nng chy ca gang.
- Bin tnh: Thng c p dng mt cch rng ri nng cao c tnh. Gang
xm bin tnh c graphit nh mn, phn b u, do vy c c tnh tt hn.
- Hp kim ho: a thm nguyn t hp kim vo gang, ngoi tc dng nng cao
c tnh, ci thin l tnh v mt s tnh cht c bit khc nh tnh chng n mi,
chng mi mn...
- Nhit luyn: Ti v ram gang xm, bin nn kim loi thnh cc t chc
Troxtit, Xoocbit, Mactenxit ram.

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K hiu:
- Tiu chun ca Vit Nam GX
a-b

- Tiu chun ca Nga: C
a-b

a: gii hn bn un
b: gii hn bn ko
V d: GX
14-24
, C
14-28

9.2.2. T chc t vi v c tnh ca gang do
T chc t vi ca gang do cng ging nh gang xm v gang cu song ch khc
ch: graphit ca n dng hoa bng x x phn b u.
9.2.2.1. Thnh phn ho hc
Trong gang do, graphit c to ra trong qu trnh do thnh phn ho hc
ca gang do phi m bo sao cho qu trnh Graphit ho khng c xy ra bt c
b phn no khi kt tinh m ch c xy ra khi v vy, lng C v Si khng c
nhiu qu khng c Graphit ho khi kt tinh vt c nhng phi xy ra
Graphit ho khi .
- Lng ccbon trong gang do cng thp cng tt, v khi lng cacbon thp
tnh do ca gang sau khi cng cao tuy nhin li gy ra kh khn v mt cng ngh.
9.2.2.2. Quy trnh gang trng thnh gang do

Gang em l gang trng trc cng tinh.
- u tin gang trng trc cng tinh vi t chc P
t
Le c nung nng ti
1000
0
C, ti nhit ny, gang trng c t chc
0
+Le
- Gi lu 1000
0
C t A --> B c qu trnh phn ho ca Xe v qu trnh Gr ho
nhit cao.
700
1000
T
0

A B
C
D E
30 10 20 10
t (gi)

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Fe
3
C
C 1000
0
0
+ Gr
Giai on ny c gi l giai on Gr ho ln th nht, trong xy ra qu
trnh Gr ho ca Xe cng tinh.
- Lm ngui chm t 100
0
C xung 700
0
C t B --> C c qu trnh xy ra l
Graphit gi nguyn,
2,14
P
0,8
+ Xe
6,67
Nu qu trnh dng li C s nhn c gang do P. c gang do F phi
tip tc .
- Gi lu nhit 700
0
C t C E, Xe trong cng tch P b phn ho theo
phn ng
Fe
3
C
6,67

0,02
+ G
100

Sau khi Xe cng tch phn ho ht, gang ch c t chc F + G tc l gang do F.
(Nu t E lm ngui nhanh thu c gang do F; nu dng D sau ngui
nhanh thu c gang do P - F).
9.2.2.3. C tnh ca gang do
- Do Gr dng tng i tp trung nn gang do c bn ko cao hn gang
xm nhng km hn gang cu.
- C cng v bn tng i cao gn bng thp
- Tnh c cao hn thp nn c dng sn xut cc chi tit ln, phc tp
chu ti trng cao thay cho thp trong sn xut hng lot.
9.2.2.4. K hiu
- Theo TCVN: GZ
a-b

- Theo tiu chun Nga: K
a-b

a: ng sut ko (N/mm
2
)
b: dn di tng i (%)
9.2.3. Gang cu
Gang cu hay cn gi l gang c bn cao vi Gr cu, l loi gang c bn
cao nht, ng thi c th chu c ti trng trong va p.
9.2.3.1. T chc t vi
T chc t vi ca gang cu cng ging gang xm, song ch khc l Gr ca n c
dng hnh cu. Theo t chc t vi ca nn kim loi cng c 3 loi gang cu: F, F+P v
P

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9.2.3.2. Thnh phn ho hc v cch sn xut vt c gang cu
* Thnh phn ho hc:
- V c bn, thnh phn ho hc ca gang cu ging gang xm song ch khc l
Mg v Ce vi lng rt nh. Qu trnh bin tnh gang lng nhn c gang c Gr
cu l qu trnh tng i phc tp v Mg l nguyn t c i lc mnh vi oxi nn d b
chy. Trong khi nu qu trnh t Mg th cha tc dng cu ho Gr cn nhiu Mg
li lm gang ho trng.
- Thnh phn ho hc ca gang cu sau khi bin tnh gm: 3 3,6% C; 2 3%
Si; 0,5 1% Mn, gn 2 % Ni; 0,04 0,08 % M cn lng P, S rt nh.
* Cch sn xut vt c gang cu:
Gang cu thu c trc tip t qu trnh c. m bo qu trnh th gang
em cu ho phi p ng c cc yu cu sau:
- Phi c hm lng Si Gr ho
- Phi c nguyn t cu ho lm thc y to Gr dng cu phn tn (s dng Mg
di dng hp kim Mg - Ni trnh b chy Mg).
9.2.3.3. C tnh gang cu
Gang cu l dng gn nht, t chia ct nn kim loi nht v t tp trung ng sut
hn c, do vy t lm gim c tnh ca nn kim loi. C tnh ca gang cu ph thuc
ch yu vo t chc ca nn kim loi.
- C bn nht nh, cng cao (tng ng vi thp)
- C do dai tng i cao nn c th chu ti trng chu k tt
- Tnh c cao, do c cc tnh cht trn nn gang cu c s dng sn xut
cc chi tit phc tp thay cho thp.
9.2.3.4. K hiu
- Theo TCVN: GC
a-b

- Theo TC Nga: B
a-b

a: ng sut ko
k
[kg/mm
2
]
b: gin di tng i (%)

9.3. Nhit luyn gang
i vi gang, nhit luyn cng c ngha quan trng. Theo trn, gang do c
ch to bng cch t gang trng, do vy gang do l mt ni dung quan trng ca

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nhit luyn gang. Trong phn ny ta ch trnh by cc phng php nhit luyn p dng
i vi gang xm v gang cu.
9.3.1. Nhit luyn gang xm
Khi nhit luyn gang xm ch lm bin i c t chc ca nn kim loi hoc
bin i lp v bin trng thnh gang xm m khng th lm bin i c dng tm
ca graphit cng nh kch thc ca n. i vi gang xm thng p dng cc dng
nhit luyn sau:
9.3.1.1. kh ng sut bn trong
Khi kt tinh, do lm ngui v chuyn bin t chc nn trong vt c ng sut
nhit v ng sut t chc, cc ng sut ny thng lm bin dng hoc i khi lm nt
vt c. i vi nhiu chi tit ng sut bn trong nh vy l khng cho php v khng
bo m chnh xc ca my.
lm mt hon ton ng sut bn trong, ngi ta tin hnh nung nng vt c
ln ti 500 - 550
0
C gi nhit ri lm ngui chm cng l n 200
0
C sau lm ngui
ngoi khng kh. Khng nn a nhit ln qu 550
0
C hoc gi nhit qu lu v s
lm graphit ho gy ra gim cng, bn ca gang.
9.3.1.2. lm mt lp v bin trng
i vi nhiu vt c gang xm khi lm ngui nhanh, b mt c lp v bng
gang trng cng, rt kh gia cng ct. lm mt lp ny phi tin hnh nhit
cao 850 - 880
0
C lc c qu trnh phn ho ca xmentit thnh graphit v auxtenit,
v trong qu trnh ngui tip theo xmentit II v xmentit cn tinh li phn ho thnh
graphit. Kt qu cui cng c lp b mt l gang xm vi nn kim loi ferit hay ferit
- peclit tu theo mc graphit ho nhiu hay t.
9.3.1.3. thay i nn kim loi
- gim cacbon lin kt:
Lng cacbon lin kt ca nn kim loi c nh hng ln n c tnh. Khi gim
lng cacbon lin kt, v d t 0,6 - 0,8% (nn peclit) xung 0% (nn ferit) tnh do s
tng ln. Gim lng cacbon lin kt bng cch bin n ra dng t do, tc l thc hin
s graphit ho xmentit theo phn ng.
Fe
3
C F +G
ng nhin nhit phi thp hn A
1
xmentit trong cng tch c phn
ho ht. Thng tin hnh khong 700
0
C.

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- tng cacbon lin kt:
Gang xm c nn kim loi peclit c c tnh cao nht, nhiu trng hp vt c
c t chc ferit hoc ferit - peclit c th nhit luyn thnh peclit.
c im ca tng cacbon lin kt l phi nung gang ln qu nhit ti
hn A
1
.
Khi nung nng qu nhit A
1
v A
3
nn kim loi ca gang vi cc t chc
ferit, ferit - peclit chuyn bin thnh auxtenit, cong graphit vn gi nguyn. Gi nhit
lu, graphit ho tan vo auxtenit cho ti gii hn bo ho nhit cho. Nu thi
gian gi nhit c tnh ton thch hp sao cho lng cacbon trong auxtenit ti gii
hn c tnh ton thch hp sao cho lng cacbon trong auxtenit ti gii hn khong
0,6 - 0,8% khi lm ngui vi tc va phi hn ch s graphit ho th auxtenit ny
bin thnh peclit v ta nhn c gang xm peclit.
9.3.1.4. Ti v ram
Mc ch ca ti v ram i vi gang xm cng l tng bn, cng v
tnh chng mi mn, nhng hiu qu khng ln nh i vi thp do khng bin i
c graphit.
Khi nung nng ti, nn kim loi ca gang xm chuyn bin theo gin
trng thi Fe-C v nhit ti c chn v tnh ton theo t chc ca gang c t chc
auxtenit - graphit, gi nhit trong thi gian thch hp graphit ho tan vo auxtenit
pha ny t ti 0,6-0,8%C. Ri sau lm ngui nhanh c mactenxit c cng
cao - graphit tm.
cng ca gang xm sau khi ti lun lun thp hn thp cng tch sau khi ti
5-10HRC mc d mactenxit ca gang xm cng chuyn bin ging nh khi ram
mactenxit ca thp cn graphit vn gi nguyn khng chuyn bin.
Ram thp (150 200
0
C) gang xm c t chc mactenxit ram - graphit
Ram trung bnh (300 450
0
C) gang xm c t chc trxtit ram - graphit
Ram cao (500 650
0
C) gang xm c t chc xoocbit ram - graphit
9.3.1.5. Ho bn b mt
i vi gang xm thng ho bn b mt bng cch ti b mt v ho nhit
luyn, thng khng p dng bin php ho bn b mt bng c kh (phun bi, ln p...)
Ti b mt gang xm thng tin hnh bng cch nung nng bi dng in cm
ng c tn s cao. Nhit ti thng p dng l 850 - 950
0
C. Ti cao tn nng cao

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cng v tnh chng mi mn, bn mi v thi hn lm vic. T chc tt nht ca
gang xm em ti b mt l nn kim loi peclit nh mn v graphit phn tn.
Phng php ho nhit luyn p dng cho gang xm thng l thm nit, thm
xyanua.
9.3.2. Nhit luyn gang cu
nng cao hiu qu s dng sau khi c xong vt c gang cu thng c
em nhit luyn.
9.3.2.1.
C nhiu phng php gang cu
kh ng sut tin hnh nhit 500 - 600
0
C. Cch ging nh i vi gang
xm, khng lm bin i t chc t vi.
i vi nhiu vt c gang cu, do Mg c tc dng ho trng nn cc ch
thnh mng thng b bin trng, cng v dn, cn phi tin hnh nhit cao,
khong 850 - 880
0
C. nhit cao ngoi tc dng graphit ho xmentit cc graphit
to thnh c cu ho tip tc do vy s nng cao thm c tnh.
Ngoi ra, cng c th tin hnh cc phng php c nh cch lin kt, lm
gang cu c nn peclit nng cao bn hoc c nn ferit nng cao. Thng tin hnh ra
gang cu vi nn kim loi l peclit ht c c tnh tng hp tt.
9.3.2.2. Ti v ram
Nguyn tc ti gang cu khng khc g gang xm
c bit i vi gang cu ngi ta nhn thy ti ng nhit nhn c t
chc gm bainit di l ch yu, mt t auxtenit d, mactenxit v graphit to ra c tnh
tng hp rt tt, c bn cao v do, dai nht nh.
9.3.2.3. Ho bn b mt
Thng tin hnh ti cao tn, thm nit, thm xyanua v thm bo
Ti cao tn cho gang cu peclit t chc sau khi ti ram thp t mactenxit kim
nh mn v graphit cu vi cng t ti HRC c tnh chng mi mn cao.
Thm nit v thm xyanua c tc dng rt tt i vi gang cu, nng cao tnh
chng mi mn, chng mi.

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Chng 10. Thp cacbon

Trong tt c cc vt liu m ta thng s dng thp l loi vt liu c c tnh
tng hp cao nht. Thp c dng lm cc chi tit chu ti nng nht v trong cc
iu kin phc tp. Khng nhng trong cng nghip c kh, thp cn ng vai tr quan
trng trong giao thng vn ti. Phn ln cc thp dng trong ch to c kh c quy
nh vi thnh phn ho hc v c tnh kh cht ch.

Thp c nh ngha da vo t chc t vi hay thnh phn ho hc.
- Theo t chc t vi: thp cacbon l hp kim ca Fe-C m trong t chc khng c Le.
- Theo thnh phn ho hc: Thp cacbon l hp kim ca Fe - C m c hm lng
cacbon < 2,14%.

10.2. Phn loi
Tu thuc vo mc ch s dng khc nhau ca thp m ngi ta c cc cch
phn loi khc nhau.
10.2.1. Theo t chc t vi (theo gin trng thi)
Theo cch ny, thp c phn loi l: Thp trc cng tch (trong t chc ch
c P + F)
- Thp cng tch (trong t chc ch c P + F)
- Thp sau cng tch (trong t chc ch c P + Xe
II
)
Trn c s ta thy rng, khi hm lng cacbon trong thp tng ln th thp
chuyn t loi trc cng tch --> cng tch --> sau cng tch. ng thi khi thnh
phn cacbon tng ln, bn cng cng tng song do, dai gim i. l do
khi tng lng cacbon, s lng pha Xe cng, dn cng tng ln v lng Pha F do
gim i, do vy thp c cng tng ln, do, dai gim i. Song ring vi bn
th nh hng ca lng pha Xe lai khc. Khi tng s lng pha Xe vi cng cao c
tc dng cn tr s trt ca F do lm tng gii hn bn ca thp nhng khi Xe qu
nhiu li to nn Xe
II
dng li th n li lm gim bn, do li Xe lm d dng
cho s to thnh v pht trin vt nt.

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10.2.2. Phn loi theo cng dng
10.2.2.1. Thp xy dng: l cc loi thp dng ch to cc kt cu vi lin kt hn l
ch yu. (V d: Gin, khung, v tu)
* Yu cu: - Tnh hn cao
- Tnh do m bo
- C c tnh theo yu cu kt cu
Thp xy dng thng l thp thp C (<0,35%C)
K hiu: - TCVN: C
T
-31; 33

ko
(kg/mm
2
)
- TC Nga: C
T
- 2;.....7 (ch l 7)
(%C =
2
s
)
c chia lm 3 nhm
A: ch quy nh c tnh m khng quy nh thnh phn ha hc
B: ch quy nh thnh phn ha hc m khng quy nh c tnh
C: quy nh c c tnh v thnh phn ha hc
10.2.2.2. Thp kt cu: c quy nh cht ch v thnh phn ha hc dng sn
xut cc chi tit my.
* Yu cu:
- Tnh cng ngh cao (hn, gia cng p lc, ct, gt)
- C tnh phi m bo
* Thp kt cu c chia thnh cc nhm:
HB
b
(P
ht
)
b
(P
tm
)

a
k
Ch tiu
c tnh
%C

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- Thp thm C: Thp kt cu c %C < 0,25% dng sn xut cc chi tit c
cng b mt cao (nh thm cacbon) v li gi nguyn do, dai.
Cng ngh nhit luyn: Thm C+ ti 2 ln + ram thp
K hiu: TCVN: dng 2 con s: ** C trung bnh
V d: TCVN 18
C 0,18%C
- Thp ha tt: l loi thp kt cu m %C t ( 0,35 ~ 0,55)%C.
Cng dng: Dng sn xut hu ht cc loi chi tit my m c yu cu v c
tnh tng hp cao.
Ch nhit luyn: Ti + ram cao + (ti b mt)
Nhit luyn ha tt
(T chc thu c Xoocbt ram)
K hiu: ** C trung bnh
- Thp l xo c nh: L thp kt cu c %C t 0,6 0,7%
Cng dng: dng sn xut cc chi tit n hi c nh.
Ch nhit luyn: ti + ram TB trutxtt ram
K hiu: ** C trung bnh
V d: 60, 65, 70 0,6; 0,65; 0,7%C
10.2.2.3. Thp dng c: L loi thp c thnh phn C t 0,7 1,3%.
Cng dng: Dng sn xut cc dng c ct, tc thp m ch yu l dng c
cm tay.
Ch nhit luyn: ti + ram thp ( thu c Mactenxt ram).
K hiu:
-TCVN: C*** cacbon TB
V d: CD70, 80, 100, 130
0,7%; 0,8%; 1%; 1,3%
- TC Nga: ** cacbon trung bnh
V d:
7

13

Nu c ch A cui l thp cht lng tt.
7A; CD70A
10.2.2.4. Mt s thp c bit

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Thp d ct (thp t ng) c hm lng (pht pho) nht nh phi d gy.
K hiu: A30
10.2.3. Phn loi theo phng php nu luyn
C nhiu phng php luyn thp vi cc c im khc nhau v kh nng loi
b tp cht, cht lng v gi thnh.
Phng php c in luyn thp dng l Mactanh (hay cn gi l l bng) vn
cn c dng n ngy nay. Dng l Mactanh vi tng l tnh baz c th kh c
P, S luyn c thp vi cht lng tng i tt. Cng c khi dng l Mactanh vi
tng l tnh axit luyn thp vi cht lng cao, nhng yu cu cao v sch vi
nguyn vt liu ban u.
Hin nay p dng ph bin phng php L-D (thi oxy t nh) sn xut thp
vi cht lng thng thng. c im ca phng php ny l nng sut cao, nhng
khng kh c P v S.
luyn cc thp cht lng cao, thp hp kim, ngi ta thng dng l in
(thng dng loi h quang), v c kh nng kh P v S mnh, nhng gi thnh cao.
Vic kh cc tp cht phi kim loi v khi nng cao cht lng thp, nng cao
kh nng lm vic ca thp di ti trng tnh v thay i theo chu k. t mc
ch hin nay ngi ta p dng cc phng php gia cng kim loi bng chn
khng v bng x, nu luyn li trong chn khng, nu luyn li bng tia in t, nu
luyn x in, nu luyn cm ng - chn khng, tinh luyn thp bng x tng hp.
K hiu: Thp Martanh (M), thp Besme (B), thp Thomas (T)
V d: MC
T
- 3 (Thp xy dng; nu luyn bng l Mactanh)
10.2.4. Phn loi theo phng php kh oxi
Theo phng php kh oxy ngi ta phn chia thp ra lm thp si, thp lng v
thp na lng. Qu trnh kh oxy lm gim cc loi oxt trong thp. S dng Fe-Mn;
Fe-Si to x bng MnO; SiO
2
.
- Thp si: L thp khng c kh oxy trit , do vn cn FeO trong thp
lng, nn FeO c th tc dng vi cacbon (ca thp lng) thnh kh CO:
FeO + C Fe + CO
Khi CO bay ln lm cho mt thp lng chuyn ng gy n tng ging nh
si, do vy c tn l thp si. Do khi CO vn cn to thnh c khi rt khun nn s to
thnh mt s bt kh trong thi thp c. Trong qu trnh cn nng tip theo, phn ln

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cc bt kh ny c hn li, do vy khng nh hng nhiu n c tnh. Do ch c
kh oxy bng Fe - Mn nn ferit ca thp cha rt t Si (< 0,07%) do kh do v dai.
Thp si r, ngi ta thng dng chng sn xut thp cacbon thp, cn
thnh cc tm, l mng rp ngui.
K hiu: C thm ch "S" vi TCVN, ch "K
" vi Nga
V d: K
08: thp si c 0,8%C

- Thp lng: Thp lng l thp c kh xy trit , tc l ngoi Fe - Mn cn
dng cc cht kh mnh nh Fe - Si v Al, do vy trong thp lng cha rt t FeO, mt
thp lng phng lng do khng c hin tng si kh nh thp si. Hi thp lng cha
rt t bt kh v trn cng c to thnh lm co ln, phi ct b i trc khi em cn.
Cht lng ca thp lng cao hn thp si nhng khng kinh t bng do phi ct b
mt on ti 10-15% trng lng ca c thi, chi ph cho kh oxy cn km hn.
Do kh oxy bng Fe-Si, ferit ca thp lng cha nhiu Si hn (0,15 - 0,3%) nn
cng hn. Thp lng l loi thp tt lm phn ln cc chi tit my.
K hiu: C "n" - TCVN
"C
" - Nga
- Thp na lng: Va kh trong bung l, va kh ngoi (Vit Nam khng
lm c). Theo mc kh oxy thp la lng c v tr trung gian gia thp si v thp
lng, ch c kh oxy bng Fe - Mn; Al
Nga:
C
30
10.2.5. Phn loi theo cht lng
Theo cht lng luyn kim tc l theo mc ng nht ca thnh phn ho
hc, t chc v tnh cht ca thp v c bit l mc cha cc tp cht c hi P, S,
khi ngi ta phn chia thp ra cc loi: cht lng thng, cht lng tt, cht lng
cao v cht lng c bit cao.
Thp c cht lng thng c th cha ti 0,06% S v 0,07% P
Thp c cht lng tt khng cho php qu 0,04%S v 0,035% P
Thp c cht lng cao khng cho php cha qu 0,025% mi nguyn t
Thp c cht lng c bit cao khng cho php cha qu 0,015 % S v 0,025
% P

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10.3. u khuyt im ca thp cacbon
Thp cacbon c dng rng ri trong k thut v ngay c trong ch to my v
hai u im c bn:
- R, khng phi dng nguyn t hp kim t tin (kh kim), d luyn.
- C c tnh nht nh v tnh cng ngh tt: d c, cn, rn, ko si gia cng
ct v rp hn so vi thp hp kim.
Tuy nhin, thp cacbon cng c nhiu nhc im, trong phi k n
thm ti thp, do hiu qu ho bn nhit luyn khng cao, tnh chu nhit cao
km, trong khi , thp hp kim ngoi c tnh sau khi nhit luyn cao con c mt s
tnh cht c bit nh chng n mn, chu nhit cao, c tnh cht t v in c bit.

10.4. Cc tp cht trong thp v nh hng ca chng
10.4.1. L do tn ti tp cht
Mnggan v Silic i vo thnh phn ca thp t cc ngun sau y:
- Ln vo trong qung st, do i vo thnh phn ca gang ri vo thp
- Khi luyn thp ngi ta dng Fe - Si v Fe - Mn kh oxy do vy mt phn
cc nguyn t ny cng i vo thp.
Mn v Si l hai tp cht c li, chng nng cao c tnh ca thp do khng t
vn loi b chng trong qu trnh luyn. Trong cc iu kin thng thng ca
luyn kim, chng c trong thp vi lng cha nh sau: Mn < 0,8%; Si < 0,50%.
Pht pho v lu hunh cng i vo thnh phn ca gang do s tn ti ca chng
trong qung st v nhin liu. i vi thp, c hai nguyn t ny u l tp cht c hi,
do vy trong qu trnh luyn phi tin hnh kh b chng. Vic kh trit P v S rt
tn km, nn ch cn gim thnh phn ca chng trong thp n mc nh hng c hi
l khng ng k. Ni chung tuyt i a s cc loi thp, lng cha ca mi nguyn
t u nh hn 0,05%. Vy bt k thp cacbon no cng cha cc nguyn t sau
trong gii hn di y:
C < 2%, Mn < 0,8%, Si < 0,5%, P, S < 0,05%.
Trong thp cacbon thng thng cng c ho tan cc kh nit, hyr, oxy vi
lng cha rt t m vic xc nh chng rt kh khn, nn c gi l tp cht n, vi
cc thp phn tch thng thng ngi ta thng b qua. Ni chung chng l tp cht
c hi.

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Cc nguyn t k trn vi lng cha nh hn cc gii hn cho khng nh
hng ng k n t chc v c tnh ca hp kim Fe - C, c coi l tp cht nh
nhng nguyn t ln vo mt cch t nhin m khng c s c c bit no.
10.4.2. Phn loi tp cht v nh hng ca chng
10.4.2.1. Tp cht c li: Mn; Si i vo thp trong qu trnh kh oxi, Mn, Si c tc
dng lm tng cng nng ca thp v lm tng c tnh tng hp, tng thm ti.
- Mn
Mn c cho vo mi thp di dng Fe - Mn kh oxy tc l loi tr FeO
rt c hi. FeO + Mn MnO + Fe
(MnO ni ln, i vo x v c co ra khi l)
Ngoi ra Mn cng loi tr c tc dng c hi ca lu hunh (FeS) i vi
thp.
Mn l nguyn t nh hng tt n c tnh, khi ho tan vo Fe n nng cao
bn, cng ca pha ny, do vy lm tng c tnh ca thp. Tuy nhin, do lng Mn
trong thp cacbon t (cao, nht cng ch trong gii hn 0,5 - 0,8%) nn nh hng ny
khng r rt. nh hng tt ca Mn i vi thp cacbon chnh l ch n kh oxy v
hn ch tc dng c hi ca lu hunh.
- Si
Si c cho vo nhiu loi thp kh xy mt cch trit :
2FeO + Si SiO
2
+ Fe
(SiO
2
ni ln, i vo x v c cao ra khi l)
Cng ging Mn, Si ho tan vo ferit cng nng cao bn, cng ca pha
ny. Song lng Si trong thp cacbon kh thp (cao nht cng ch trong gii hn 0,17 -
0,37%) nn tc dng ho bn cng khng r rt.
10.4.2.2. Tp cht c hi
- Pht pho
nhit thng Fe() ho tan lng P cao ti 1,2% vt qu gii hn ny to
nn Fe
3
P dn. Song trong hp kim Fe - C lng P ho tan trong Fe() gim i mnh
lit, ch cn vi phn nghn, do vy trong thp d xut hin Fe
3
P nng cao bn, c
bit l dn ca nhit thng. V vy pht pho nng cao tnh dn ngui ca thp.
Gii hn ho tan ca P trong ferit gy ra dn l 0,1% nhng do n l nguyn t thin
tch mnh trong qu trnh kt tinh nn thng thng ch cho php c n 0,05%.

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Mt khc P nh hng tt n tnh gia cng ct cho nn trong thp d ct ngi
ta a hm lng P cao ti 0,08 - 0,15%.
- Lu hunh
Lu hunh khng tan c trong Fe() v Fe(), n to nn hp cht FeS. Cng
tinh (Fe + FeS) to thnh nhit thp (988
0
C), nn n kt tinh sau cng v nm bn
di ht. Khi nung nng th cn ko hay rn, cng tinh ny chy ra v c qu trnh t
bn di ht, lm cho thp b dn. V vy lu hunh nng cao tnh dn nng ca
thp. Cho Mn vo thp lm gim c tc dng c hi ca lu hunh so vi st n c
i lc vi S mnh hn, to nn MnS.
MnS nng chy nhit cao n 1620
0
C, khi lm ngui n kt tinh di dng
cc ht nh phn b ri rc, do khng gy hiu ng (dn nng) khi gia cng p lc
nng.
Cc sunfua do v bin dng c trng thi nng, trong thp cn n b ko
di ra theo phng php bin dng lm c tnh ca thp khc nhau theo chiu dc v
ngang vt cn.
Cng ging P, S l nguyn t c nh hng tt n tnh gia cng ct, trong thp
d ct cha n 0,15 - 0,30%S.
- Cc kh oxy, nit v hyr
Cc nguyn t ny nh hng xu n c tnh ca thp ch lm gim do,
tng khuynh hng ph hu.
xy ho tan rt t trong ferit (V d 500
0
C ho tan ch l 0,001%), vt qu
gii hn ny oxy dng cc oxyt Fe
3
O
4
, FeO, MnO, Mn
2
O
4
, Al
2
O
3
... thng gi l vt
ln phi kim loi, cc vt ln oxyt ny gy ra dn nng v dn ngui, lm gim bn,
c bit l gii hn mi.
Nit cng ho tan rt t trong ferit, 590
0
C ho tan l 0,10%, nhng ng
ch l ho tan ny gim rt nhanh theo nhit , nhit thng ch cn 10
-5
%,
ngoi ra nit cng dng nitrit. Khi lm ngui thp vi lng cha nit cao, cc
nguyn t nit trong thp bin dng ngui tch t vng lch to nn kh quyn
Cottrell ngn tr chuyn ng ca lch. Do vy thp c bn tng ln, do gim i
mnh. l hin tng ho gi bin dng. Hin tng ny th hin rt r trong thp
tm cacbon thp (C < 0,1%) rp ngui: do ho gi, khi rp thp thng b t.
Hyr c nh hng c bit xu n thp, nht l trong thp c bn cao,
thp ti c t chc mactenxit. Cc nguyn nhn dn do hyr gy ra nh sau: Hyr

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ho tan trong dung dch rn, ch lch, lm x lch mng, gy ra dn; ho tan ca
hyr trong thp gim i rt nhanh, hyr thot ra vi lng ln, gy ra cc vt nt t
vi th hin cc m trng trn mt gy.
Cc kh ho tan trong thp lng qu nhiu, lm xut hin cc r khi trong thi
c, do lm gim c tnh. Trong mt s thp hp kim, nit c tc dng tt, lc
n c coi l nguyn t hp kim.

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Chng 11. Thp hp kim

11.1.1. Khi nim nguyn t hp kim
Nguyn t hp kim l cc nguyn t ho hc ngoi st v cacbon chng c
a vo thp theo mun ca ngi luyn kim nhm to ra cc t chc mi u vit
hn cho thp.
- Nguyn t hp kim c ngi sn xut ch ng v c a vo vi hm
lng xc nh theo yu cu ca mnh.
- Tp cht i vo thp mt cch ngu nhin khng theo mun v khng nh
trc hm lng.
11.1.2. Phn loi thp hp kim
11.1.2.1. Phn loi theo hm lng ca nguyn t hp kim
%(NTHK) < 2% thp hp kim thp
%(NTHK) = (2 10%) thp hp kim trung bnh
%(NTHK) > 10% thp hp kim cao
Mc ch ca phng php phn loi trn ch yu ni ln gi c ca thp c
dng trong giao dch, bun bn
11.1.2.2. Theo nguyn t hp kim chnh
Nguyn t hp kim chnh l nguyn t c hm lng ln nht v c tc dng r
rt nht. Mc ch ca phng php ny nh gi kh chnh xc v gi c v xc nh
c phm vi s dng ca thp bao gm: Thp crm, thp mangan, thp niken, thp
vonfram, thp crm - niken.
11.1.2.3. Theo cng dng
Mc ch ca phng php ny ni r lnh vc tc dng ca thp hp kim trong
k thut bao gm: Thp kt cu hp kim, thp dng c hp kim, thp khng g, thp
chu nhit, thp chu mi mn, thp c tnh cht vt l c bit.
11.1.3. Cc c tnh ca thp hp kim
Cc thp hp kim c nhng c tnh tri hn hn so vi thp cacbon, hay ni
cch khc i mc ch hp kim ho thp l cc mt sau y:

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V c tnh, thp hp kim ni chung c bn (gii hn bn, gii hn chy) cao
hn hn so vi thp cacbon, iu ny th hin c bit r rng sau khi nhit luyn ti
v ram. u vit ny thng th hin trong mi thp hp kim, thp c hp kim ho
cng mnh u vit ny cng r. Tuy nhin cn ch l:
- trng thi khng nhit luyn ti + ram, v d trng thi , bn ca thp
hp kim khng cao hn thp cacbon bao nhiu.
- Thp hp kim c th t c bn rt cao, nhng thng thng vi s tng
bn, do v dai li gim i, do vy, khng th khng ch n mi quan h
ny xc nh c tnh thch hp.
- Cng vi s tng mc hp kim ho, tnh cng ngh ca thp s xu i.
V tnh chu nhit cao, thy rng thp cacbon cng c bn tng i cao
sau khi ti, nhng khng gi c khi lm vic nhit cao hn 200
0
C do mactenxit
b phn ho v xmentit kt t. Cc nguyn t hp kim lm cn tr kh nng khuch
tn ca cacbon do lm mactenxit phn ho v cc bit kt t nhit cao hn, v
th thp hp kim gi c c tnh cao ca trng thi ti nhit cao hn 200
0
C.
Mun t c tnh cht ny thp cn c hp kim ho bi mt s nguyn t vi
lng tng i cao.
V cc tnh cht vt l v ho hc c bit, thy rng thp cacbon b g trong
khng kh, b n mn trong cc mi trng axit, baz v mui, khng c cc tnh cht
vt l c bit nh t tnh, gin n nhit c bit. Mun vy phi dng nhng loi thp
hp kim ring bit vi thnh phn ho hc cht ch.
Qua c th thy rng, nguyn t hp kim c tc dng rt tt, thp hp kim l
loi vt liu kim loi khng g thay th c trong ch to my nng, dng c, nhit
in, cng nghip ho hc....n thng c lm cc chi tit quan trng nht trong
iu kin lm vic nng.
Mi nguyn t hp kim c s dng nhiu hay t (thm ch khng dng) trong
mt nhm thp c cng dng nht nh l ph thuc vo tc dng ca n n cc tnh
cht ca thp. Do vy thng thy mi loi thp ch dng mt nguyn t hp kim vi
hm lng nht nh.
V d, i vi thp kt cu yu cu bn cao thng dng cc nguyn t nng

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cao thm ti nh crm, mnggan, niken v mt phn silic vi lng cha ca mi
nguyn t 1 - 2%. Thp dng c ct gt vi tc cao phi dng cc nguyn t nng
cao rt mnh tnh chu nhit cao nh vonfram, cban, mlipen vi hm lng kh
ln, 5-20%. Thp vi tnh cht ho hc v vt l c bit cng c nhng c im
ring nh thp khng g c cha khng di 12,5%Cr, thp chng mi mn c
13%Mn, thp k thut in c 2 - 4%Si vv...
Cc nguyn t hp kim thng dng l: crm, mnggan, niken, silic, vonfram,
mlipen, vanai, cban, titan, bo: trong mnggan v c bit l silic l hai nguyn
t c nhiu hn c.
11.2. Tc dng ca nguyn t hp kim i vi thp
11.2.1. Tc ng ca nguyn t hp kim i vi st
Trong bt c thp no cng lun lun c st v cacbon, tin u tin kho st
ring r tc dng ca nguyn t hp kim vi tng nguyn t, sau tng hp li
trong trng hp c ng thi c hai.
11.2.1.1. Cu to ca cc nguyn t hp kim
Cu trc mng tinh th, ng knh nguyn t, cu trc ca lp v in t ca
cc nguyn t c nh hng quyt nh n cc c tnh tc dng ca chng i vi st
cng nh cacbon.
V cu trc mng tinh th, thy phn ln cc nguyn t hp kim l kim loi vi
cu trc mng tinh th l lp phng th tm (Cr, V, W, Mo) lp phng din tm (Ni),
lp phng phc tp (Mn) v lc gic xp cht (Ti) vi ng knh nguyn t trong
khong 2,50 - 2,95
0
A. Do st c kiu mng tinh th lp phng (th tm v din tm)
vi ng knh nguyn t 2,54
0
A nn ni chung cc nguyn t hp kim u ho tan
vo st vi lng kh ln, mt s nh Cr, Ni c th ho tan v hn.
Cu trc lp v in t quyt nh kh nng kt hp ca nguyn t nguyn t
cho vi cacbon thnh cacbit hp kim.
V vy c ch tc dng ch yu ca nguyn t hp kim i vi thp l: ho tan
vo st (Fe
v Fe
) di dng dung dch rn thay th v kt hp vi cacbon thnh

cacbit hp kim. Cc tnh cht thng gp ca thp hp kim thng dng c quyt

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nh bi cc c ch tc dng ny.
11.2.1.2. V s ho tan ca nguyn t hp kim vo st
hiu k hn v s ho tan ca nguyn t hp kim vo st s ln lt kho st
kh nng ho tan ca chng vo Fe
v Fe
cng nh kh nng m rng cc vng v

, nh hng n khu vc ca gin trng thi Fe - O l quan trng hn c l nh
hng n c tnh ca ferit.
S ho tan nguyn t hp kim vo Fe
v Fe
(s m rng cc vng v hay

s thay i cc nhit chuyn bin th hnh ca st).
Trc tin hy xt tc dng ring r ca nguyn t hp kim i vi st
N
h
i
e
t

% NTHK (Ni, Mn)

(a)
% NTHK (C, K, Cu)
(b)
Fe
A
4
A
3
A
3
A
4
Fe
N
h
i
e
t

Gin trng thi st - nguyn t hp kim
Do st l nguyn t vi hai dng th hnh, nn kh nng ho tan ca nguyn t
hp kim vo Fe
v Fe
cng khng ging nhau: mt s nguyn t khi ho tan vo st

s lm m rng khong nhit tn ti ca mng lp phng in tm (Fe
) v mt s
nguyn t khc li thu hp.
Gin trng thi st - nguyn t hp kim, loi m rng vng auxtenit (thu hp
vng ferit). y ngi ta phn bit hai trng hp. Cc nguyn t bao gm niken v
mnggan c kh nng ho tan v hn vo Fe
(hnh a) vi thnh phn hp kim dung

dch rn (tc auxtenit) c th tn ti ngay nhit thng, khi nung nng hay lm
ngui hp kim ny khng c chuyn bin pha, cc hp kim nh vy c gi l hp
kim auxtenit. Cc nguyn t bao gm cacbon, nit ng tuy c kh nng ho tan nhiu
vo Fe
hn Fe
m rng vng nhng n thnh phn hp kim nht nh li ng kn

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

A
4
A
3
+
Fe
%NTHK (Cr, )
(a)
A
3
A
4

Fe
%NTHK (Al, Sn, Pb, Zn...)
(b)
li (hnh b) m khng c kh nng to nn dung dch rn v hn v tn ti ngay c
nhit thng.

Gin trng thi st nguyn t hp kim
Gin trng thi st nguyn t hp kim, loi thu hp vng auxtenit (m rng
vng ferit). Cc nguyn t bao gm crm, vanadi c kh nng ho tan v hn vo Fe

(hnh a) vi thnh phn hp kim ln, dung dch rn (tc ferit) c th tn ti t
nhit thng n nhit st ng c, khi nung nng hay lm ngui hp kim ny
khng c chuyn bin pha, cc hp kim nh vy c gi l hp kim ferit. Cc nguyn
t bao gm Al, Sn, Zr...tuy c kh nng ho tan nhiu vo Fe
hn Fe
m rng vng
nhng n thnh phn hp kim nht nh li ng kn li. (hnh b) v khng c kh
nng to nn dung dch rn v hn.
Khi tng thnh phn nguyn t hp kim lm m rng khu vc nhit ti hn
A
3
tng ln, cn khi tng thnh phn nguyn t hp kim lm m rng khu vc nhit
ti hn A
3
gim i (ring i vi C, N, Cu th n gii hn nht nh li tng ln).
V vy cc nguyn t hp kim lm thay i nhit nhit luyn thp.
nh hng ca nguyn t hp kim n gin trng thi Fe-C
Trong thp hp kim khng th thiu cacbon, do vy c th coi thp hp kim n
gin nht (loi mt nguyn t hp kim) l hp kim ba cu t: st - cacbon - nguyn t
hp kim cho.
Cc nguyn t m rng vng s m rng phm vi tn ti ca auxtenit, do
lm gim cc nhit ti, ca thp, cn cc nguyn t thu hp phm vi tn to ca
auxtenit, do lm tng cc nhit ti, .

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V mt l thuyt c th thy rng, khi nguyn t hp kim ho tan vo Fe
s lm
mng tinh th b x lch, do vy lm gim kh nng ho tan ca auxtenit, ni khc i
lm gii hn ho tan cacbon ca auxtenit gim i.
Do gii hn ho tan cacbon ca auxtenit trong thp hp kim thp hn so vi
trong thp cacbon, nn i vi thp hp kim c th gp cc trng hp sau:
- Do im cng tch dch v bn tri, nn cng tch ca thp hp kim khng
cha crm l thp trc cng tch vi t chc ferit + peclit, nhng khi cha 5% Cr li
l thp cng tch vi t chc peclit, v t hnh v ta thy r vi lng crm nh th
im ng vi 0,5%C.

- Do im im c 2,14%C dch v bn tri nn lng cacbon khng cn vt
qu 2,14%, thp hp kim vn c th c t chc lburit l t chc c trng cho gang
i vi hp kim Fe-C nguyn cht. Do vy trong rt nhiu thp dng c hp kim vi
lng cacbon khong trn di 1% c t chc lburit (cn ch trong thp dng c
cacbon khng th c lburit). V d, khi cha 5% Cr, thp dng c vi 1,5%C s c
t chc lburit
11.2.1.3. C tnh ca ferit hp kim
0 0,4 0,5 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 0,2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
W
Si
Mn
Cr
W
Si
Cr Mn
Thnh phn cacbon %
L
n
g

n
g
u
y
n

t
p

k
i
m

%

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Cc nguyn t hp kim u c th ho tan vo Fe
hoc Fe
. Khi hp kim ho
thp bng mt lng ln niken hoc mnggan, thp s c t chc auxtenit nhit
thng, cc thp nh vy l cc thep khng g, chng mi mn. Trong thc t rt
thng gp cc thp c hp kim ho bng mt lng khng nhiu niken, mnggan
v cc nguyn t m rng vng nh crm, silic, vanai ... nhit thng cc thp
gm hai pha l ferit v ccbit. Cc thp kt cu v dng c thng gp c t chc
nh vy. Vy hy xem xt ferit ca thp hp kim c c tnh khc vi ferit ca thp
cacbon nh th no.
Trong thp, phn ln nguyn t hp kim ho tan vo ferit v ferit c ho tan
nguyn t hp kim c gi l ferit hp kim. Cc nguyn t ho tan vo ferit di
dng dung dch rn thay th lm x lch mng tinh th, do vy firit hp kim c c tnh
ph thuc vo nng ca dung dch rn tc ph thuc vo mc hp kim ho n.
Do vy, ging nh mi dung dch rn bt k, mc hp kim ho cng cao bn v
cng ca ferit hp kim cng cao v do dai cng thp. Tuy nhin, mc nh
hng ca tng nguyn t hp kim mt u c s khc nhau v do cc thp c
hp kim ho bng cc nguyn t khc nhau cng c s khc bit no v c tnh v
phm vi ng dng. y ch xt nh hng ca bn nguyn t hp kim thng dng
nht l crm, niken, mnggan v silic v ch cp n hai c tnh i din ca c
tnh l cng v dai.

Mn
S
i
Ni
Cr
(a)
%NTHK
7 6 5 4 3 2
HB
22
0
20
0
18
0
16
0
14
0
12
0
10
0
S
i
Mn
Cr
Ni
(b)
%NTHK
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
50
0
100
0
150
0
200
0
250
0
300
0
C
k
(kJ/m
2
)

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Mnggan v silic l hai nguyn t lm tng rt mnh, cng cng nh bn
ca ferit. Ch cn 3% cc nguyn t ny cng, bn ca ferit tng ln gp i, do
vy chng l cc nguyn t hp kim lm ho bn mnh thp. Song ng tic l, khi lm
tng rt mnh cng, bn, chng cng lm gim dai, do, ch cn khong 1-
2% cc nguyn t ny dai ca fecrit c gi tr kh thp, mnggan v silic ch
c dng trong cc thp hp kim thng thng vi lng gii hn 1-2%.
Trong cc thp hp kim thng gp, ferit vn l pha chim t l rt cao (trn
di 90%) nn tc dng ho bn ferit ca nguyn t hp kim gp phn quan trng vo
vic nng cao bn ca thp hp kim so vi thp cacbon.
11.2.2. Tc dng ca nguyn t hp kim vi cacbon
Ngoi kh nng ho tan vo ferit v auxtenit ra, mt s nguyn t hot kim cn
c kh nng kt hp vi cacbon thnh cacbit.
11.2.2.1. Kh nng kt hp ca kim loi vi cacbon
Cc nguyn t hp kim m tuyt i b phn l kim loi c hai tc dng khc
nhau vi cacbon.
Cc nguyn t bao gm niken, silic, cban, nhm, ng khng c kh nng kt
hp vi cacbon trong thp thnh cacbit, chng ch c th di dng dung dch rn vi
st. Mt s nguyn t trong nh silic, cban khng nhng khng to nn cacbit m
cn ngn tr cacbon kt hp vi st v cc nguyn t khc, do vy thc y cacbon
trong thp i dng graphit hoc thng xy ra lm cacbon d b chy thot i trong
qu trnh nung nng khi nhit luyn.
Cc nguyn t bao gm: st, manggan, crm, vonfram, mlipden, vanai,
gicni, nibi v titan c kh nng kt hp vi cacbon trong thp thnh cacbit. l
cc nguyn t nm trong nhm chuyn tip. Cu, Zn c s in t y do vy
khng th kt hp vi cacbon thnh cacbit. Cn Ni, Co cng c s in t thiu do
chng c th kt hp vi cacbon thnh cacbit, song v trong thp, st lun lun chim
phn ch yu v n li c i lc vi cacbon mnh hn nn khng th c cacbit niken v
cacbit cban trong thp. Theo mc thiu in t cc tng d c th nh gi mc
tc dng kt hp vi cc bon v n nh cacbit ca cc nguyn t theo th t mnh
n yu nh sau: Ti, Nb, Zr, V, Mo, W, Cr, Mn(Fe).

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Khi to thnh cacbit, cacbon s in cc in t ca n vo tng d thiu in t
ca nguyn t hp kim, do vy cacbit c lin kt kim loi, c mt s tnh cht ca kim
loi nh tnh dn in.
T dy sp xp trn c th thy r, nu trong thp c ng thi nhiu nguyn t
hp kim, v d Ti, W, Cr vi t l nh nhau, th cacbon s u tin kt hp vi cc
nguyn t to thnh cacbit mnh trc nh Ti ri tip theo mi n W v Cr v cui
cng mi n Fe to nn Fe
3
C. Do vy trong rt nhiu thp hp kim pha cacbit trong
thp khng phi l xmentit, m l cacbit hp kim.
11.2.2.2. Pha cacbit trong thep hp kim
C th phn chia cc pha cacbit trong thp hp kim ra ba loi: cacbit hp kim
vi kiu mng n gin, phc tp v xmentit hp kim.
Cacbit hp kim vi kiu mng n gin
Tr Fe, Cr, Mn, cc nguyn t to thnh cacbit trong thp u c ng knh
nguyn t kh ln, tho mn iu kin 59 , 0
d
d
Me
c
< c th to nn vi cacbon pha xen k
vi kiu mng tinh th n gin. Thng gp cacbit hp kim vi kiu mng n gin
sau y: TiC, VC, WC, NbC, ZrC, W
2
C, Mo
2
C.
Cc c tnh ca cacbit loi ny l:
- Mng tinh th n gin vi cc kiu mng lp phng hay lc gic
- C nhit chy rt cao, v d nhit chy ca TiC khong 3200
0
C WC
khong 2600
0
C, VC khong 2750
0
C.
- C tnh n nh cao biu hin bng kh phn hu khi nung nng, mun phn
hu phi nung nng ti nhit cao hn 1200
0
C
- C cng rt cao, so vi xmentit loi cacbit ny c cng cao hn v t
dn hn.
Trong cc thp hp kim cao v hp kim ho phc tp (bng nhiu nguyn t hp
kim) c th gp cacbit loi Me
6
C, trong Me biu th cho mt s kim loi, nh trng
hp thp cha vonfram cao (thp gi) pha cacbit biu th bng cng thc Fe
3
W
3
C.
Cacbit hp kim vi kiu mng phc tp

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Crm v mnggan c ng knh nguyn t khng ln, tho mn iu kin
59 , 0
d
d
Me
c
> c th to nn vi cacbon pha xen k vi kiu mng phc tp.
Vi lng cha ln trong thp, ngoi phn ho tan vo st to nn dung dch
rn ra, mnggan c th kt hp vi cacbon thnh Mn
3
C c cu to ging Fe
3
C. Hi
khc vi mnggan, crm c th kt hp vi cacbon to thnh cc cacbit tng ng
vi cng thc kh phc tp Cr
7
C
3
v Cr
2
C
6
.
Cc c tnh ca loi cacbit ny l:
- Mng tinh th phc tp
- C nhit chy khng cao lm, v d nhit chy ca Mn
3
C khong
1845
0
C, Cr
23
C
6
khong 1550
0
C, Cr
7
C
3
khong 1670
0
C tc l thp hn loi c kiu
mng n gin.
- C tnh n nh thp biu hin bng d b phn ho khi nung nng
Hai loi cacbit hp kim k trn thng ch gp trong thp hp kim cao.
Xmentit hp kim:
Khi lng cha cc nguyn t to thnh cacbit yu v trung bnh (bao gm
mnggan, crm, vonfram v mlipen) khng cao (khong 1 - 2%) chng khng c
kh nng to thnh cacbit hp kim c lp nh trnh by trn, m thng to thnh
xmentit hp kim tng ng vi cng thc (Fe, Me)
3
C, trong cc nt mng ca Fe
trong Fe
3
C c th c nguyn t hp kim chim ch.
Khc vi xmentit thng, xmentit hp kim c tnh n nh cao hn, tc l kh
phn hu khi nung.
Cng ging nh Xmentit trong thp cacbon cc cacbit v xmentit hp kim
cng c tc dng lm tng cng, tnh chng mi mn ca thp, ngoi ra cn gip
cho lm tng tnh cng nng, gi c ht auxtenit nh mn khi nung nng nhit
cao. Do vy lng cacbon v nguyn t hp kim cn c tnh ton cht ch sao cho
tao ra cc nh hng tt nht n c tnh ca thp hp kim theo mun.
11.3. nh hng ca nguyn t hp kim n qu trnh nhit luyn
Cc nguyn t hp kim nh hng ln n qu trnh nhit luyn thp, c bit l
n qu trnh ti v ram, do vy c nh hng quan trng n c tnh, y l c tnh

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ni bt ca thp hp kim. Hy ln lt xt nh hng ca cc nguyn t hp kim ti
tng mt ca qu trnh ti v ram.
11.3.1. Chuyn bin khi nung nng
Nh trnh by, phn ln cc thp hp kim thng gp trng thi cn bng
() c t chc hai pha: ferit v cacbit vi cc nguyn t hp kim phn b trong chng.
Khi nung nng ti cng c chuyn bin: t hn hp ferit + cacbit thnh auxtenit v
s pht trin ca ht auxtenit. Tuy nhin so vi thp cacbon, chuyn bin peclit thnh
auxtenit c nhng c im ng lu sau:
- Qu trnh to thnh auxtenit trong thp hp kim cng bao gm cc giai on:
to mm auxtenit s ho tan ca cacbit d vo auxtenit v ng u ho.
Cc thp hp kim vi nhng nguyn t to thnh cacbit (tr Mn) trong t ca
cacbit hp kim vi tnh n nh cao hn xmentit, do s ho tan ca cacbit vo
auxtenit khi nung nng i hi nhit cao v thi gian di hn. Ngi ta nhn thy
cacbit hp kim hnh thnh t cc nguyn t to cacbit cng mnh, cacbit ca n cng
kh ho tan. Cc cacbit titan v vanai rt kh ho tan, cc cacbit hp kim khc kh
ho tan so vi xmentit hp kim 1,0%C (y10) vi pha cacbit trong l Fe
3
C c nhit
ti khong 780
0
C song nu thm vo khong 1,5% Cr (X15) vi pha cacbit trong
l xmentit hp kim (Fe, Cr)
3
C c nhit ti khong 830 - 850
0
C cn nu thm
lng crm cao n 15% vi 1%V (X12 1) th pha cacbin trong l Cr
7
C
3
v Cr
23
C
6

lc nhit ti s vt qu 1000
0
C.
- S ng u ho thnh phn ca auxtenit thp hp kim cng kh khn hn, do
tc khuch tn ca cc nguyn t hp kim thp hn rt nhiu so vi cacbon.
- Nu thp c hp kim ho bng nhng nguyn t to thnh cacbit mnh, c
bit l Ti, V, W, Mo th do s kh khn ca cc cacbit nm bin gii ht lm cn
tr s st nhp gia cc ht m gi c ht auxtenit nh mn khi nung nng.
Ngoi cacbit ra, mt s nguyn t hp kim c bit nh Al, V, Nb, Ti c th to
nn cc pha oxyt, nitrit rt kh tan, cng c tc dng gi cho ht auxtenit nh mn.
Hai nguyn t khng to thnh cacbit l niken v silic cng c xem l cc
nguyn t cn tr s pht trin ca ht auxtenit nhng tc dng ny khng r.

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Mnggan l nguyn t to cacbit duy nht khng nhng khng cn tr m cn
thc y s pht trin ca ht auxtenit. C ch lm to ht auxtenit ca mnggan cha
gii thch c.
Do cc c im chuyn bin khi nung nng nh vy nn khi ti, ni chung cc
thp hp kim phi nung nng n nhit cao hn v thi gian di hn song vn gi
c ht auxtenit nh mn.
11.3.2. S phn ho ng nhit ca auxtenit v thm ti
Khi lm ngui auxtenit s b phn ho thnh hn hp c hc ca ferit v cacbit
hay mactenxit tu thuc vo tc ngui. Nguyn t hp kim c nh hng rt ln
n qu trnh lm ngui auxtenit.
11.3.2.1. S phn ho ng nhit ca auxtenit
Khi ho tan vo auxtenit tt c cc nguyn t hp kim (tr cban) vi cc mc
khc nhau u lm chm tc phn ho ng nhit ca auxtenit tc l lm ng
cong ch "C" dch sang phi.
Nguyn nhn ca nh hng ny l nguyn t hp kim lm chm s khuch tn,
do chuyn bin khuch tn auxtenit thnh hn hp ferit + cacbit cn thi gian di
hn. Lng nguyn t hp kim trong auxtenit cng nhiu tnh n nh ca auxtenit qu
ngui cng cao.
c tnh nh hng n tnh n nh ca auxtenit qu ngui ca cc nguyn t
hp kim khc nhau c nhng im ng ch sau:
- Cc nguyn t khng to thnh cacbit nh Ni, Si, Cu, Al v nguyn t to
thnh cacbit yu l Mn ch lm dch chuyn v tr ca ng cong ch "C" sang phi
m khng lm thay i hnh dng ca ng cong.
- Cc nguyn t to thnh cacbit mnh Cr, W, Mo, V khng nhng lm dch
chuyn ng cong ch "C" sang phi m cn lm thay i hnh dng ca n thnh
hai ng cong ch "C" trn v di. ng cong ch "C" trn ng vi chuyn bin
auxtenit thnh peclit, xoocbit, trxlit, cn nhit gia hai ng cong ch "C" trn v
di khong 400 - 500
0
C auxtenit qu ngui c tnh n nh rt ln n mc gi
nhit rt lu.

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N
h
i
e
t

o
.
0
C
Thep cacbon
Thi gian log
A
1
a)
Thep Si, Ni, Mn
M M
b)
A
1
Thi gian log
Thep cacbon
N
h
i
e
t

o
.
0
C
Thep Cr, W, Mo, V

- Nu tch ring tng nguyn t mt th tc dng dch chuyn ch "C" sang bn
phi mnh nht l Mo ri tip theo l Mn, Cr, Ni. Ngoi ra mt trong lng rt nh ca
B trong auxtenit cng lm dch chuyn mnh ng cong ch "C".
Vi cng lng nh th nhng khi dg nhiu nguyn t hp kim ho th tc
dng dch chuyn ng cong ch "C" sang phi s mnh hn.
Cn nhn mnh l cc nguyn t hp kim ch lm dch chuyn ng cong ch
"C" sang phi khi chng ho tan tng auxtenit, iu ny ch t c khi nung nng
nhit cao thch hp phn ln cacbit hp kim phn ho v cc nguyn t hp
kim ho tan trong auxtenit mt lng ng k. Thp tuy c hp kim ho cao,
nhng nhit nung nng ly qu thp, phn ln cacbit vn cha ho tan vo auxtenit
cng khng t c y tc dng .
11.3.2.2. thm ti
Do khi ho tan vo auxtenit cc nguyn t hp kim lm dch chuyn ng
cong ch "C" sang phi, nn lm gim tc ti ti hn v do thm ti tng ln.
Thp hp kim c tc ti ti hn thp do vy vi iu kin lm ngui nh
nhau ng vi s phn b tc ngui theo ti din ging nhau, thp hp kim c
thm ti cao hn thp cacbon kh nhiu trng hp chi tit kh ln bng thp hp kim
c tc ngui ca li cng ln hn tc ti gii hn, do vy chi tit c ti thu
v c tnh nhn c l ng u trn ton tit din.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

b)
2

2
1
V
t-h2
V
t-h1
V
nguoi
Thep hp kim
Thep cacbon
N
h
i
e
t

M
d
M
d
V
t-h1
V
t-h2
a)
Thi gian log

Do thm ti tng ln, hiu qu ho bn ca ti v ram i vi thp hp kim
c ci thin r rt. y l mt u vit ni bt ca thp hp kim so vi thp cacbon.
pht huy ht nh hng ca u vit ny, thp hp kim phi c s dng trng
thi nhit luyn ti + ram, chu ti trng cao v tit din chi tit ln, s dng thp hp
kim khng ng nh vy s khng em li hiu qu kinh t k thut. V th chn thp
hp kim cao hay thp ph thuc hon ton vo kch thc tit din chi ti ln hay nh.
Do tc ti ti hn gim i, khi ti thp hp kim thng dng mi trng lm
ngui chm nh du hoc p dng cch ti phn cp, ng nhit v c th lm gim
c nt v bin dng. Mt s thp hp kim cao khi dng cch lm ngui trong khng
kh (thng ho) cng c th t c t chc mactenxit cc thp nh vy c gi l
thp t ti v hin tng c gi t ti.
Cc thp c tc ti ti hn nh v thm ti ln l cc thp hp kim crm -
niken, crm - mnggan, crm - mlipen, crm - niken - mlipen crm - mnggan -
mlipen.... l c s ca thp kt cu hp hin nay.
Cc nguyn t hp kim ch lm tng thm ti khi chng ho tan vo auxenit.
Nu cc nguyn t nm li ng cacbit cha tan (v d nung nhit thp, cc
cacbit hp kim n nh vn cn li th cc pha ny s ng vai tr ca cc mm kt
tinh ra hn hp feir + cacbit (peclit, xoocbit, trxtit) do vy li lm gim thm ti.
11.3.3. Chuyn bin mactenxit

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Cc nguyn t hp kim tuy khng nh hng g n ng hc ca chuyn bin
mactenxit nhng li nh hng r rt n nhit chuyn bin auxtenxit thanh
mactenxit v do n c lng auxtenit d sau khi ti.
Hai nguyn t Al v Co lm tng nhit bt u chuyn bin mactenxit (M
)
cn Si khng nh hng g. Tt c cc nguyn t hp kim cn li (m thng l cc
nguyn t thng dng) li lm gim im M
v do vy lm tng lng auxtenit d

sau khi ti. Nguyn t hp kim c tc dng lm M
gim mnh nht l Mn v tip theo

l Cr, Ni, Mo. Trong gii hn lng cha thp di 4-5%, c thm 1% nguyn t hp
kim, im M
ca thp thay i nh sau: Mn gim 45

0
C, Cr gim 35
0
C, Ni gim 26
0
C,
Mo gim 25
0
C, Co tng 12
0
C, Al tng 18
0
C.
Do nh hng ny m mt s thp hp kim cao c im M
qu thp nn sau
khi ti c lng auxtenit d cao. iu ny nh hng n cht lng nhit luyn, v d
sau khi ti cng cha t c gi tr cao nht. Tuy vy vic kh b auxtenit d sau
khi ti khng phi l vic kh khn lm vic ngi ta c th dng bin php c
bit l gia cng lnh hoc n gin hn l ram nhit thch hp auxtenit chuyn
bin np thnh mactenxit, lc do cng s t c gi tr cao nht.
Chuyn bin khi ram: Cc nguyn t hp kim nh hng n cc chuyn bin
xy ra khi ram. Ngi ta nhn thy vi mc mnh yu khc nhau cc nguyn t hp
kim u cn tr cc chuyn bin khi ram, m c th l ba qu trnh sau:
- Phn ho mactenxit tc l tit ra cacbit khi mactenxit to thnh mactenxit
ram.
- Chuyn bin auxtenit d thnh mactenxit
- Kt t cacbit
Cc nhit cn thit xy ra cc qu trnh trn u cao hn so vi thp
cacbon tng ng. Chnh v vy t cng nh thp cacbon vi lng cacbon
tng ng, thp hp kim phi ram nhit cao hn. Do nguyn nhn ny cc thp
hp kim gi c bn cng cao ca trng thi ti nhit cao hn so vi thp
cacbon hay ni khc i thp hp kim c tnh chu nhit cao hn.
S d c c tnh ny l v cc nguyn t hp kim c tc khuch tn chm
lm cn tr s chuyn di ca cacbon, lm qu trnh ram xy ra chm. Cc nguyn t

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W, Mo, Cr c i lc mnh vi cacbon do c khuynh hng gi cacbon xit xy ra
nhit cao hn so vi cacbit st, v d cacbt st tit ra khong 200
0
C ccbt crm
450
0
C, cc cacbit vonfram, mlipen -550 - 600
0
C. Do khuch tn kh khn, cacbit
hp kim tit ra c kch thc rt nh mn gp phn lm tng cht t cng, hin
tng ny gi l ho cng phn tn, cng vi kt qu ca s chuyn bin auxtenit d
thnh mactenxit ram, lm tng cng ca thp ti khi ram. S tng cng do kt
qu ca chuyn bin auxtenit d thnh mactenxit v ho cng phn tn khi ram c
gi l cng th hai.
Ti v V tuy l hai nguyn t to thnh cacbit rt mnh, trong thp chng
thng tn ti dng cacbit n nh, khi nung nng hu nh khng ho tan vo
auxtenit v do cng khng c trong mactenxit, nn thc t hu nh khng nh
hng g n qu trnh ram.
Mn l nguyn t to thnh cacbit yu, nn tc dng cn tr qu trnh ram ca n
khng ln.
Trong hai nguyn t khng to thnh cacbit thng gp. Ni hu nh khng nh
hng g n qu trnh ram, cn Si li c tc dng cn tr yu n qu trnh ram.
Tng kt mt cch h thng tc dng tt ca nguyn t hp kim n c tnh ca
thp c th a ra cc nhn xt sau:
So vi thp cacbon, nhit thng thp hp kim c bn cao hn l do:
- Trong hai pha thnh phn th ferit l pha ch yu ca thp c ho bn bi s
ho tan ca cc nguyn t hp kim
- Thp hp kim c t hm ti cao hn, do , t c hiu qu ho bn do
nhit luyn ti + ram trn tit din chi tit mc cao hn. y l nguyn nhn ch
yu lm thp hp kim c bn cao, v v vy thp hp kim ch t c bn cao
hn thp cacbon mt cch r rt trng thi ti - ram. Mt cch ngn gn c th ni
rng nguyn t hp kim khng nhng nng cao chiu dy ca lp ho bn khi ti m
c bn ca chnh lp ho bn y na.

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11.4. Thp kt cu
Thp kt cu l loi thp c s dng vi khi lng ln nht trong cng
nghip, dng ch to cc b phn, chi tit ny (cc loi trc, bnh rng, thanh
truyn lc...) v cc kt cu chu lc (cu trc, cu, tu bin....) S dng hp l thp kt
cu trong ch to c kh s a li hiu qu kinh t k thut ln.
11.4.1. Khi nim chung v thp kt cu
11.4.1.1. Yu cu i vi thp kt cu
Do c s dng lm chi tit my v kt cu chu lc vi khi lng ln cc
thp kt cu nhng mc khc nhau phi t c hai yu cu c bn: c tnh tng
hp cao bo m lm vic c lu di v tnh cng ngh tt.
11.4.1.2. Yu cu v c tnh
Yu cu v c tnh tng hp cao l yu cu c bn nht, v n quyt nh kh
nng lm vic lu di ca chi tit my trong iu kin ti trng quy nh.
Cc chi tit my khc nhau v hnh dng, kch thc v cc c im ca ti
trng t vo, iu kin vn hnh. Song ni chung cc thp k cu phi c cc ch
tiu c tnh sau.
- Gii hn chy cao. Di ti trng tnh, s ph hu kim loi xy ra trong iu
kin ng sut t vo cao hn gii hn bn. Song trong thc t, phn ln cc trng
hp khng cho php bin dng do chi tit my, nn ch tiu c tnh dng tnh ton
bn v chn h s an ton thng phi da vo gii hn chy.
Gii hn chy ca thp kt cu cng ln ng sut cho php trong chi tit s
cng cao, kch thc v khi lng ca n cng c th thu nh. Do vy cng nghip
ch to my hin i i hi cc thp kt cu c gii hn bn v c bit l gii hn
chy ngy mt cao hn.
- do v dai tt: Trong khi yu cu thp kt cu c gii hn chy cao
khng th b qua yu cu v do, c bit l dai. Cc thp kt cu (hp kim) c
gii hn chy cao thng km do, dai, do khng t trng hp thp b ph hu dn
ngay c trong trng hp ng sut tc dng thp hn ng sut tinh ton rt nhiu.
trnh ph hu dn thp cn phi c do v dai tt, tc l phi c cc gi tr v
gin di (%) tht tit din (%) dai va p (
k
) .

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- Gii hn mi cao. Kh nhiu chi tit my lm vic di ti trng thay i, cn
phi c gii hn mi cao. Yu t quan trng tng gii hn mi ca thp l to nn
b mt, lp ng sut nn d bng cc phng php ti b mt, ho nhit luyn, bin
cng b mt.
- Tnh chng mi mn cao. Nhiu chi tit my lm vic trong iu kin ma st
b mt kh nng lm vic khng phi v gy v hay bin dng do, m l do b mn
sinh ra thiu ht kch thc. Trong trng hp ny mt yu cu khng th thiu l phi
lm cho b mt lm vic ca chi tit c cng cao nng cao tnh chng mi mn.
11.4.1.3. Yu cu v tnh cng ngh
Ngoi yu cu v c tnh tng hp cao, thp kt cu phi c tnh cng ngh tt
bao gm cc tnh gia cng ct, gia cng p lc v tnh hn.
Phn ln chi tit my t nhiu phi qua gia cng ct (tin, phay, bo, mi...)
bo m to ra cc kch thc chnh xc v nhn bng theo yu cu. y l nguyn
cng tiu ph nhiu thi gian nht cc nh my c kh. nng cao nng sut ct
gt, mt trong cc yu t quan trng l phi phi cng thch hp (khng c cao
qu nhng cng khng thp qu), phi gy bo m tnh gia cng ct cao.
Phn ln cc kt cu chu lc phi qua hn, do vy thp kt cu dng vo mc
ch ny phi c tnh hn tt.
Nu nh c tnh tng hp cao bo m chi tit lm vic lu di th tnh cng
ngh tt s bo m kh nng gia cng, ch to chi tit mt cch thun li v gi thnh
thp. Yu cu ny cng rt quan trng v thp kt cu c s dng vi khi lng ln.
t c cc yu cu v c tnh v tnh cng ngh nh trn thp kt cu phi
tho mn tip cc yu cu khc v thnh phn ho hc, ch nhit luyn, phng
php ho bn b mt.
11.4.2. Thp thm cacbon
Thp thm cacbon l loi thp c lng cacbon thp 0,10 - 0,25% (c bit c th
ti 0,30%) ch to cc chi tit va chu c ti trng tnh ln va p, va chu c
mi mn b mt nh bnh rng, cam, a ma s... cng cao ca lp b mt v
bn, dai cao ca li t c bng cch thm cacbon, ti v ram thp, do loi
thp ny c tn l thp thm cacbon.

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c im v thnh phn ho hc:
bo m li chi tit c dai va p cao, thnh phn cacbon ca thp thm
cacbon nm trong gii hn 0,10 - 0,25%, nng cao bn li hn na hin nay c
xu hng dng thp vi lng cacbon ti trn di 0,30%.
Cc nguyn t hp kim ho thp thm cacbon phi l cc nguyn t ngoa
kh nng lm tng tnh thm ti phi c tc dng thc y (hoc khng cn tr) s
thm cacbon vo thp v khng lm ht ln, thng l cc nguyn t to cacbit. Cc
loi thp hp kim thm cacbon l cc loi thp crm, crm - niken, crm - mnggan
- titan. Khng dng loi thp ch hp kim bng mnggan v nguyn t ny lm ht ln,
khng hp kim ho thp thm cacbon bng silic v nguyn t ny cn tr thm cacbon,
do khng c i lc vi cacbon. Crm l nguyn t khng th thiu trong cc thp hp
kim thm cacbon v tho mn cc yu cu ra v tng i r, d kim.
S khc nhau v cht lng gia thp cacbon v thp hp kim thm cacbon l
ch thp hp kim c thm ti ln hn do bn li cao, t bin dng khi ti v
lm c chi tit ln hn, c th thm nhit cao hn, trong khi cng b mt
ca chng nh nhau th tnh chng mi mn ca thp hp kim cao hn do to nn cc
cacbit n nh vi phn tn cao. C tnh ca cc thp thm cacbon sau khi thm, ti
v ram thp nh sau: cng b mt 59 - 63 HRC, li 30 - 42 HRC.
k
= 700 - 1200 KJ/m
3

b
= 600 - 1200 N/mm
2

11.4.3. Thp ho tt
Thp ho tt l loi thp c lng cacbon trung bnh 0,30 - 0,5% (c bit c th
ti 0,55%) ch to cc chi tit chu ti trng tnh v va p cao, yu cu bn v
dai cao. C tnh tng hp cao nht ca thp t bng nhit luyn ha tt nn c tn
l thp ho tt. Nhm thp ho tt c dng rng ri trong ch to my khng km g
thp thm cacbon do quy trnh nhit luyn n gin hn, trong khi c tnh tng hp
khng thua km bao nhiu.
11.4.3.1. c im v thnh phn ho hc

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m bo c s kt hp tt nht gia bn v dai, thp ho tt phi c
lng cacbon trung bnh 0,30 -0,50%, trong mt s trng hp yu cu bn cao v
dai khng cao lm c th dng vi 0,55%C.
Cc nguyn t hp kim ho thp tt phi c tc dng tng thm ti, bi v
mun t t chc xoocbit ram trn ton ti din vi c tnh tng hp tt nht, c tit
din phi thp cn c ti thu. Ngoi ra, trong trng hp cn thit cng phi a
vo nguyn t gi cho ht nh v trnh dn ram. Cc nguyn t hp kim chnh v tng
thm ti thng dng l crm, mnggan - silic, niken vi cc loi thp hp kim,
crm, crm - mnggan - silic, crm - niken, crm - niken - molipen vv... Ngoi ra cn
dng bo, cho vo thp mt lng nh 0,002 - 0,005%B c tc dng tng thm ti
tng ng vi 1%Ni hoc 0,5% Cr hoc 0,2% Mo (khng dng vi lng bo ln hn
gii hn k trn, v lc s to nn borit st FeB, Fe
2
B khng ho tan trong auxtenit,
lm gim thm ti). Tc dng tt ca bo tng ln khi dng phi hp vi crm,
niken, mnggan. Cc nguyn t hp kim ph thng dng l Mo, V trnh dn ram
cho cc thp hp kim crm - niken vi thm ti tt dng lm chi tit hn (kh khc
phc dn ram bng ngui nhanh). i khi cng dng titan lm cho thp c ht nh
bo m c tnh tng hp cao.
11.4.3.2. Nhit luyn thp ho tt
* Nhit luyn s b
Phn ln cc thp ho tt c lm cc chi tit quan trng i hi qua gia cng
ct, do vy phi qua nhit luyn s b ci thin tnh ct gt.
Sau khi rn, rp nng hnh thnh phi, thp c mang i , thng ho hoc
ram cao.
Cc thp cacbon v crm sau khi bin dng nng thng c qua hon ton.
Cc thp crm - niken hp kim ho thp, mun tng tnh ct gt c th dng cch
thng ho thay cho , nh vy thp s c tnh do km i, phoi tr nn d gy. Cc
thp crm - niken hp kim ho trung bnh (loi thp mactenxit) khng th hon ton
gim cng c, ngi ta thng dng cch thng ho (ngui trong khng kh,
thc cht l ti) ri ram cao.

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Sau khi ho tt t c tnh tng hp cao lm vic, chi tit c cng trong
khong 220 - 260HB vn c th gia cng ct tip tc. V vy trong nhiu trng hp
ngi ta ch tin hnh gia cng th sau khi , cn gia cng tinh c thc hin sau khi
nhit luyn ho tt.
* Nhit luyn kt thc
Nhit luyn kt thc cc thp ho tt nhm mc ch to ra c tnh tng hp cao
nht, ng thi trong trng hp yu cu cn to nn lp b mt c cng cao
chng mi mn v chu mi tt.
tao ra c tnh tng hp cao nht ngi ta tin hnh ho tt hoc c - nhit
luyn.
Nhit luyn ho tt bao gm ti v ram cao to cho cc thp c lng cacbon
trung bnh t c c tnh tng hp cao nht. u im ca nhit luyn ho tt l t
c gi tr dai va p ln nht s d, xooc - bit ram t c c tnh tng hp nh
vy l do cacbit (xmentit) trong n dng ht nh mn, trng thi ht lm thp c
do cao, cn nh mn ca n lm thp c bn, c bit l gii hn chy cao.
11.4.4. Thp l xo
Cc loi l xo, nhp c dng rt rng ri trong cc my, c bit trong t, xe
la...Cc thp l xo dng ch to l xo, nhp v cc chi tit c tc dng n hi ni
chung.
11.4.4.1. Yu cu i vi thp l xo
c im lm vic ca cc loi l xo, nhip v cc chi tit n hi khc l di
tcdng ca cc ti trng tnh v va p ln, trong chng khng c bin dng do.
t c yu cu lm vic nh vy, thp em lm l xo nhp phi c gii hn n hi
cao, tc l kh nng chng bin dng do ln, ngoi ra do ng sut tc dng lun lun
thay i thp phi c gii hn mi cao. dai v c bit l do ca thp phi thp
khng xy ra bin dng d khi lm vic, song cng khng qu thp d b ph hu
dn. Mt yu cu quan trng khc l cc tnh cht trn phi khng hoc t thay i
trong qu trnh lm vic, nu khng s nh hng n trng thi lm vic bnh thng
ca my.

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Ngoi hnh dng ca chi tit l yu t quan trng to ra kh nng n hi thnh
phn cacbon v hp kim, ch nhit luyn v trng thi b mt cng quyt nh tnh
n hi, kh nng lm vic lu di ca l xo, nhp.
Lng cacbon thch hp ca thp l xo l 0,5 - 0,65%, thng trong gii hn
0,55 - 0,65%. Vi thnh phn cacbon nh vy, thp c gii hn n hi cao, kh nng
chng bin dng do kh ln, song do khng qu thp d dng b ph hu dn.
Cc nguyn t hp kim ch yu cho php l xo phi l mnggan l silic v
chng nng cao mnh cng v gii hn n hi ca ferit, thng dng vi hm
lng 1-2%. Ngoi ra cn dng cc nguyn t crm, niken, vanai tng thm ti
v tnh n nh ca tnh n hi.
11.4.4.2. Thp bi
ch chng ngi ta dng loi thp hp kim chuyn dng, c gi l thp
bi.
Cc b mt lm vic ca cc chi tit ln bao gm vng , bi, a ng sut tip
xc cao vi s lng chu trnh rt ln, do trt ln vi nhau tng thi im chng b
mi mn im. tho mn cc yu cu lm vic do , thp bi phi c bn mi
tip xc v chng mi mn cao nht, do phi c cng cao v ng nht. Mun
vy thp bi c nhng c im thnh phn nh sau:
- Lng cacbon cao (khong 1%) bo m sau khi ti c cng v chng
mi mn cao.
- Rt t tp cht phi kim loi, trong lng S < 0,02%, P < 0,027% khng c
r xp, bo m khng c im mm.
- T chc ca thp phi ng nht, khng c thin tch cacbt, cacbt dng dng
ht nh mn, phn b u.
- Thp c hp kim ho bng 0,6 - 1,5% Cr, i khi c bng Mn, Si, lm tng
thm ti, bo m c tnh ng nht.

11.5. Thp dng c
Thp dng c l loi thp dng ch to cc loi dng c ct (dao ct) dng c
o, dng c bin dng (khun rp) nng v ngui. Tuy c dng vi khi lng

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khng nhiu, song cht lng dng c quyt nh nng sut, sn lng ca cc nh
my ch to my. V th cc nh my c kh thng rt coi trng cng tc dng c
nhm nng cao tt ct gt, tng sn phm rp.
Trong qu trnh lm vic vi cc mc khc nhau tt c cc loi dng c u
chu mi mn, p lc cao, ng sut cao c bit l chu un v xon, do yu cu c
trng vi cc dng c l cn cng, tnh chng mi mn cao v thp dng c thng
c lng cacbon cao. Tuy nhin, i vi tng loi dng c c th c nhng yu cu
ring bit c trnh by cc mc tng ng.
11.5.1. Thp v hp kim lm dao ct tc cao (thp gi)
11.5.1.1. Cc yu cu i vi vt liu lm dao ct
* iu kin lm vic ca dao
Khi dao ct phi kim loi s to ra phi v c cc qu trnh sau xy ra.
- to thnh phi, lng ct cn phi chu p lc ln, to ra cng c hc nht
nh ph hu kim loi.
- Dao ct lm vic trong iu kin b mi st: mt trc ca dao mi st vi
phoi, do phi lm bin dng (lm cong) v b gy phoi, nn mt trc ca dao s to
thnh rnh lm cn mt sau ca dao tin b mi st vi phi nn cng b mn i. S
mi mn mt trc v mt sau xy ra cho ti khi khong cch mt trc v mt sau qu
nh khng chu c p lc ln na, li ct b ph hu, khng th tip tc ct gt.
- Cng c hc tch phoi ra khi phi trong qu trnh ct v s mi st ca
phi, phoi vi dao phn ln c bin thnh nhit. Nhit ny nung nng phi, phi
truyn ra ngoi khng kh nhng ch yu tp trung vo dao, c bit l li ct. Do
vy, khi ct gt li ct b nung nng mnh hn c. Nhit ca li ct ph thuc
vo nhiu yu t: vt liu lm phi, tc ct, tit din phoi, ch lm ngui dao ...
* Yu cu v c tnh ca dao ct
m bo tnh bn, cc dng ct phi tho mn cc yu cu v c tnh sau
y:
- cng cao. to ra c p lc cao ca dao ct ln phi, tch thnh phoi,
cng ca li ct ni ring v ca dao ni chung phi cao hn hn cng ca kim
loi em gia cng (phi) (thp kt cu, gang, hp kim mu i khi c thp khng g,

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thp bn nng...) yu cu v cng ca dao cng ph thuc mt phn vo cng
ca phi. Trong trng hp gia cng cc thp, gang thng thng v hp kim thp,
cng phi khng qu 200 - 250HB, cng ca dao khng di 60HRC. Cn trong
trng hp gia cng cc thp, gang hp kim cao (thp bn nng, thp khng g, gang
auxtenit...) cng ca dao ct phi ln hn 65HRC.
- Tnh chng mi mn cao. Tui bn ca dao di hay ngn l do qu trnh to
thnh rnh lm trn mt trc ca dao lu hay chng m qu trnh ny li ph thuc
vo tnh chng mi mn ca vt liu lm dao. Trong trng hp cn chnh xc cao
khi gia cng, yu cu v tnh chng mi mn cng quan trng.
Tnh chng mi mn quyt nh s lm vic lu bn ca dao, nn dao c tnh
chng mi mn cng cao cng tt. Tnh chng mi mn ca dao trc ht ph thuc
vo cng ca n, cng ca dao cng cao tnh chng mi mn cng cao. Tuy
nhin vi hai thp dng c c cng nh nhau, thp no c cha nhiu ccbit phn
tn hn, thp s c tnh chng mi mn cao hn.
- Tnh cng nng. cng cao ca thp lm dao t c sau khi ti c t chc
mactenxit, khi li ct b nung nng t chc mactenxit ca thp b ram v phn ho
lm cng ca dao gim i, kh nng ct gt b gim.
Trong trng hp gia cng nng sut cao (tc ct ln, tit din phoi ln) v
gia cng cc vt liu c bn cao, dao b nng ln mnh lit, lm gim cng ca
dao. Lc ny nu vt liu lm dao gi nhit c cng cao (>60HRC) nhit
cng cao th dao ct c th ct gt vi tc cng cao. Kh nng ny ca vt liu lm
dao ct, c nh gi bng tnh cng nng.
Ngoi ba yu cu ch yu trn, cc thp lm dao ct cng phi tho mn mt s
yu cu khc.
Cc thp lm dao phi bn un (trong trng hp tin) hoc xon (trong
trng hp khoan) cao, iu ny c bo m khng nhng bng vt liu m c bng
bin php thit k. Cng vi bn cao, dai ca thp cng khng qu thp trnh
m, gy li ct.
Ngoi cc yu cu c tnh k trn, cc thp lm dao cng phi tho mn cc yu
cu nht nh v tnh cng ngh.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Trc ht thp cn c tinh thm ti tt, c bit i vi cc dao ct nh hnh,
hnh dng phc tp nh dao phay, tut... Trong trng hp ny, phi dng cc thp
dng c hp kim ti du hoc ti phn cp trnh nt, bin dng. Thp lm dao cng
i hi phi c tnh gia cng p lc, trng thi mm ct gt, sau khi ti c
tnh mi tt.
11.5.1.2. Phng n hp kim ho
bo m cho dao ct c cng v tnh chng mi mn cao, thp em ch
to phi c lng cacbon > 0,7%, thng thng dng loi cao ti trn di 1%, t
chc sau khi ti v ram l mactenxit ram v ccbit d, rt t auxtenit d.
Ngoi lm tng tnh chng mi mn, cacbit d trong thp cn c tc dng cn
tr s pht trin ht auxtenit ca thp khi nung ti v do gi c ht nh, bo m
cho dao c dai nht nh. Cc thp lm dao ct thng thng c lng cacbit d cao
ti 15 - 30%.
Hp kim ho thp dao ct nhm hai mc ch
Trc ht l cc nguyn t hp kim lm tng tnh thm ti hay l lm thp d ti
cng. t c t chc mactenxit cng, thp cacbon bt buc phi dng mi trng
ti mnh nh nc, nc pha mui, st, do d sinh nt v bin dng. Thp hp kim
ti du, ti phn cp rt thch hp cho cc loi dao c tit din bin i t ngt, tit
din ln hnh dng phc tp v yu cu chnh xc cao. t c mc ch ny c
th dng cc nguyn t hp kim thng thng nh Cr, Si, Mn cng nh W, Mo vi
lng cha thp - tng lng khong 1 - 3%.
Mc ch th hai ca hp kim ho thp dao ct l lm tng tnh cng nng. Nu
hp kim ho thp, cc nguyn t hp kim cn tr t qu trnh ram, do nng cao khng
ng k tnh cng nng. V d hp kim ho bng 1% Cr + 1% Si ch nng cao tnh
cng nng khong 50
0
C. Nhng khi hp kim ho cao (v d trn 10% cc nguyn t
W, Mo, Cr...) khi ho tan vo auxtenit v mactenxit cc nguyn t hp kim cn tr
mnh qu trnh ram, do nng cao r rt tnh cng nng. Trong qu trnh ram, cc
cacbit hp kim ch tit ra khi mactenxit nhit cao hn 500 - 550
0
C, v th dao ct
c th ct gt vi nng sut cao ng vi nhit li ct khong nhit .

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nhit luyn ti, ram i vi thp lm dao ct cng nh cc thp dng c khc
c ngha quan trng c bit. Khc vi cc chi tit my (c th c mt s chi tit
my khng cn qua nhit luyn), 100% dao ct v cc dng lm bng thp u phi
qua nhit luyn ti + ram, hn na nu khng qu ti + ram cc dng c khng th lm
vic c d l trong thi hn rt ngn.
Cacbon ca thp gi bin i trong gii hn kh rng 0,70 1,50%, cc s hiu
vi lng cacbon ti 1,2 - 1,5% l kt hp vi W v c bit l V thnh cacbit n
nh lm tng mnh tnh chng mi mn.
Crm c trong mi thp gi vi lng khong 4%, n c tc dng ch yu l
lm tng mnh tnh thm ti. Chnh nh lng crm ln nh vy thp gi hu nh c
thm ti bt k, nh c th dng phng php ti phn cp gim bin dng
dng c.
Vonfram l nguyn t hp kim quan trng nht ca thp gi, khng nhng c
thnh phn ln nht m cn to cho thp tnh cng nng cao, quyt nh nng sut ct
gt, l nguyn t to thnh cacbit mnh, trong thp gi W ch yu nm dng cacbit
Me
6
C, khi nung nng nhit cao mt phn Me
6
C b phn ho ho tan vo auxtenit
do vy sau khi ti mactenxit c cha nhiu W, khi ram cacbit Me
6
C ch tit ra khi
mactenxit nhit cao hn 550 - 570
0
C do vy tnh cng nng ca thp gi khong
trn di 600
0
C.
Vanadi l nguyn t to thnh cacbit mnh, cacbit vanadi rt kh ho tan vo
auxtenit khi nung nng, trong t chc thp gi ti, cc vanadi dng phn tn lm
tng mnh tnh chng mai mn. Trong mi thp gi lng vanadi t nht cng khong
1,5 - 2,0% khi lng vanadi cao hn gii hn ny, tnh chng mi mn mt mt tng
ln, nhng tnh mi km i.
Do da vo ch yu l to ra cacbit, nn khi tng V cng phi tng ng tng
lng cacbon.
Cban tuy khng to thnh cacbit nhng n ho tan hon ton vo st dng
dung dch rn. Vi lng 5 - 10% Co, tnh cng nng ca thp gi c tng ln.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Tuy Co l nguyn t lm gim thm ti, song trong thp gi do c nhiu Cr,
W, Mo lm tng tnh thm ti, nn nh hng ny ca Co khng ng k. Khi dng
nhiu Co, thp c tnh dn tng v d thot cacbon khi nung.
Mlipen trn rt nhiu mt, mlipen kh ging vonfram l nguyn t to
cacbit, trong thp gi n cng to nn nhiu loi cacbit ging vonfram, kiu mng v
ng knh nguyn t tng t nhau, tnh cht ho hc ging nhau nn chng c th
thay th ln cho nhau. Theo tnh ton 1% nguyn t Mo thay th c cho 1% nguyn
t W, nhng khi lng ring ca Mo ch bng na ca W (10,3g/cm
3
so vi
19,3g/cm
3
) do vy theo t l trng lng 1% Mo thay th c cho 2%W.
u vit ni bt ca thp gi W - Mo l: thin tch cacbit nh, tnh do trng
thi nng tt do d bin dng nng. Tuy vy so vi thp gi W, thp gi W - Mo
cng c nhc im, d b qu nhit oxy ho v thot ccbon hn, do nhit luyn
kh hn.
* T chc sau khi
Do thnh phn hp kim v cacbon cao, cc thp gi u thuc loi thp
lburit v thp mactenxit. Trong thp c cha lng ln cacbit, trng thi c c t
chc cng tnh lburit v vy nu phn loi theo t chc trng thi cn bng thp
gi thuc loi thp cacbit hay lburit. Do tnh n nh ca auxtenit qu ngui ln,
khi lm ngui trong khng kh cng t c t chc mactenxit.
Do cacbit phn b khng u nh vy nn nh hng xu n tnh cng ngh v
c tnh ca thp. Trc ht tnh nhit luyn km i: nhng vng giu cacbit
(lburit) c nhit chy thp, khi nung d b qu nhit, cc vng khc nhau mc
hp kim ho v im M
khc nhau, v th khi ti chuyn bin Mactenxit xy ra

khng ng thi lm thp gi d nt. Cacbit th to cng lm dao d b st, m khi ct
gt.
c c cacbit ng u, thp gi c phi qua bin dng (cn rn) nng
nhiu ln ri qua , sau khi rn + thp gi c t chc gm cc phn t cacbit nh mn
phn b u trn nn xoocbit hoc peclit vi cng khng qu 240 - 256HB, d dng
gia cng ct.
* Ti

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Ti l nguyn cng c ngha quyt nh tnh cng nng ca thp gi. im
ng ch nht khi ti thp gi l nhit ti rt cao (1230 - 1290
0
C), khong nhit
ti kh hp.
Khu nung qu nhit Ac
1
trong thp gi mi c chuyn bin peclit thnh
auxtenit, phn rt ln nguyn t hp kim v cacbit, v th khi ti 850 - 900
0
C cng
ch t 45 - 50HRC, cha ct gt.
Tip tc nng cao nhit , cacbit ho tan
cng nhiu vo auxtenit, lm pha ny cng giu
nguyn t hp kim v cacbon. u tin cacbit
crm kiu (Fe, Cr)
23
C
6
s ho tan vo auxtenit, cho
ti 1000
0
C hu nh auxtenit ho tan crm.
Cacbit vanai VC khng ho tan vo auxtenit
nhit di 100
0
C, cao hn 1150
0
C mi bt
u tng i cht. S ho tan ca cacbit vonfram kiu Me
6
C - Fe, W
6
C hay Fe
3
W
3
C - l
loi cacbit ch yu ca thp gi c ngha quyt nh n cng v c bit l tnh
cng nng khi ti. Cabit vonfram ho tan c bit mnh vo auxtenit nhit cao
hn 1150
0
C, song ngay ti nhit rt cao cng vn cha t c gi tr bo ho.
Do vy nhit nung nng ti thp gi nn cao auxtenit cha cng nhiu
nguyn t hp kim (m ch yu l vonfram,
mlipen) cng tt. Tuy nhin khng th
chn nhit ti qu cao (ni chung khng
ti nhit qu 1300
0
C v ht thp nhn
c s ln. Cc cacbit cha ho tan ht vo
auxtenit (Fe, W)
6
C, VC c tc dng cn tr
s pht trin ca ht, gi cho ht nh. V th
cacbit cng nh mn v phn b cng u
cng c kh nng gi c ht nh khi ti. Khi nhit ti qu cao, lng cacbit d
cn li qu t, khng kh nng cn tr s pht trin ht, do ht ln ln rt nhanh.
c bit khi nhit qu 100
0
C, trong thp gi c thin tch cacbit c th xy ra hin
tng chy cc b tinh gii.
A
1
900 1000
Nhie t o toi ,
0
C
0
W
Cr
W
1
T
h
a
n
h

p
h
a
n

c
u
a

m
a
c
t
e
n
x
i
t
,

%
1100 1200 1300
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
d
1050 1150 1250
Nhiet o toi,
0
C
10
20
30
65
60
55
o

c
n
g

H
R
C
L
n
g

c
a
n
t
e
n
i
t

d
,

%
HR
C
L
n
g

a
u
x
t
e
n
i
t

d

%

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

0,01
36
0,1
360
1
3600
10
36000
100h
360.000s
Th i gian
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800

qua nguo i
M
(200)
0
C
A
1
Do nhit cao nh vy, auxtenit cha nhiu nguyn t hp kim (khong
8%W, 3,5% Cr, 1%V, 0,5%C ) lm h thp im M
d
( 180 200
0
C) v M
k
do sau
khi ti trong thp gi cn cha n 30 40% auxtenit d.
T chc sau khi ti ca thp gi gm: mactenxit, auxtenit d (30 40%) v
cacbit d (15-20%). S c mt ca cc phn t cacbit d bn cnh mactenxit tuy khng
lm tng r rt cng nhng lm tng mnh tnh chng mi mn ca thp ti.
Thng tin hnh nung ti thp gi trong l mui in cc vi mui dng 100%
BaCl
2
c nhit lm vic ti 1300
0
C nhng trc phi nung s b trong hai l c
nhit 450
0
C v 850
0
C.
Thp gi c tnh n nh ca auxtenit
qu ngui rt cao nn c th p dng nhiu
phng php ti. Cc mi trng ti thng
dng i vi thp gi l:
- Du nng (>60
0
C) cch ti ny n
gin song vn b bin dng qu mc cho
php i vi cc loi dng c d cong vnh nh
mi khoan, dao tut.
- Mi trng phn cp l mui nng chy c nhit 400 - 600
0
C vi thi gian
gi nhit trong khong 3 - 5ph. Sau khi lm u nhit gia li v b mt, dng
c c a ra lm ngui ngoi khng kh. Thng p dng cho cc loi dao ct yu
cu bin dng nh.
- Gia cng lnh lm gim bt lng auxtenit d sau khi ti thng (do im
M
k
ca n thp, khong -100
0
C). Tin hnh lm lnh thp gi ti khong -40 -80
0
C
gia cng lnh ch p dng trong trng hp cn n nh kch thc.
* Ram
Mun t ng thi cng cao v tnh cng nng cao nht, bt buc phi ti
thp gi nhit cao ti gn 1300
0
C, song khi ti nh vy khng trnh khi c lng
auxtenit d cao trong t chc ti. Ngoi t cc mc ch nh cc thp khc, ram thp

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

gi cn nhm lm gim lng auxtenit d, tng cng ca dao ct khong 2 - 3HRC,
hin tng ny c gi l cng th hai.
thp gi trong khong 550 - 570
0
C
Khi nung nng thp gi ti n 500 - 550
0
C trong n khng xy ra chuyn
bin no. Khi nung nng ti 550 - 570
0
C cacbit vomfram bt u tit ra khi dung dch
rn, lm mc hp kim ho ca auxtenit gim i, nng cao im M
d
, lm gim ng
sut nn ln auxtenit. Tt c nhng iu to iu kin thun li cho auxtenit d d
dng chuyn bin thnh mactenxit trong qu trnh lm ngui khi ram.
S tng cng so vi trng thi ti khi ram thp gi l do mt lng ln
auxtenit d bin thnh mactenxit v s to thnh cacbit phn tn nh mn.
Tuy nhin sau mi ln ram nh vy, ch c mt lng auxtenit d c chuyn
bin. Mun kh b tng i trit auxtenit d phi tin hnh ram 2 - 4 ln (thng
thng 3 ln).
11.5.2. Hp kim cng
11.5.2.1. Thnh phn ho hc v cc s liu
Thnh phn ch yu ca mi loi hp kim cng l cacbit vonfram (WC) titan
(TiC) v tantan (TaC) dng cc ht rt nh c dnh kt vi nhau bng kim loi
cban. Do cc cacbit chim t l rt ln (>90%) nn hp kim cng c c nhng c
tnh chung c bn ca cacbit l: rt cng, c nhit nng chy cao dn. Ngoi ra
lng cht dnh k cban cng c nh hng nh n cc tnh cht ca hp kim cng.
Bn cht cng v tnh cng nng rt cao ca hp kim cng c quyt nh
ch yu bi bn cht ca cc cacbit k trn. Cc kim loi vonfram, titan v tantan l
nhng kim loi chuyn tip c ng knh nguyn t ln, cc cacbit ca chng WC,
TiC v TaC l cc pha xen k c kiu mng n gin c cng, nhit chy v tnh
n nh rt cao.
C th phn cc hp kim cng ra lm ba phn:
- Nhm hp kim cng cacbit - cacbit vonfram k hiu bng BK v s tip theo
ch s phn trm cban, cn li l s phn trm WC. V d BK8 c 8% Co, cn li
92% l WC

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Nhm hp kim cng hai cacbit - cacbit vonfram v cacbit titan, k hiu bng
TK v cc s ch s phn trm TiC v Co, cn li l s phn trm WC. V d T15K6 c
15% TiC, 6% Co, cn li 79% l WC.
- Nhm hp kim cng ba cacbit - WC, TiC v TaC k hiu bng TTK v cc s
ch s phn trm ca tng lng TiC + TaC v Co. V d TT7K12 c 7% l (TiC+TaC);
12% Co v cn li (81%) l WC.
11.5.2.2. Cch ch to
Cc hp kim c ch to bng phng php luyn kim bt. Trong phng php
ny khng phi nu chy m liu, y m liu rn dng bt c kch thc ht nh
c trn tht u ri em p thnh cc ming c hnh dng n gin, sau em
nung ln n nhit thch hp (thiu kt) cc cht dnh kt lin kt cc ht vi
nhau thnh khi vng chc.
ch to hp kim cng phi qua cc bc sau y:
- u tin phi ch to vonfram nguyn cht bng cch hon nguyn WO
3
trong
dng kh hyr 700 - 900
0
C. Bt vonfram th (ht ln) thu c em nghin nh
trong my nghin b, sau qua sng ly kch thc ht nh nht nh (0,10 -
1,15m ti 3 - 5m)
- Trn bt vonfram vi b hng (mui than) nung ln 1400
0
C c bt
cacbit vonfram. ch to loi hai cacbit ngi ta trn thm TiO
2
vo hn hp trn
sau khi nung c ngay c hn hp ca hai cacbit.
- Trn bt cacbit vi bt cban trong nhiu gi lm u thnh phn
- p hn hp di p sut ln ri nung s b to cho hn hp bn cn
thit gia cng c.
- Ct v gia cng c trn cc my ct kim loi: phay, tin...
- Thiu kt ln cui cng 1400 - 1500
0
C to thnh hp kim cng. Khi
cban chy mm ra v dnh cc ht cacbit li vi nhau to thnh hp kim cng vi
s lin kt cht gia cc ht.
Cc hp kim cng sau khi ch to xong rt cng khng th gia cng c kh
c, cch gia cng duy nht chng l mi trn loi mi c bit.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

11.6. Thp khng g
11.6.1. n mn v bo v kim loi
* Khi nim: n mn l s ph hu kim loi di tc dng xm thc ca mi
trng m sn phm lm vic.
* c im n mn: + Xy ra thng xuyn, lin tc vi cc sn phm kinh loi
+ Ch yu ph thuc vo mi trng
+ t chu nh hng ca ti trng m ch yu ph thuc vo trng thi ng sut.
* Phn loi n mn: Theo c ch c 2 loi:
+ n mn ho hc: l qu trnh n mn kim loi m khng pht sinh dng in
(Ch yu l nh hng kim loi nhit cao)
Me + O
2
Me
x
O
y

KL SP n mn
+ n mn in ho: l qu trnh n mn m n xy ra thnh 2 qu trnh ring
bit
Qu trnh Ant: Me - ne
-
Me
n+
: ho tan kim loi (kim loi b n mn)
Qu trnh katt: Dne + ne
-
[Dne
n-
]
Dne - cht kh cc
H
+
+ e
-
H; 2H H
2

Khi n mn in ho s to mt cp pin n mn trong ton b sn phm do
to v s cc vi pin n mn nn c dng in n mn.
n mn in ho din ra lin tc trong mi mi trng c tnh in li l dng n
mn ph bin nht, tc hi ln nht.
* Cc phng php bo v kim loi chng n mn in ho
- Phng php bao ph bo v: Cch li kim loi vi mi trng n mn bng
cc lp ph
+ Sn ph bo v: ch c tc dng cch li
+ M, phun kim loi bo v va cch li, va bo v in ho.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Lp ph anot: vt liu lp ph c th in cc tiu chun
0
m hn
0
ca kim
loi cn bo v
C tnh bo v k c khi lp ph b ph hu nhng vn cn tng phn.
- Lp ph katt:
0
ca kim loi ph dng hn
0
ca kim loi cn bo v ch
c tc dng cch li in.
- Phng php x l mi trng: To ra mi trng m khng c tnh in li ch
thc hin i vi mi trng hn ch.
- Bo v in ho: Gim dng n mn
+ Dng ant hi sinh: Ni kim loi cn bo v vi kim loi c
0
m hn n, do
khi b n mn q a trnh n mn s xy ra ant v kim loi c bo v.
+ Dng protechtor: dng ngun ngoi cng bc mt kim loi tr thnh anot
kim loi cn bo v lun l katt v c bo v.
* S nguyn l

Vt liu Pr: W, Gr khng b n mn
Bo v gn nh tuyt i: Ch dng cho cc chi tit quan trng, kch thc nh
ca t bo.
+ Bo v bng th ng ho kim loi
+ Khi nim: S th ng ca kim loi
l qu trnh m dng n mn ca kim loi
gim t ngt di tc dng ca ngun ngoi.
* Trong thc t thng dng kt hp
nhiu phng php bo v
Sn ph + bo v in ho
Me
Pr
- +
an mon
Qua thu ong
Giai oan thu ong
i
thu
ong

i
an
mon

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Sn ph + x l mi trng
* Sn xut cc vt liu c tnh chng n mn cao cc loi thp v hp kim
khng g
+ Nguyn l ca thp khng g
To ra thp c t chc 1 pha ng nht khng c cc vng chnh lch th in
cc ch c h to ra thp ch yu dng Ni (Ni tng rt mnh
0
ca Fe) thp khng g
1 pha.
- To thp c
o
cao tr trong cc mi trng n mn
- To thp khng g vi [NTHK] chnh l Cr
* Phn loi n mn theo hnh dng tc dng
+ n mn u: l qu trnh n mn xy ra tng i u trn ton b b mt
ca sn phm kim loi
+ n mn im: xy ra tp trung ti 1 s v tr trn b mt sn phm
+ n mn vin gii ht: xy ra mnh lit theo bin gii ht
+ n mn ng sut: xy ra mnh lit ti cc vng tp trung ng sut
11.6.2. Cc loi thp khng g
* Tiu chun nh gi tnh chng n mn ca thp
Da vo tc n mn
+ Tc n mn khi lng: l lng kim loi c tnh theo khi lng [kg, g,
mg] trong mt n v thi gian
] MT [
d
d
V
1 m
m
=
+ Tc n mn kch thc: l s hao ht v kch thc ca sn phm kim loi
trong mi trng trong mt n v thi gian
] T L , T L , LT [
d
dL
V
1 3 1 2 1
L

=
Nu V
m
< 0,1 g/nm thp khng g
V
m
~ (0,11 1) g/nm thp khng g tt
V
m
> 1 g/nm thp bnh thng

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

11.6.2.1. Thp khng g 2 pha
* Thp khng g M: l cc loi thp khng g m t chc thu c l M trong
mi iu kin lm ngui.
Thnh phn ho hc ca thp: %C ch yu < 0,1%
Nu yu cu cng cao c th ti 0,4%C
Nu THK: tng mnh
0
cho thp, gi thnh hp l, d hp kim ho, c kh
nng ho bn Chn NTHK chnh l Cr
nh hng Cr n
0
ca thp khi thp c Cr
tng
0
, tn ti cc bc nhy theo quy lut ng sut
khi chn % Cr c gng chn ti v tr c
bc nhy v
o
. Do Cr l nguyn t to (k) chn
ln cn phi trnh gim %Cr trong Fe().
Khi %Cr > 30% xut hin pha khng
chn %Cr > 30%. Vi thp M khng g chn %Cr ~
13%.
- Tnh cht: + Chng n mn tt trong mi trng khng kh
+ Trong mi trng axit v baz km do c tp trung ng sut kh c bn M
+ m bo tnh do
Dng sn xut cc loi thit b gia dng, toa xe ch ho cht
- ng sut: gi thnh khng cao m bo tnh kinh t. To c cng cao
dng sn xut cc dng c phu thut
- K hiu: TCVN **Cr + %Cr

000
0
Cacbon
V d: 10Cr13
20Cr13; 30Cr13; 40Cr13
TC Nga: X13; 20X13; 30X13; 40X13
Nhit luyn: Ch nhit luyn thp 30 x 40 v 40 x 13 bng phng php ti +
ram thp nhm tng cng
25 12,5 37,5 %Cr
0

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* Thp fenit bn axit
- Tc dng hn hp: %C < 0,1%
- NTHK: Chnh Cr: %Cr ~ (25 28)%
(M
s
, M
f
) < 0
0
C ch thu c trong mi iu kin lm ngui bnh thng
(Mun thu c M phi gia cng lnh)
- Tnh cht: tnh do cao kh nng gia cng p lc tt, rt thun li ch
to cc thit b cha (du, kh ho lng). Chng n mn km trong mi trng kim.
C tnh chu nhit cao (c bit khi c b sung Ti) Dng sn xut cc
K hiu: TCVN: Cr25; Cr27; Cr28
OCT: X25, X27, X28T
28: thp chu nhit
11.6.2.2. Thp khng g 1 pha: l loi thp khng g m t chc ch c 1 pha ng
nht (Ch c th l )
+ Thnh phn ho hc: %C < 0,1%
+ NTHK chnh: Ni: m rng vng
Tng
0
ca thp (cng theo quy lut ng sut)
Do Ni t tin kh hp kim ho khng dng vi s lng qu ln %Ni ~ (9
12)% c bit (16)%.
Dng thm [NTHK] b tr tng
0
cho thp, s dng Cr.
Cn gi l thp Cr - Ni
tng tnh chu nhit s dng thm Ti
* Tnh cht:
+ Chng n mn tt trong mi mi trng (ch theo Ti)
+ Tnh do cao, d gia cng p lc
+ Tnh hn khng cao d xut hin n mn tinh gii ht mi hn
Sn xut cc thit b chng n mn cao.
+ Nhit luyn: Hu nh khng nhit luyn, khi cn tng bn, cng c th
ti T
0
ti
~ (950 1000)
0
C ti du
+ K hiu: TCVN: Cr18Ni9, Cr18Ni10, Cr25Ni10, Cr25Ni25Ti

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Tiu chun Nga: X18H9, X18H10, X25H10, X25H12T (thp chu nhit cao)
11.6.2.3. Mt s hp kim khng g
* Hp kim Ti: c tnh chng g, chu nhit rn cao d b dn, qu t, kh ch
to ch dng trong cc chi tit c bit quan trng.
* Hp kim Ni: Ni - Cr; Ni - Co; Ni - Mo tnh chu nhit cao nht, cao dng
lm dy t trong l in tr.

11.7. Thp chu nhit
11.7.1. c im ca kim loi khi lm vic nhit cao
+ nhit cao thng xuyn to ra mi trng khng in li qu trnh n
mn in ho t xy ra
+ nhit cao tng tc ca oxi vi kim loi tr ln mnh lit hn ch yu l
n mn ho hc.
Me + O
2
Me
x
O
y

Lp oxit trn b mt kim loi l sn phm n mn t
0
cao. Nu lp oxit c kh
nng chng khuych tn oxi qua n ngn chn c qu trnh n mn tip theo.
+ iu kin mng oxit c tnh bo v
+ 1
V
V
kl
oxit
> bao ph kn b mt kim loi
+ Mng oxit phi xit cht ngn nga qu trnh khuch tn oxi
+ dnh bm ca mng oxit vo kim loi c s tt trnh bong trc khi lm
vic.
11.7.2. c im ca mng oxit st
+ Gin trng thi Fe-O
2

Lng
C
0
Fe+FeO

FeO

FeO+
Fe
3
O
4

Fe+Fe
3
O
4

Fe
3
O
4

Fe
3
O
4
+
Fe
2
O
3

Fe
2
O
3

Fe
O
2
570

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Cu trc ca lp oxit Fe

Fe
3
O
4
v Fe
2
O
3
u c 1
V
V
kl
oxit
>
xt cht rt cao, tnh n nh cao, khng cho oxi khuch tn qua n < 570
0
C
thp c th coi l khng b n mn ho hc.
Khi t
0
> 570
0
C, trong mng oxit xut hin FeO rt xp khng c kh nng ngn
chn oxi qu trnh xut hin din ra lin tc FeO rt d bong ra khi Fe khng c tnh
bo v.
Kt lun: Vic chng oxi ho cho php ch quan tm khi t
0
lm vic ca chi tit
ln hn 570
0
C.
11.7.3. c im c tnh ca kim loi t
0
cao
t
0
thng t
0
cao
+ Khi <
B
: khng b ph hu
+ <
0,2
:khng b bin dng
+ S ph hu kim loi v bin dng khng
ph thuc vo thi gian
+ <
B
: vn c ph hu
+ <
0,2
: vn b bin dng do
+ Thi gian t ti c tc dng r rt
Khng s dng c cc quy lut t
0
thp khi thit k chi tit my ph hu t
0

cao gi l ph hu do (b)
* nh ngha do (t bin): ph hu do l qu trnh ph hu hoc bin dng vt
liu khi ti trng khng thay i m ch theo thi gian lm vic.
Fe
Fe
2
O
4

Fe
2
O
3

Fe
Fe
3
O
4

FeO
Fe
2
O
3

< 570
0
C:
> 570
0
C

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

* ng cong do

OA = : lng bin dng ban u ca vt liu khi chu ti trng
AB: tc do gim dn
BC: giai on do n nh
CD: tc do tng dn v ph hu
, = const; sn phm vn b ph hu sau mt thi gian lm vic phi xc nh
thi gian lm vic ca chi tit ng vi iu kin s dng cc ch tiu c tnh t
0
cao.
* G
h
do theo mc bin dng
( ) A ,
0
lamviec
T
/
=

V d:
2 500
10 / 3000
mm / kG 25 =
L gi tr ng sut v thi gian lm vic ca vt liu gy ra mt mc bin
dng xc nh trong mt khong thi gian xc nh.
* G
h
bn lu: l thi gian n lc ph hu ca vt liu mt ng sut v t
o
cho
trc.
( ) B ,
) C ( t
) h (
0 0
lamviec
=

V d:
2 600
1000
mm / kG 20 =
* Cc yu t quyt nh ch tiu c tnh nhit cao
+ Tnh n nh nng: l kh nng bo ton khng bin dng trung bnh ho hc
nhit cao.
A
0
lm vic

, = cost
D
C
B
0

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ Tnh bn nng: l kh nng duy tr c tnh ca vt liu nhit cao mun
bn nng trc ht phi n nh nng. Tuy nhin ngoi tnh n nh nng, yu t quyt
nh l:
Lc lin kt nguyn t
Bn cht pha
Cu to mng tinh th
Mun to cc thp chu nhit, cc NTHK phi tho mn iu kin
+ Ho bn cho thp
+ To cc pha trung gian c nhit nung chy, tnh n nh, cng, phn
tn cao.
+ To cu trc tinh th Ms, Mv cao
+ Ho tan d dng trong thp
Cc (NTHK) c bn: ch yu Cr, Ni v vi lng Ti
11.7.4. Cc loi thp v hp kim chu nhit c bn
* Thp tuabin, ni hi
+ c im lm vic:
- T
0
lm vic khng qu cao, thng < 400
0
C
- Thng c hnh dng phc tp, yu cu tnh do cao
- i hi kn kht cao, t dng phng php c
- Ngoi chu nhit , cn chu n mn in ho
+ Yu cu:
- C tnh: + Phi c gii hn bn lm vic lu di
+ Gii hn chy khng qu cao d gia cng bin dng
+ Phi m bo c tnh n nh nng
+ C th in cc tiu chun cao
+ C th ho bn b mt
- Thnh phn ho hc:
+ Thnh phm cacbon thp ch yu s dng nhm thp thm C (%C < 0,25%)
+ Cc nguyn t hp kim: tng thm ti, ho bn (pha phn tn, lm nh ht)
tng th in cc (
0
) cho thp, tng tnh cng ngh.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

+ Cc [NTHK] thng s dng: Cr, Ni (ch yu) Ti, W, V (b tr)
Hm lng ca NTHK < 10% ph bin (2 4)%
- Mt s loi thp c th:
Dng thp thm C c hp kim ho bi Cr, Cr - Ni
12X, 15X, 20X, 12X
2
H
4
; 12X2H5
Vi chi tit cn bn cao: dng thp c Mn
12XTT, 25XTT, 20XT2T...
Nhit luyn: Cc chi tit ni hi (c bit l ng ng) khng thm C v ti.
S dng trng thi thng ho.
Cc chi tit tuabin c th thm C hoc khng nhng phi ti v ram.
Nhit lm vic n nh ln nht: 680 750
0
C
* Thp xupp x:
- c im lm vic: - Chu nhit trc tip t kh x ca ng c t trong
(ti 1800
0
k)
+ Thi gian tc ng rt ngn v lp i lp li theo chu k ca ng c tc ng
nhit c tnh chu k.
+ i hi kn kht rt cao trnh r lt kh
+ C hnh dng v kch thc ph hp, chng c mi mn trong qu trnh lm
vic.
- Yu cu:
+ C tnh: C tnh n nh nng v tnh bn nng tt
Phi to c cng b mt cao, chng mi mn.
G
h
bn v chy phi cao khng bin dng trong qu trnh lm vic
+ Thnh phn ho hc: %C C ho bn M khi ti
Chn nhm thp hn tt: %C ~ (0,35 0,5)%
Thng chn %C = 0,4%
[NTHK]: Phi l nguyn t to (k) ho bn b mt
Hm lng [NTHK] ln to (k) n nh

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Khng lm bin i thnh phn ho hc ca thp m bo c tnh bn nng
cho thp; %NTHK > 10%
Thuc nhm thp hp kim cao
[NTHK] chnh: Cr, b tr: Si to SiC tng t
0
nng chy tng tnh chu nhit ca
thp.
Mt s loi thp xupat x c th:
40X9C2; 40X10C2; 40X9C2; 40X10C2T
- Ch nhit luyn: Ti + ram cao + ti b mt bng dng tn s cao.
* Khi nim v s chuyn mu ca thp: l s bin i mu dn n thay i
quang ph pht x ca thp khi nung.
Vi thp C: ti 400
0
C bt u c chuyn mu
Ni hi, tuabin: 500
0
C bt u c chuyn mu
Xupt x: > 700
0
C bt u c chuyn mu
- T
0
lm vic ln nht (850 900)
0
C lm vic lu di
* Cc loi thp chu nhit cao hp kim: dng cc loi thp khng g c b
sung Ti (tr nhm thp khng g M) (X13)
* Mt s hp kim chu nhit trn c s khng phi nn Fe
+ Hp kim Ni - Cr X20H80 - Nimnich
T chc: nn dung dch rn ca Cr trong Ni
Pha phi tn: pha lin kt loi Cr - Ni chu c nhit rt cao bin dng
300
0
C, ln dng lm dy t cho cc l nung kim loi Q = I
2
Rt
Nhc im: Sau mt thi gian lm vic b dn, khng chu c ti trng va
p.
+ Hp kim C: ch yu l C
0
c hp kim ho bi Ni, Cr, t
0
lm vic ~ 1400
0
C
khng n nh hnh dng khi lm vic.
+ Hp kim M
0

+ Hp kim W hoc W nguyn cht: c t
0
lm vic cao nht
+ Vt liu chu nhit phi kim loi: Dng Si
Dng di dng SiC c ln, T
0
lm vic ~ 13
0
C dng lm cc thanh t cho
l nung kim loi cng sut ln.

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11.8. Thp v hp kim chu mi mn
11.8.1. Khi nim qu trnh mi mn
* nh ngha: Mi mn l qu trnh lm hao ht kim loi ti cc b mt tip
xc, c chuyn ng tng i vi nhau di 1 p lc xc nh
* iu kin xut hin
+ Phi l cc b mt tip xc
+ Phi c chuyn ng tng i
+ Phi c p lc to ma st
Lc ma st ph thuc vo ti trng: F
ms
= p.f (/l Culng)
f: h s ma st; p: ti trng vung gc b mt
* Cc giai on mi mn

h: lng mi mn
Giai on 1: Tc mi mn gim dn. Ch yu san phng cc nhp nh b
mt
Giai on 2: Tc mi mn khng i: h =const lm vic n nh 0
d
dh
=
.
II
:
thi gian lm vic n nh ca chi tit
Giai on 3: tc mi mn tng dn ph hu
* Mt s dng mi mn
+ Mi mn u: qu trnh mi mn din ra trn ton b b mt tip xc mt
cch u tng i.
+ Pittong: din ra la chn ti mt s v tr trn b mt tip xc
11.8.2. Yu cu vi thp v hp kim chu mi mn
+ C cng b mt cao
+ C tnh dnh bm ca lp ho bn cao
I II
III
II

h
h

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+ bn c hc ln
+ C kh nng chng n mn cha du bi trn
11.8.3. Cc loi thp chu mi mn
* Nhm thp c kh nng ho bn b mt
Thp thm C v thp ho tt; c tnh li vn do dai, b mt rt cng dng sn
xut cc chi tit chu ti trng ng v mi mn.
* Nhm t cng cao trong ton b th tch nh cc b mt
+ Thp ln
+ Thp khun dp ngui
+ Thp gi
* Thp c t chc mm nhng khi chu ma st th chuyn bin M v ho bn
(thp hapfind)
Thnh phn thp: C ~1,3%; T l Mn/C = 10 %Mn = 13%
Vi %Mn = 13% sau c thp c 100% l pha mm nhng khi chu tc dng
ca ti trng, lp b mt c chuyn bin M
Thp hapfind: khng gia cng ct gt c, ch dng trng thi c (khng
nhit luyn)
Mactenxit ca thp hapfind l M bin dng
K hiu: theo tiu chun ca Nga: 13
+ Cng dng: Sn xut cc chi tit chu mi mn mnh lit, hnh dng phc tp,
kch thc ln, nhng khng yu cu chnh xc qu cao.
* Thp c kh nng t bi trn
Thp graphit: sau khi nu luyn phi thc hin graphit ho to Gr trong thp
Gr thm du bi trn. Khi chu p lc tit du bi trn ra b mt gim f gim mi mn.

11.9. Cc khuyt tt ca thp hp kim v cch khc phc
Cc thp hp kim c c tnh cao hn hn thp cacbon, do vy c dng vo
cc mc ch quan trng, tuy nhin trong qu trnh gia cng chng thng gp mt s
khuyt tt nh hng xu n c tnh nu khng c nhng bin php ngn nga khc

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phc. Cc khuyt tt c th gp ca thp hp kim l thin tch nhnh cy, m trng v
dn ram.
11.9.1. Thin tch nhnh cy
Thp hp kim cao cha mt lng ln cc nguyn t khc loi, khi lm ngui t
trng thi lng, trc tin s kt tnh ra dung dch rn cha t cacbon v nguyn t hp
kim (v dung dch rn ny c nhit nng chy cao) to nn nhnh cy, sau mi
kt tinh ra dung dch rn giu cacbon v nguyn t hp kim loi dung dch rn ny c
nhit nng chy thp hn) to nn vng gia cc nhnh cy. V th c s sai khc
v thnh phn ho hc gia cc phn ca nhnh cy - thin tch nhnh cy. Lng
nguyn t hp kim cng cao, thin tch nhnh cy th hin cng r.
nh hng xu ca thin tch nhanh cy l ch thi thp hp kim khi em cn
s to thnh t chc th, gy ra c tnh khc nhau theo cc phng nh dai va p
dc theo phng th thp hn theo phng vung gc vi th khong 50 - 70%. Hn
na thi thp hp kim vi t chc nhnh cy rt d nt khi gia cng p lc (cn, rn)
bi v lin kt gia cc tinh th nhnh cy km v bn thn nhnh cy c tnh do thp.
ngn nga thin tch nhnh cy trong cc thi thp hp kim, khi c phi
tin hnh lm ngui chm qu trnh khuch tn lm u thnh phn kp xy ra. Tuy
nhin, bin php ny khng em li hiu qu kinh t - k thut v cc xng luyn thp
i hi quay vng khun c thi nhanh.
khc phc thin tch nhnh cy cn phi tin hnh khuch tn thi c
trc khi em cn, rn. khuch tn l nguyn cng nhit luyn c gi thnh cao, v
vy ch p dng n khi tht s cn thit cho cc thp hp kim yu cu cao.
11.9.2. m trng
m trng l mt dng khuyt tt rt nguy him ca thp hp kim, l cc vt
nt nh c dng lm m trng, thy r trn mt gy ca vt, thi cn. m trng l
ngun gc pht sinh cc ph hu dn.
Dng khuyt tt ny ch xy ra trong thi cn ca cc thp hp kim c
thm ti cao nh cc thp crm - niken, crm - niken - vnfram (mlipen) khng xy

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

ra trong thi c ca mi loi thp v thi cn ca cc thp ccbon, thp hp kim
auxtenit v ferit.
Nguyn nhn gy ra m trng l hyr. Hyr trong kh quyn ca l luyn
ho tan vo thp lng v c nh li trong thp rn. ho tan ca hyr trong thp
rn gim dn khi h nhit , c bit t di 200
0
C ho tan ca hyr trong thp b
gim i t ngt, do vy hyr bt buc phi thot ra. Trong thp cn, rn vi mt
ln (do khng cn r xp), hyr khng kp thot ra ngoi thp rn, b tch t li vi p
sut ln n mc phn hu b phn to nn nt t vi. Chnh v vy thp c khng c
m trng v c r xp l ni cha hyr. Ngoi hyr ra, s chuyn bin pha (
hoc M) khng ng u v thi gian v nhit gia cc vng ca tinh th c
thnh phn ho hc khc nhau (ch yu l nhnh cy v vng gia nhnh cy) gy nn
ng sut bn trong, cng gp phn to nn m trng. C th v vy m thp cacbon v
thp hp kim thp khng to ra m trng.
Bin php tt nht l ngn nga khng to thnh m trng. Mun vy phi
gim bt lng hyr ho tan vo thp lng bng cch sy kh ton b m liu nhin
liu v cht tr dung trc khi cho vo l luyn. y l bin php t tn km, mang li
hiu qu tt. Ngi ta cng c th dng bin php khc, trong sau khi bin dng
nng lm ngui thp xung di nhit A
1
khong 50-100
0
C ri gi nhit thi
gian di. Bin php kh b m trng i hi thi gian di kh tn km.
11.9.3. Dn ram
Khi tng nhit ram, dai v p lun lun tng ln v t n gi tr ln
nht nhit 600 - 650
0
C ri gim i. Nhng mt s loi thp kt cu hp kim
quan h gia dai va p v nhit ram khng hon ton nh vy c th c hai gi
tr cc tiu v dai tng ng vi hai khong nhit , ti thy thp b dn hn
mc bnh thng rt nhiu, hin tng gi l dn ram.
Dn ram loi 1 (dn ram khng thun nghch hay khng cha c)
Loi dn ny th hin r trong thp hp kim, khng r lm trong thp
cacbon, khi tin hnh ram thp ti khong nhit 280 - 350
0
C. i vi mt s
thp hp kim, khi ram khong nhit , khng nhng dai khng cao hn m
cn km hn c trng thi ti.

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Nguyn nhn ca dn ram loi I cho n nay cng ch c r rng, c th l
do khi ram nhit ny cacbit dng tm tit ra khi macntenxit bin gii pha dn
ti ph hu dn hoc do auxtenit d chuyn bin thnh mactenxit ram v pha dn hn,
lm dai va p gim i t ngt.
Hin nay cng cha c bin php c hiu qu no ngn nga dn ram lai I,
do vy n cn c tn gi l dn ram khng thun nghch hay khng cha c. Bin
php hp l hn c l khng ram khong nhit xy ra loi dn ram ny, tc l
theo yu cu k thut ng l ra phi ram khong nhit no th ngi ta trnh
ra, ram nhit cao hn hoc thp hn cht t.
Dn ram loi II (dn ram thun nghch hay c th cha c)
Loi dn ram ny khng xy ra trong thp cacbon, ch xy ra trong cc thp
kt cu hp kim: crm, mnggan, crm - niken, crm - mnggan khi ram chng nhit
cao 500 - 600
0
C, ri sau lm ngui chm sau khi ram. Nu sau khi ram cao hn
ngi ta lm ngui nhanh thp bng cch nhng vo nc hay du (khng ngui
ngoi khng kh nh trong cch ram thng thng) th cng khng thy c cc tiu th
hai v dai ny, tc s dn ram khng xy ran. Song nu sau li tin hnh ram li
lu trong khong nhit nguy him (500 - 600
0
C) tnh dn li xut hin, v vy dn
ram ny mang tnh cht thun nghch, tc c th b tr li.
Cng ging nh dn ram loi I, nguyn nhn ca dn ram loi II vn cha xc
nh c r rng. C th l do khi lm ngui chm t nhit ram cao nh vy to iu
kin thun li cho s tit ra cc pha dn c kch thc rt nh bin gii ht. Bn cht
cc pha l g (nitrit, oxyt, phtpho v cc phn b chng cha c khng nh).
Bin php ngn nga dn ram loi II xy ra l:
- Lm ngui nhanh sau khi ram cao bng cch nhng chi tit thp vo du hay
nc. y l bin php rt c hiu qu chng dn ram loi II v thng c p
dng, tuy nhin vi chi tit ln cch lm ngui nh vy vn l chm do vn c th
xy ra dn.
- Vi cc chi tit ln bin php chng dn ram nhit cao c hiu qu l dng
thp hp kim ho thm bng 1%W hoc 0,5%Mo.
Hai bin php k trn c p dng rng ri trong thc t. Trong nhng nm gn y
vic p dng c - nhit luyn cng c tc dng ngn cn dn ram loi II.

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Chng 12. Hp kim mu

Ngi ta chia cc kim loi ra hai nhm ln l kim loi en (st v cc hp kim
ca st) v kim loi mu gm cc kim loi cn li. S phn chia ny rt thng dng
song li mang tnh cht rt quy c, bi v n khng da trn mt thc t khch quan
no c (khng phi l st c mu en, cn cc kim loi khc l c mu c).
Ni chung cc kim loi v cc hp kim ca chng c dng t hn v t hn
st, thp, gang, do vy khi s dng cn thn trng hn.
Theo mc thng dng c th chia cc kim loi v hp kim mu ra lm hai
loi chnh: Thng dng v t thng dng.
Cc kim loi v hp kim mu thng dng l cc kim loi v hp kim mu
thng dng nh nhm, ng, thic, ch, km ... i khi c titan na, chng l cc vt
liu kt cu.
Theo c tnh ngi ta thng chia kim loi mu thnh cc nhm sau:
- Nh: Li, K, Na, Mg, Be, Al, Ti...
- Nng: Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co, Mn, Sn, Sb, Cr, Bi, Hg, As...
- Qu: Au, Pt, Ag, Pd, Ir, Rh, Rb, Os
- Him: W, Mo, Ta, V, Se, Te, In, Zr, Tl, Se, Y, Ce, La, Pr
- Phng x: U, Pu, Th...
Trong chng ny ch kho st cc hp kim mu kt cu bao gm nhm, ng,
titan v cc hp kim trt.

12.1. Hp kim nhm
Khc vi st c lch s hng nghn nm, nhm mi c lch s khong trn di
mt th k nay, nhng c tin ht sc to ln v tr lng ca n ln (gn gp 2 ln
st), nh (gn gp 3 ln st), tng i bn (hp kim nhm siu bn c gii hn bn
khng km thp cacbon kt cu) v tnh chng n mn cao (cao hn st nhiu). Hin
nay nhm v cc hp kim ca nhm c dng ngy mt rng ri khng nhng lm
dng hng ngy m c trong ch to my, xy dng nh ca, ng toa xe. Ngi ta cho
rng, vi k thut luyn nhm ngy mt tin b, nhm v hp kim ca n s dn dn
tr thnh vt liu kt cu nh st, thp.
12.1.1. Nhm nguyn cht

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12.1.1.1. Cc c tnh ca nhm
Khc vi st, nhm l kim loi khng c chuyn bin th hnh, n ch c mt
kiu cu trc mng tinh th l lp phng din tm vi thng s mng a = 4,04
0
A
ng knh nguyn t 2,86
0
A
Nhm c cc c tnh sau y:
Khi lng ring nh ( = 2,7h/cm
3
) nn c dng rng ri trong ch to my
bay.
Tnh chng n mn cao: Nhm nguyn cht vi sch cao c tnh chng n
mn ho hc v c in ho rt cao, do c i lc mnh vi xi nn b mt ca n lun
lun c lp mng oxyt Al
2
O
3
mng v rt xt cht, c tnh bo v cao. sch ca
nhm cng thp, tnh chng n mn ca n cng km.
Tnh dn nhit v dn in cao: dn in ca nhm kh cao ( = 2,62.10
-6
.cm) bng 60% ca ng, li cng thm vi c tnh nh, nn vi cng trng lng
nh nhau, nhm dn in tt hn ng. Trong k thut in dng kh nhiu dy dn
in bng nhm. dn nhit ca nhm l 0,3426 cal/cm.s.
0
C cao hn st v thp.
Nhit chy thp (660
0
C) c th lm d dng cho qu trnh nu luyn, song
cc hp kim nhm khng lm vic c nhit cao. n nhit kt tinh v nng chy
ca nhm ln, do vy cc vt c nhm ngui chm trng thi lng to iu kin
thun li cho qu trnh bin tnh tinh luyn. Tuy nhin tnh c ca n khng cao do
co ngt ln (ti 6%).
bn tng i thp: Nhm vi sch cao sau khi cn v c
b
=
60N/mm
2
;
0,2
= 20N/mm
2
, 25HB tc l ch bng 1/4 n 1/6 ca st, v vy hu nh
khng dng nhm nguyn cht lm cc chi tit my. Trong my mc thng dng cc
hp kim nhm c bn cao hn r rt.
Tnh do cao: Nhm nguyn cht rt do, = 85%, = 40% cho nn rt d
bin dng trng thi ngui v trng thi nng. Tnh gia cng ct ca nhm thp.
12.1.1.2. Cc s hiu nhm nguyn cht
Rt kh luyn sch nhm, bi v n l nguyn t hot ng mnh. Cc tp cht
thng c ca nhm l st, silic, ngoi ra c th c ng, km, titan.
St l tp cht c hi i vi nhm. T gin trng thi Al - Fe (hnh 1) thy
rng st ho tan rt t trong nhm, ngay nhit cng tinh 655C trong nhm cng
ch ho tan c 0,03% Fe, cn nhit thng c th coi l nhm khng ho tan

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st. St to vi nhm pha tng ng vi cng thc FeAl
3
dn, nn vi lng st d nh,
bin gii ht vn c cng tinh (Al + FeAl
3
) t chc ny lm gim mnh do ca
nhm. Lng st trong nhm k thut thay i trong gii hn 0,0015 - 1,1%.
Ring bn thn silic khng phi l tp cht c hi. T gin trng thi Al - Si
(hnh 2) c th coi nhm khng ho tan trong silic nhng ngc li silic ho tan kh
nhiu trong nhm nhit cao ( nhit cng tinh Al ho tan c 1,65% Si), cn
nhit thng c th coi nh khng ho tan (0,09%). Gia nhm v silic khng to
thnh hp cht ho hc, cng tinh (Al + Si) bo m tnh c tt v khng lm xu c
tinh.

Khi ng thi c c st v silic trong nhm s xut hin cc pha mi tng ng
vi cc hp cht ho hc ca ba nguyn t Al, Fe, Si. Cc pha ny cng vi FeAl
3
c
tnh dn cao lm xu c tnh ca nhm.
Nhm c sch c bit gm c mt s hiu A999 (> 0,001% tp cht)
Nhm c sch cao gm c cc s hiu A995 A99, A97 v A95 vi lng tp
cht khng qu 0,005%, 0,01%, 0,03% v 0,05%.
Nhm c sch k thut gm c cc s hiu A85, A8, A7, A6, A5, A0 vi
lng tp cht khng qu 0,15%, 0,20%, 0,30%, 0,40%, 0,50%, 1,00%.
C tnh ca nhm ph thuc vo sch v trng thi. sch cng cao nhm
cng do. Bin dng ngui lm tng ng k bn ca nhm.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
FeAl
3
L+FeAl
3
655

Fel+ FeAl
3
100%Al

%Fe

200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0
C
10
L+
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
L+Si
Al+Si
100%Al

%Si

Hnh 1: Gin trng thi Al - Fe Hnh 2: Gin trng thi Al - Si

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C tnh ca mt s s hiu nhm:
C tnh
S hiu
Lng tp
cht %
Trng thi
b

N/mm
2
0,2
N/mm
2

% HB
A995 0,005 c 50 - 45 15
A5 0,50 c 75 - 29 20
A0 1,00 c 90 - 25 25
A0 1,00 bin dng v 90 30 30 25
A0 1,00 bin dng 140 100 12 32

Nhm nguyn cht k thut c dng lm cc chi tit v cc kt cu khng
chu ti, yu cu vt liu em ch to phi nh, do v chng n mn cao nh lm
khung, ca, ng dn, xitec vn chuyn du m, thng cha.
12.1.1.3. Phn loi hp kim nhm
Nh bn cao hn, trong ch to my ngi ta dng nhm trng thi hp
kim.
Theo cng ngh ch to ngi ta chia cc hp kim nhm ra cc loi: c, bin
dng v thiu kt.
Hp kim nhm c v hp kim nhm bin dng u c ch to ra bng cch
nu chy. Cn c phn bit ranh gii gia hai loi trong mt h hp kim cho
l gin trng thi nhm - nguyn t hp kim.
Hp kim nhm bin dng l hp kim nhm c thnh phn nguyn t hp kim
nm trong gii hn ca dung dch rn, tc l bn tri im C'.
C th l nhit thng hp kim cha
t c t chc hon ton l dung dch rn (c
thm pha th hai) nhng khi nung n nhit
thch hp (v d cao hn CD) s c t chc nh
vy, rt d bin dng (cn, rn, rp) theo mun.
Hp kim nhm bin dng do khng cha cng
tinh nn d bin dng khng nhng nhit
vng mt pha m c nhit thng.
Khng ho
bn bng
nhit luyn
c
Ho bn bng
nhit luyn
c
% nguyn t
hp kim
+pha th hai
c
Bin dng

100%Al
657
0
C
C
N
h
i

0
C

C'
D

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Trong khong thnh phn ca hp kim nhm bin dng li c chia ra hai
phn nhm: ho bn c bng nhit luyn v khng ho bn c bng nhit luyn.
Cc hp kim c thnh phn bn tri im D khi nung nng hay lm ngui u khng
c chuyn bin pha nn khng th ho bn bng nhit luyn c. Cc hp kim c
thnh phn bn phi im D (t D n C'), nhit thng ngoi dung dch rn
cn c pha th hai, khi nung nng, pha ny ho tan ht vo dung dch rn khi lm
ngui nhanh t chc dung dch rn qu bo ho c c nh li v tr nn khng cn
bng, tit ra cc pha phn tn lm bn tng ln.
Hp kim nhm c l hp kim nhm vi thnh phn nguyn t hp kim sao cho
trong t chc ca n cha ch yu l cng tinh c tnh c cao. Nh vy v nguyn tc,
cc hp kim c thnh phn bn phi im C' trong t chc khi c c cng tinh
ri v s thuc loi hp kim nhm c, tuy nhin trong thc t thng dng vi thnh
phn kh rng trc v sau cng tinh.
C nhn xt l, hp kim nhm c cha lng nguyn t hp kim cao hn so
vi hp kim nhm bin dng.
Hp kim nhm thiu kt l loi hp kim nhm c ch to t nguyn t ban
u l bt qu p v thiu kt.
12.1.2. Hp kim nhm bin dng
12.1.2.1. Hp kim khng ho bn c bng nhit luyn
Cc hp kim ny c c tnh l bn khng cao (tuy cao hn nhm nguyn
cht kh nhiu), tnh do cao v chng n mn tt, thng c lm cc chi tit rp
su. Thuc v nhm ny l cc hp kim thuc h Al - Mn vi k hiu AMu v Al - Mg
vi k hiu AMr.
Theo gin trng thi Al - Mn (hnh 4) cc hp kim AMu c thnh phn t hn
1,5%Mn, c t chc gm dung dch rn v pha th hai MnAl
6
pha ny c th ho tan
vo dung dch rn khi tng nhit . Song trong hp kim nhm lun c st, do li
to nn pha phc tp (FeMn)Al
3
thay cho MnAl
6
. Ging nh mi pha c cha st khc
trong hp kim nhm, pha phc tp (FeMn)Al
3
thay cho MnAl
6
. Ging nh mi pha c
cha st khc trong hp kim nhm, pha phc tp (FeMn)Al
3
khng ho tan vo nhm
khi nung nng, do hp kim AMu khng ho bn c bng nhit luyn. Khc vi
cc nguyn t khc, Mn khng lm xu tnh chng n mn ca hp kim nhm, tri li
cn lm tt n. So vi nhm nguyn cht, hp kim AMu bn v chng n mn tt hn.

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Theo gin trng thi Al - Mg (hnh 5) cc hp kim AMr c thnh phn t hn
1,4%Mg c t chc ch gm dung dch rn khng th ho bn bng nhit luyn
c. Cc hp kim AMr thng dng c thnh 3 - 7%Mg. nhit thng c t
chc gm dung dch rn v pha th hai Mg2Al3 (hoc Mg5Al8), nung nng
Mg
2
Al
3
ho tan vo v cng gy ra ho bn khi
nhit luyn, song hiu qu ny rt nh do lng Mg ca hp kim thp hn gii hn ho
tan ca dung dch rn qu nhiu (3,7% so vi 17,4%). Hp kim AMr c khi lng
ring nh hn (do Mg nh), bn cao hn, tnh do tt nhng tnh chng n mn km
hn so vi nhm nguyn cht.
Cc hp kim AMu v AMr c dng trng thi bin cng, bin cng t
dng trng thi bin cng v do qu thp.
12.1.2.2. Hp kim ho bn c bng nhit luyn
Hp kim nhm bin dng, ho bn c bng nhit luyn l hp kim nhm
quan trng nht, l vt liu kt cu c ng dng rng ri trong k thut. C s ca
cc hp kim loi ny l hp kim Al - Cu vi 4% Cu.

AMu
1+
t,
0
C
700
500
300
100
0
0,05 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Al Mn%
1,021%

+MnAl
6
Hnh 4: Gin trng thi
Al-Mn

1,4 10 20 30
100
300
500
t,%
AMr
L
Mg
2
Al
3
+L
17,4%
+Mg
2
Al
3
()

Mg,% Al
+L
Hnh 5: Gin trng thi Al
- Mg (gc Al)

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Hp kim Al vi 4% Cu
kho st hp kim ny ta
hy xt gin trng thi Al - Cu
trnh by hnh 6. T thy rng
ng ho tan kh nhiu trong
nhm nhit cao (ti 5,65% ti
nhit cng tinh 548
0
C) nhng
li gim i rt nhanh khi h nhit
(cn 0,5% 0
0
C) do vy tit ra
pha CuAl
2
vi k hiu l CuAl
2II

ch r n c tit ra t trng thi
rn.

Cng tinh ( + CuAl
2
) to thnh vi lng Cu kh cao (33%) nn t dng h hp
kim Al - Cu c. Trong h Al - Cu c dng cc hp kim thuc nhm bin dng m
in hnh l hp kim c 4% Cu. Ta s xt k cc chuyn bin pha ca hp kim ny khi
nhit luyn v cc c im ca n cng thy cc hp kim nhm bin dng v ho
bn c bng nhit luyn.
T gin trng thi hnh 6 thy r hp
kim c t chc gm dung dch rn (c 0,5%
Cu) v cc phn t pha CuAl
2II
tit ra t dung
dch rn (hnh 7a). Nung nng hp kim ny
ln n nhit cao hn ng ho tan gii
hn CD (khong 520
0
C), cc phn t CuAl
2II
s
ho tan ht vo dung dch rn nn sau khi ti
(bng cch lm ngui nhanh trong nc) c
c dung dch rn qu bo ho cha ti 4%
Cu. T chc t vi ca hp kim sau khi ti ch l dung dch rn.
iu ng ch y l sau khi ti bn ca hp kim tng ln khng ng k
(
b
trng thi 200N/mm
2
, trng thi sau khi ti 250N/mm
2
), nhng sau khi ho
gi bn tng ln rt mnh. C th thy r iu ny t ng cong ho gi t nhin
ca hp kim ny trnh by hnh 8.

0,5 5,65 10 20 30 33 40 50
0
100
200
300
400
500
600

C
540
L+
L
L+CuAl
2I
CuAl
2
+CuAl
2II
+(+CuAl
2
)
D
+
C
u
A
l
2
A

(
+
C
u
A
l
2
)

A
657
0
C
%Co
Hnh 6: Gin trng thi Al-Cu
Hnh 7: S t chc t vi ca hp kim
nhm vi 4%Cu, a - trng thi , b -
trng thi sau khi ti

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Khc vi thp, sau khi ti hp
kim nhm vi 4% Cu vn gi c
do cao, y l mt u vit rt quan
trng v mt cng ngh bi v n cho
php hiu chnh cong vnh, thm ch
bin dng do vi mc ln i vi
cc chi tit ti.
Nhit luyn ho bn cc hp
kim nhm bao gm ti v ho gi.

Tu thuc vo nhit ho gi c th t c cc hiu qu ha bn khc nhau
nh trnh by hnh 9. Khi ho gi t nhin 20
0
C thi gian qu trnh di nhng bn
t c gi tr ln nht. Khi ho gi nhn to cc nhit cng cao hn nhit
thng (v d 100, 150, 200
0
C) thi gian qu trnh cng ngn li song bn t
c gi tr khng cao bng khi ho gi t nhin, hn na vt qu thi gian nht nh
bn li gim i. Khi ho gi cc nhit qu thp, qu trnh ho bn xy ra rt
chm hoc hu nh khng.

C ch ho bn hp kim nhm:

200
250
300
350
400
450
Trng thi ti
Trng thi
G
i
i

h
n

b
n
,

M
N
/
m
2

Thi gian, ngy
Hnh 8: Cc ng cong ho gi ca uara
(hp kim Al - Cu - Mg) cc nhit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

300
320
340
360
380
400
420
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
200
0
C
150
0
C
100
0
C
20
0
C
-5
0
C
-50
0
C
Thi gian, ngy
b
,

M
N
/
m
2

Hnh 9: S thay i bn ca hp kim nhm vi 4% Cu
khi ho gi t nhin

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S ho bn hp kim nhm khi ti v ho gi c gii thch theo c ch do
Guniee v Prestn a ra t u th k ny, sau c thc nghim chng minh
bng cc phng php vt l hin i.
Nguyn nhn ca qu trnh ho bn l dung dch rn giu ng to thnh sau
khi ti l qu bo ho v khng n nh, c xu hng tr v trng thi n nh l dung
dch rn ngho ng (0,5%Cu) v CuAl
2II
. Qu trnh tit pha n nh CuAl
2II
(cn gi
l pha ) t dung dch rn qu bo ho l qu trnh phc tp qua nhiu giai on vi
nhng cu trc trung gian khc nhau: vng G - P lin mng, pha bn lin mng.
Nhng cu trc trung gian ny c kch thc rt b, phn b u trong th tch v to
nn cc trng ng sut n hi xung quanh mnh v do vy c tc dng ho bn rt
mnh.
Trong giai on 1 ca s ho gi cc nguyn t Cu t ch phn b nt mng
c tnh cht ngu nhin, tp trung v nhng vng nht nh trong mng tinh th. Do
vy trong mng tinh th ca dung dch rn c nhng vng c nng Cu cao (>4%Cu)
c gi l vng G - P (Gunie - Prestn). Do nguyn t Cu c kch thc b hn
nguyn t Al m cu trc ca vng G - P li lin mng vi cu trc nn nn vng G -
P gy x lch ln trong mng tinh th ca nn lm cho bn cng ca hp kim
tng ln. Vng G - P c dng a vi kch thc rt nh, dy t vi n vi chc cn
bn knh t hng chc n hng trm ngstrm. Cn ch l kch thc ca vng G -
P ph thuc vo nhit ho gi, nhit cng cao kch thc ca n cng ln.
Khi ho gi nhn to (vi nung nng cao hn nhit thng), giai on I ca
qu trnh k trn xy ra trong thi gian ngn hn. cc nhit cao hn 100
0
C qu
trnh ho gi khng ch dng li s to thnh vng G - P, nhng nhit ny qu
trnh ho gi tip tc xy ra theo giai on II, giai on to pha gi n nh ' c thnh
phn gn ging vi CuAl
2
nhng c cu trc ring ca mnh. Cc phn t ' c cc
dng tm, lin kt bn lin mng vi nn v cng c tc dng ho bn cao.
bn cao nht t c khi ho gi ng vi giai on I v II, tc ng vi s
to thnh vng G - P hay pha ' cha tch ra khi dung dch rn. Ho gi cc nhit
thp (<200
0
C) d dng t c mc ch ny.
Khi gi nhit lu nhit cao (v d ln hn 200
0
C) tip theo giai on II s
xy ra giai on III lc pha ' s chuyn thnh pha vi lin kt khng lin mng
tr thnh pha l hp cht ho hc CuAl
2

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Tip theo s c qu trnh kt t cc phn t CuAl
2
tr nn c kch thc ln
hn v dn dn hp kim c t chc nh trc khi ti ( trng thi ). Cc qu trnh xy
ra trong giai on III ca s ho gi lm gim bn cng ca hp kim.
Qua trn ta thy pha CuAl
2
l hp cht ho hc rt c gi tr i vi s ho bn
khi nhit luyn hp kim nhm, nh s ho tan ca n khi nung nng v s chun b tit
ra n (to nn vng G - P, pha ') khi ho gi lm tng c bn, nn n c gi l
pha ho bn.
Trong thc t hu nh khng dng hp kim ch c hai nguyn Al - Cu lm hp
kim bin dng ho bn c bng nhit luyn, song hp kim nhm vi 4% Cu li l c
s ca hu ht cc hp kim nhm loi ny.
Hp kim rn v bn nng: Cc chi tit lm bng hp kim nhm qua rn, rp
khng nhng phi c c tnh cao m cn phi c tnh do tt trng thi nng.
Thng dng Duyara thng I vi k hiu l AK1v cc hp kim h Al - Cu -
Mg vi mt lng nht nh (khong 1%) Si vi cc s hiu AK, AK8, AK5. Cc hp
kim AK6 , AK8 c t chc gm dung dch rn v cc pha ho bn CuAl
2
, CuMgAl
2

(S), Mg
2
Si. Sau khi ti v ho gi nhn to, gii hn bn t n 420N/mm
2
i vi
AK6 v 480N/mm
2
i vi AK8. Rn, rp cc hp kim ny nhit 450 - 475
0
C.
Thnh phn ho hc ca cc hp kim nhm rn thng dng:
Thnh phn cc nguyn t % S
hiu
Cu Mg Mn Si Fe Ni Ti
c im
AK6
1,8-
2,6
0,4-
0,8
0,4-
0,8
0,7-
1,2
0,7 - -
AK8
3,9-
4,8
0,4-
0,8
0,4-
1,0
0,6-
1,2
0,7 - -
AK5
0,2-
0,6
0,5-
0,8
0,15-
0,35
0,6-
1,2
0,8 - -
do
cao
nhit
cao
AK4
1,9-
2,5
1,4-
1,8
-
0,5-
1,2
0,8-
1,3
0,8-
1,3
-
AK4-1
1,9-
2,7
1,2-
1,8
- 0,35
0,8-
1,4
0,4-
0,8
0,02-
0,1
bn
nng cao

12.2. HP KIM NG
12.2.1. ng nguyn cht
K hiu: Cu

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B MN CNG NGH VT LIU


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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Nhit nng chy: 1083
0
C
Khi lng ring: 8,9 g/cm
3

Kiu mng: lp phng din tm A
1

Thng s mng: a = 4,04 A
0

Khng c chuyn bin th hnh
L tnh: dn in, dn nhit tt
Ha tnh: n nh trong mi trng
Tnh cng ngh: tnh do cao, d ko di, dt mng
Cng dng: ch yu lm dy dn
K hiu:
TCVN: Cu 98, Cu 99, Cu 999, Cu 9999
12.2.2. Hp kim ca ng
12.2.2.1. ng thau (Latong)
- nh ngha: l hp kim ca ng vi km, km vi t cch l nguyn t hp
kim chnh, ngoi ra c thm mt vi nguyn t khc nh thic, ch, niken.
- Phn loi ng thau:
Theo t chc:
+ La tng mt pha: dung dch rn ca km trong ng
+ La tng hai pha: dung dch rn cng vi mt pha trung gian
Theo thnh phn ha hc:
+ La tng n gin: ch bao gm ng v km
+ La tng phc tp: ngoi ng v km c thm cc nguyn t khc
12.2.2.2. ng thanh (Brng)
- nh ngha: l hp kim ca ng vi cc nguyn t khc ngoi km.
- Phn loi:
+ ng thanh thic (thic l nguyn t hp kim chnh)
+ ng thanh khng thic
12.3. hp kim trt
12.3.1. iu kin lm vic
- Chu tc dng ca p lc cao, phn b khng u do b mi mn khng u
trn ton b b mt lm vic.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

- Chu tc dng ca ti trng thay i c v tr s v du.
- Chu tc dng ca dung ng c hc trong h thng.
- Thng xuyn lm vic trong mi trng n mn (cc loi du bi trn v lm
mt).
12.3.2. Yu cu vi vt liu lm trt
- Chu c p lc cao.
- C h s ma st nh.
- C kh nng chng mi tt.
- C kh nng hp th chn ng.
- C tnh cng ngh tt, c bit l tnh c v tnh dnh bm.
- C tnh chng n mn trong du tt.
12.3.3. Nguyn l ca hp kim trt
Phi l hp kim hai pha, mt pha cng v mt pha mm. Khi lm vic pha mm
b mi mn, tip xc gia trc v ch cn cc pha cng dn n gim b mt tip
xc, h s ma st gim. Cc pha mm b mi mn s to thnh cc rnh t vi cha du.
- Nn mm + ht cng
- Ht mm + nn cng
12.3.4. Cc loi hp kim trt
12.3.4.1. Hp kim trt c nhit chy thp - hp kim Ba bt
Cu to ch yu t cc kim loi c nhit chy thp: Sn, Sb, Zn
H c tnh cht tt nht l h Sn - Sb
c im:
p lc cho php 12 KG/mm
2

Tnh dnh bm cao
Nhit chy thp: khng dng cho trc c tc cao
t tin.
12.3.4.2. Hp kim trt c nhit chy cao
- Gang xm: thng dng gang nn Peclit hoc Peclit + Ferit, khng dng gang
nn Ferit.
Nn cng: Peclit
Ht mm: Gr

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

c im: tnh c tt, kh nng cha du bi trn cao, gi thnh r nhng h s
truyn nhit khng cao, d gy mi mn trc.
p dng: c cc trt c ln v tc cao
- Brng: s dng Brng nhm, h s dn nhit cao, nhng xut hin Al
2
O
3
qu
cng lm mi mn cc b c trc.
- Vt liu trt phi kim loi:
Vt liu composite nn polime
Cao su
- Bc xp t bi trn.

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

cu hi n thi

Cu 1 : Cc kiu mng tinh th thng gp ca kim loi
Cu 2 : Cc sai lch trong mng tinh th
Cu 3 : Cu to kim loi lng v cc iu kin nng lng ca s kt tinh
Cu 4 : Hai qu trnh ca s kt tinh
Cu 5 : Khi nim ht, ngha v cc yu t nh hng n kch thc ht
Cu 6 : Cu to thi c v gii thch
Cu 7 : nh ngha pha, bc t do, cu t
Cu 8 : Cu trc v tnh cht cc loi dung dch rn v hn hp c hc trong hp
kim
Cu 9 : Nguyn l xy dng v ngha ca gin trng thi
Cu 10 : Gin trng thi, in vng t chc, ng ngui, tnh bc t do ca
gin sau:
gin sau:
gin sau:
Cu 13 : Bin dng do n tinh th
Cu 14 : Cc c trng c tnh ca kim loi
Cu 15 : V gin trng thi Fe - C , in vng t chc v gii thch cc pha
Cu 16 : T chc t vi ca 3 loi thp v 3 loi gang theo gin trng thi
Cu 17 : Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng thp
Cu 18 : Cc chuyn bin ca Austent khi lm ngui ng nhit
Cu 19 : Chuyn bin Mctenxt
Cu 20 : Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi ram
Cu 21 : Cc phng php v thng ho
Cu 22 : nh ngha ti, Cch chn nhit ti cho thp v gii thch
Cu 23 : Tc ti ti hn v thm ti, ngha ca thm ti
Cu 24 : Cc phng php ti, u nhc im ca tng phng php
Cu 25 : Cc khuyt tt khi nhit luyn

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Cu 26 : Cc phng php ram c bn
Cu 27 : Phng php ti b mt bng dng in c tn s cao
Cu 28 : Thm cc bon v nhit luyn sau khi thm cc bon
Cu 29 : Phng php thm Nit
Cu 30 : iu kin hnh thnh grapht trong gang, cc yu t nh hng n qu
trnh Grapht ho
Cu 31 : T chc t vi v c tnh ca cc loi gang xm
Cu 32 : T chc t vi v c tnh ca cc loi gang cu
Cu 33 : T chc t vi v c tnh ca cc loi gang do
Cu 34 : Quy trnh gang trng thnh gang do
Cu 35 : Cc phng php nhit luyn gang
Cu 36 : Cc chuyn bin xy ra khi nung nng thp
Cu 37 : Cc tp cht trong thp, ti sao li c v nh hng ca chng
Cu 38 : nh hng ca nguyn t hp kim i vi thp
Cu 39 : Cc khuyt tt ca thp hp kim
Cu 40 : nh ngha, phn loi, k hiu thp kt cu
Cu 41 : nh ngha, phn loi, k hiu thp dng c
Cu 42 : Cc khuyt tt ca thp hp kim
Cu 43 : nh ngha, phn loi v k hiu thp kt cu
Cu 44 : nh ngha, phn loi v k hiu thp dng c
Cu 45 : c k hiu sau:
Cu 46 : n mn v bo v chng n mn kim loi, nguyn l thp khng g
Cu 47 : Yu cu i vi thp hp kim lm vic nhit cao
Cu 48 : Yu cu i vi thp v hp kim chu mi mn, cho v d
Cu 49 : Nhm v hp kim nhm
Cu 50 : Nguyn l ho bn ca hp kim nhm + 4% ng
Cu 51 : ng v cc hp kim ca ng
Cu 52 : Cc loi hp kim trt
Cu 53 : c k hiu mc hp kim mu

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A4 (210 x 297) mm

Ti liu tham kho

1. Chu Thin Cng - 2000 - Vt liu hc - Nh xut bn gio dc.
2. L Cng Dng - 2000 - Vt liu hc - Nh xut bn khoa hc k thut -
H Ni.
3. Nghim Hng - 1999 - Kim loi hc v nhit luyn - Nh xut bn i hc
v Trung hc chuyn nghip - H Ni.
4. Lng Vn Qun - 2004 - Gio trnh vt liu c kh - Nh xut bn lao
ng x hi
5. Nguyn Vn St - 1978 - Vt liu c kh v cng ngh kim loi - Nh xut bn
cng nhn k thut.
6. Nguyn Khc Xng - 2003 - Vt liu kim loi mu - Nh xut bn khoa hc k
thut.
7. Goriunov.I.V - 1980 - Ha bn dung dch rn - Nh xut bn ch to my
Matxcva.
8. Curdiumov - 1970 - Cc phng php ha bn b mt
(bn ting Nga
) -
Nh xut bn luyn kim Matxcva.
9. Cotov.O.C - 1969 - Tng bn b mt chi tit my bng nhit luyn
(bn
ting Nga)
- Nh xut bn ch to my Matxcva.
10. Ocdin.I.V- 1982 - Hp kim babt v ng dng
(bn ting Nga)
- Nh xut
bn luyn kim Matxcva.
11.
Goriunov. I. V - 1980 - Vt liu mi trong ng tu (bn ting Nga) - Nh xut
bn Luyn kim Matxcva.

12. R.CaHn - 1990 - Kim loi hc vt l tp 1,2,3
(bn ting Nga
)- Nh xut
bn gio dc.

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KHOA C KH - NG TU

B MN CNG NGH VT LIU

v Xe. Nh vy, bin gii gia 2 pha

nn khi chuyn bin thnh M s to trng ng sut d qu ln do vy

). Khi nung nng thp thp ti (c t

08: thp si c 0,8%C

) di dng dung dch rn thay th v kt hp vi cacbon thnh

cng nh kh nng m rng cc vng v

(s m rng cc vng v hay

% NTHK (Ni, Mn)

cng khng ging nhau: mt s nguyn t khi ho tan vo st

(hnh a) vi thnh phn hp kim dung

m rng vng nhng n thnh phn hp kim nht nh li ng kn

v do vy lm tng lng auxtenit d

gim mnh nht l Mn v tip theo

ca thp thay i nh sau: Mn gim 45

khc nhau, v th khi ti chuyn bin Mactenxit xy ra

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