Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data.

all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of [1] of surveys and experiments.

[1][2]

It deals with the design

A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline calledmathematical statistics that studies statistics mathematically. The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) [4] calculated from a set of data, whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
[3]

More probability density will be found the closer one gets to the expected (mean) value in a normal distribution. Statistics used instandardized testing assessment are shown. The scales includestandard deviations, cumulative percentages, percentile equivalents, Z-scores, T-scores, standard nines, and percentages in standard nines.

Scope

Some consider statistics to be a mathematical body of science pertaining to the collection, analysis, [5] interpretation or explanation, and presentation ofdata, while others consider it a branch [6] of mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting data. Because of its empirical roots and its focus on applications, statistics is usually considered to be a distinct mathematical science rather than a [7][8] branch of mathematics. Much of statistics is non-mathematical: ensuring that data collection is undertaken in a way that allows valid conclusions to be drawn; coding and archiving of data so that information is retained and made useful for international comparisons of official statistics; reporting of results and summarised data (tables and graphs) in ways that are comprehensible to those who need to make use of them; implementing procedures that ensure the privacy of census information. Statisticians improve the quality of data with the design of experiments and survey sampling. Statistics also provides tools for prediction and forecasting using data and statistical models. Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, including natural and social sciences, government, and business. Statistical consultants are available to provide help for organizations and companies without direct access to expertise relevant to their particular problems. Statistical methods can be used for summarizing or describing a collection of data; this is called descriptive statistics. This is useful in research, when communicating the results of experiments. In addition, patterns in the data may be modeled in a way that accounts forrandomness and uncertainty in the observations, and are then used for drawing inferences about the process or population being studied; this is called inferential statistics. Inference is a vital element of scientific advance, since it provides a means for drawing conclusions from data subject to random variation. To prove the guiding theory further, these predictions are tested as well, as part of the scientific method. If the inference holds true, then the descriptive statistics of the new data increase the soundness of that hypothesis. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (a.k.a., predictive statistics) together [9][verification needed] comprise applied statistics. Statistics is closely related to probability theory, with which it is often grouped; the difference is roughly that in probability theory, one starts from the given parameters of a total population to deduce probabilities pertaining to samples, but statistical inference moves in the opposite direction, inductive inference from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population.

History

The earliest writing on statistics was found in a 9th century book entitled: "Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages", written byAl-Kindi (801873 CE). In his book, Al-Kindi gave a detailed description of how to use statistics and frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages, this was the [10][11] birth of both statistics and cryptanalysis . Some scholars pinpoint the origin of statistics to 1663, with the publication of Natural and Political [12] Observations upon the Bills of Mortality byJohn Graunt. Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its statetymology. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and the natural and social sciences. Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th century with the development of probability theory by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat. Probability theory arose from the study of games of chance. The method of least squares was first described by Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1794. The use of modern computers has expedited large-scale statistical computation, and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually.

Overview
In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or societal problem, it is necessary to begin with a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics such as "all persons living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". A population can also be composed of observations of a process at various times, with the data from each observation serving as a different member of the overall group. Data collected about this kind of "population" constitutes what is called a time series. For practical reasons, a chosen subset of the population called a sample is studied as opposed to compiling data about the entire group (an operation called census). Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data are collected for the sample members in an observational or experimental setting. This data can then be subjected to statistical analysis, serving two related purposes: description and inference. Descriptive statistics summarize the population data by describing what was observed in the sample numerically or graphically. Numerical descriptors include mean and standard deviation for continuous data types (like heights or weights), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing categorical data (like race). Inferential statistics uses patterns in the sample data to draw inferences about the population represented, accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of: answering yes/no questions about the data (hypothesis testing), estimating numerical characteristics of the data (estimation), describing associations within the data (correlation) and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using regression analysis). Inference can extend to forecasting, prediction and estimation of unobserved values either in or associated with the population being studied; it can include extrapolation and interpolation of time series or spatial data, and can also include data [13] mining.

"... it is only the manipulation of uncertainty that interests us. We are not concerned with the matter that is uncertain. Thus we do not study the mechanism of rain; only whether it will rain." Dennis Lindley, 2000[14]

The concept of correlation is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion it can cause. Statistical analysis of a data set often reveals that two variables (properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at age of death might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people. The two variables are said to be correlated; however, they may or may not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or confounding variable. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables. (See Correlation does not imply causation.) For a sample to be used as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it is truly a representative of that overall population. Representative sampling assures that the inferences and conclusions can be safely extended from the sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent to which the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any random trending within the sample and data collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design for experiments that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the population.

Randomness is studied using the mathematical discipline of probability theory. Probability is used in "mathematical statistics" (alternatively, "statistical theory") to study the sampling distributions of sample statistics and, more generally, the properties of statistical procedures. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. Misuse of statistics can produce subtle, but serious errors in description and interpretation subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics. See below for further discussion. Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult to interpret for those lacking expertise. The statistical significance of a trend in the data which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by random variation in the sample may or may not agree with an intuitive sense of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people need to deal with information in their everyday lives properly is referred to as statistical literacy.

Circular motion
circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotationalong a circular path or a circular orbit. It can be uniform, that is, with constant angular rate of rotation (and thus constant speed), or non-uniform, that is, with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations describing circular motion of an object do not take size or geometry into account, rather, the motion of a point mass in a plane is assumed. In practice, the center of mass of a body can be considered to undergo circular motion. Examples of circular motion include: an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth at constant height, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a car turning through a curve in a race track, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and a gear turning inside a mechanism. Circular motion is accelerated even if the angular rate of rotation is constant, because the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction. Such change in direction of velocity involves accelerationof the moving object by a centripetal force, which pulls the moving object toward the center of the circular orbit. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.

Formulas for uniform circular motion

Figure 1: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; vector representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit.

For motion in a circle of radius r, the circumference of the circle is C = 2 r. If the period for one rotation is T, the angular rate of rotation, also known as angular velocity, is:

The speed of the object traveling the circle is:

The angle swept out in a time t is:

The acceleration due to change in the direction is:

The vector relationships are shown in Figure 1. The axis of rotation is shown as a vector perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and with a magnitude = d / dt. The direction of is chosen using the right-hand rule. With this convention for depicting rotation, the velocity is given by a vector cross product as

which is a vector perpendicular to both and r ( t ), tangential to the orbit, and of magnitude r. Likewise, the acceleration is given by

which is a vector perpendicular to both and v ( t ) of magnitude |v| = 2 [1] r and directed exactly opposite to r ( t ).

Constant speed
In the simplest case the speed, mass and radius are constant. Consider a body of one kilogram, moving in a circle of radius one metre, with an angular velocity of one radian per second. The speed is one metre per second. The inward acceleration is one metre per square second. It is subject to a centripetal force of one kilogram metre per square second, which is one newton. The momentum of the body is one kgms . The moment of inertia is one kgm . The angular momentum is one kgm s . The kinetic energy is 1/2 joule. The circumference of the orbit is 2 (~ 6.283) metres. The period of the motion is 2 seconds per turn. The frequency is (2)
1 2 1 2 1

hertz.

From the point of view of quantum mechanics, the system is in an excited 35 state having quantum number ~ 9.4810 .

Then consider a body of mass m, moving in a circle of radius r, with an angular velocity of . The speed is v = r.

The centripetal (inward) acceleration is a = r = r

2 1

1 2

v .

The centripetal force is F = ma = rm = r mv . The momentum of the body is p = mv = rm. The moment of inertia is I = r m. The angular momentum is L = rmv = r m = I. The kinetic energy is E = 2 mv = 2 r m = (2m) p = 2 I = 1 2 (2I) L . The circumference of the orbit is 2r. The period of the motion is T = 2
1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2

The frequency is f = T . (Frequency is also often denoted by the Greek letter , which however is almost indistinguishable from the letter v used here for velocity). The quantum number is J = 2L h
1

Description of circular motion using polar coordinates

Figure 2: Polar coordinates for circular trajectory. On the left is a unit circle showing the changes in angle . and in the unit vectors and for a small increment

During circular motion the body moves on a curve that can be described inpolar coordinate system as a fixed distance R from the center of the orbit taken as origin, oriented at an angle (t) from some reference direction. See Figure 2. The displacement vector is the radial vector from the origin to the particle location:

where is the unit vector parallel to the radius vector at time t and pointing away from the origin. It is convenient to introduce the unit

vectororthogonal to as well, namely . It is customary to orient point in the direction of travel along the orbit. The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement:

to

Because the radius of the circle is constant, the radial component of the velocity is zero. The unit vector has a time-invariant magnitude of unity, so as time varies its tip always lies on a circle of unit radius, with an angle the same as the angle of . If the particle displacement rotates through an angle d in time dt, so does , describing an arc on the unit circle of magnitude d. See the unit circle at the left of Figure 2. Hence:

where the direction of the change must be perpendicular to (or, in other words, along ) because any change d in the direction of would change the size of . The sign is positive, because an increase in d implies the object and have moved in the direction of . Hence the velocity becomes:

The acceleration of the body can also be broken into radial and tangential components. The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity:

The time derivative of is found the same way as for . Again, is a unit vector and its tip traces a unit circle with an angle that is /2 + . Hence, an increase in angle d by implies traces an arc of magnitude d, and as is orthogonal to , we have:

where a negative sign is necessary to keep orthogonal to . (Otherwise, the angle

between and would decrease with increase in d.) See the unit circle at the left of Figure 2. Consequently the acceleration is:

The centripetal acceleration is the radial component, which is directed radially inward:

while the tangential component changes the magnitude of the velocity:

[edit]Using

complex numbers

Circular motion can be described using complex numbers. Let the axis be the real axis and the axis be the imaginary axis. The position of the body can then be given as , a complex "vector":

where

is the imaginary unit, and

is the angle of the complex vector with the real axis and is a function of time t. Since the radius is constant:

where a dot indicates time differentiation. With this notation the velocity becomes:

and the acceleration becomes:

The first term is opposite in direction to the displacement vector and the second is perpendicular to it, just like the earlier results shown before.

wave is a disturbance (an oscillation) that travels through space intime, accompanied by the transfer
of energy. Waves travel and the wave motion transfers energy from one point to another, often with no permanent displacement of the particles of the mediumthat is, with little or no associated mass transport. They consist, instead, of oscillations or vibrations around almost fixed locations. For example, a cork on rippling water will bob up and down, staying in about the same place while the wave itself moves onwards. One type of wave is a mechanical wave, which propagates through a medium in which the substance of this medium is deformed. The deformation reverses itself owing to restoring forces resulting from its deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules bumping into their neighbors. This transfers some energy to these neighbors, which will cause a cascade of collisions between neighbouring molecules. When air molecules collide with their neighbors, they also bounce away from them (restoring force). This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of the wave. Another type of wave can travel through a vacuum, e.g. electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, gamma rays, X-rays, and radio waves). This type of wave consists of periodic oscillations in electrical and magnetic fields. A main distinction can be made between transverse and longitudinal waves. Transverse waves occur when a disturbance creates oscillations perpendicular (at right angles) to the propagation (the direction of energy transfer). Longitudinal waves occur when the oscillations are parallelto the direction of propagation. Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time. The mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the type of wave.

In physics, mechanical work is a scalar quantity that can be described as the product of a force times the distance through which it acts, and it is called the work of the force. Only the component of a force in the direction of the movement of its point of application does work. The term work was first coined in 1826 [1][2] by the French mathematician Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. If a constant force of magnitude F acts on a point that moves d in the direction of the force, then the workW done by this force is calculated W=Fd. For example, if a force of 10 newtons (F=10 N) acts along a path of 2 metres (d =2 m), it will do work W equal to W =(10 N)(2 m) = 20 N*m =20 J, where joule (J) is the SI unit for work (defined as the product N*m, so that a joule is a newton-metre). For moving objects, the quantity of work/time enters calculations as distance/time, or velocity. Thus, at any instant, the rate of the work done by a force (measured in joules/second, or watts) is the scalar product of the force (a vector) with the velocity vector of the point of application. This scalar product of force and velocity is called instantaneous power. Just as velocities may be integrated over time to obtain a total distance, by the fundamental theorem of calculus, the total work along a path is similarly the timeintegral of instantaneous power applied along the trajectory of the point of application. The first law of thermodynamics states that when work is done to a system (and no other energy is subtracted in other ways), the system's energy state changes by the same amount of the work input. This equates work and energy. In the case of rigid bodies, Newton's laws can be used to derive a similar relationship called the work-energy theorem. The SI unit of work is the joule (J), which is defined as the work done by a force of one newton acting over a distance of one metre. This definition is based on Sadi Carnot's 1824 definition of work as "weight lifted through a height", which is based on the fact that early steam engines were principally used to lift buckets of water, through a gravitational height, out of flooded ore mines. The dimensionally equivalent newton-metre (Nm) is sometimes used for work, but this can be confused with the units newton-metre of torque. Non-SI units of work include the erg, the foot-pound, the foot-poundal, and the litre-atmosphere. Other non-SI units for work are thehorsepower-hour, the therm, the BTU and Calorie. It is important to note that heat and work are measured using the same units. Heat conduction is not considered to be a form of work, since the energy is transferred into atomic vibration rather than a macroscopic displacement. However, heat conduction can perform work by expanding a gas in a cylinder such as in the engine of an automobile.

power is the rate at which energy is transferred, used, or transformed. For example, the rate at which a light bulb transforms electrical energy into heat and light is measured in wattsthe more wattage, the [1][2] more power, or equivalently the more electrical energy is used per unit time. Energy transfer can be used to do work, so power is also the rate at which this work is performed. The output power of an electric motor is the product of the torque the motor generates and the angular velocity of its output shaft. The power expended to move a vehicle is the product of the traction force of the wheels and the velocity of the vehicle. The integral of power over time defines the work done. Because this integral depends on the trajectory of the point of application of the force and torque, this calculation of work is said to be "path dependent." The dimension of power is energy divided by time. The SI unit of power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second. Other units of power include ergs per second (erg/s), horsepower(hp), metric horsepower (Pferdestrke (PS) or cheval vapeur, CV), and foot-pounds per minute. One horsepower is equivalent to 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, or the power required to lift 550pounds by one foot in one second, and is equivalent to about 746 watts. Other units include dBm, a relative logarithmic measure with 1 milliwatt as reference; (food) calories per hour (often referred to as kilocalories per hour); Btu per hour (Btu/h); and tons of refrigeration (12,000 Btu/h).

In physics, energy (Ancient Greek: energeia "activity, operation" ) is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical systemhas to do work on other physical [2][3] systems. Since work is defined as a forceacting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert pulls or pushes against the basic forces of nature, along a path of a certain length.
[1]

The total energy contained in an object is identified with its mass, and energy (like mass), cannot be created or destroyed. When matter (ordinary material particles) is changed into energy (such as energy of motion, or into radiation), the mass of the system does not change through the transformation process. However, there may be mechanistic limits as to how much of the matter in an object may be changed into other types of energy and thus into work, on other systems. Energy, like mass, is ascalar physical quantity. In the International System of Units (SI), energy is measured in joules, but in many fields other units, such as kilowatt-hours andkilocalories, are customary. All of these units translate to units of work, which is always defined in terms of forces and the distances that the forces act through. A system can transfer energy to another system by simply transferring matter to it (since matter is equivalent to energy, in accordance with its mass). However, when energy is transferred by means other than matter-transfer, the transfer produces changes in the second system, as a result of work done on it. This work manifests itself as the effect of force(s) applied through distances within the target system. For example, a system can emit energy to another by transferring (radiating) electromagnetic energy, but this creates forces upon the particles that absorb the radiation. Similarly, a system may transfer energy to another by physically impacting it, but in that case the energy of motion in an object, called kinetic energy, results in forces acting over distances (new energy) to appear in another object that is struck. Transfer of thermal energy by heat occurs by both of these mechanisms: heat can be transferred by electromagnetic radiation, or by physical contact in which direct particle-particle impacts transfer kinetic energy. Energy may be stored in systems without being present as matter, or as kinetic or electromagnetic energy. Stored energy is created whenever a particle has been moved through a field it interacts with (requiring a force to do so), but the energy to accomplish this is stored as a new position of the particles in the fielda configuration that must be "held" or fixed by a different type of force (otherwise, the new

configuration would resolve itself by the field pushing or pulling the particle back toward its previous position). This type of energy "stored" by force-fields and particles that have been forced into a new physical configuration in the field by doing work on them by another system, is referred to as potential energy. A simple example of potential energy is the work needed to lift an object in a gravity field, up to a support. Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appears as system mass, whenever present. For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed. Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it. Any form of energy may be transformed into another form. For example, all types of potential energy are converted into kinetic energy when the objects are given freedom to move to different position (as for example, when an object falls off a support). When energy is in a form other than thermal energy, it may be transformed with good or even perfect efficiency, to any other type of energy, including electricity or production of new particles of matter. With thermal energy, however, there are often limits to the efficiency of the conversion to other forms of energy, as described by the second law of thermodynamics. In all such energy transformation processes, the total energy remains the same, and a transfer of energy from one system to another, results in a loss to compensate for any gain. This principle, the conservation of energy, was first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do [4] not change over time. Although the total energy of a system does not change with time, its value may depend on the frame of reference. For example, a seated passenger in a moving airplane has zero kinetic energy relative to the airplane, but non-zero kinetic energy (and higher total energy) relative to the Earth.

Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot. Heat spontaneouslyflows from bodies of a higher temperature to bodies of lower temperature, at a rate that increases with the temperature difference and the thermal conductivity. No heat will be exchanged between bodies of the same temperature; such bodies are said to be in "thermal equilibrium". The temperature of a substance typically varies with the average speed of the particles that it contains, raised to the second power; that is, it is proportional to the mean kinetic energy of its constituent particles. Formally, temperature is defined as the derivative of the internal energy with respect to the entropy. Quantitatively, temperature is measured with thermometers, which may be calibratedto a variety of temperature scales.Temperature plays an important role in all fields of natural science, including physics,geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences and biology.

Many physical properties of materials including the phase solid,liquid, gaseous or plasma, density, solubility, vapor pressure, andelectrical conductivity depend on the temperature. Temperature also plays an important role in determining the rate and extent to which chemical reactions occur. This is one reason why the human body has several elaborate mechanisms for maintaining the temperature at 310 K, since temperatures only a few degrees higher can result in harmful reactions with serious consequences. Temperature also determines the thermal radiation emitted from a surface. One application of this effect is the incandescent light bulb, in which a tungsten filament is electrically heated to a temperature at which significant quantities of visible light are emitted.

In physics, chemistry, engineering, and thermodynamics, heat is energy produced or transferred from one [1][2] body, region, set of components, or thermodynamic systemto another in any way other than as work. In ordinary language, as distinct from technical language, heat has a broader meaning. [4][5][6][7] confusion if the diversity of usage of words is forgotten.
[3]

This can lead to

[8]

Thermodynamically, energy can be produced or transferred as heat by thermal conduction , by thermal [9] [10] [11][12][13] radiation, by friction and viscosity, and by chemical dissipation. The engineering discipline of heat transfer recognizes heat transfer by conduction, byconvection, by mass transfer, and by radiation. Heat transfer by conduction and by radiation from a hotter to a colder body is spontaneous. The second law of thermodynamics requires that the transfer of energy from one body to another with an equal or higher temperature can only occur with the aid of a heat pump by mechanical work, or by some other similar process in which entropy is increased in the universe in a manner that compensates for the [14] decrease of entropy in the cooled body, due to the removal of the heat from it. For example, energy may be removed against a temperature gradient by spontaneous evaporation of a liquid. In physics, especially in calorimetry, and in meteorology, the concepts of latent heat and of sensible heat are used. A related and potentially confusing term is thermal energy, loosely defined as the energy of a body that increases with its temperature.

Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic Theory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on the already established idea that heat was something to do with matter in motion, this was the same idea put forwards by Sir Benjamin Thompson in 1798 who said he was only following on from the work of many others. One of Maxwell's recommended books was by John Tyndall Heat as a Mode of Motion. Maxwell outlined four stipulations for the definition of heat:

It is something which may be transferred from one body to another, according to the second law of thermodynamics. It is a measurable quantity, and thus treated mathematically. It cannot be treated as a substance, because it may be transformed into something that is not a substance, e.g., mechanical work. Heat is one of the forms of energy.

Several modern definitions of heat are as follows: The energy transferred from a high-temperature system to a lower-temperature system is called [16] heat. Any spontaneous flow of energy from one system to another caused by a difference in temperature [17] between the systems is called heat.

In a thermodynamic sense, heat is never regarded as being stored within a system. Like work, it exists only as energy in transit from one system to another or between a system and its surroundings. When energy in the form of heat is added to a system, it is stored as kinetic and potential energy of the atoms and molecules in the system. In the case where the number of particles in the system is constant, the first law of thermodynamics states that the differential change ininternal energy dU of a system is given by the [note 1] differential heat flow Q into the system minus the differential work W exerted by the system: . The differential transfer of heat, , makes differential contributions, not only to internal energy, but also to the work done by the system: . The work done by the system includes boundary work, which causes the boundaries of the system to expand, in addition to other work (e.g. shaft work performed by a compressor fan): . is equal to the differential enthalpy change (dH) of the system. Substitution gives: . Both enthalpy, , and internal energy, , are state functions. In cyclical processes, such as the operation of a heat engine, state functions return to their initial values. Thus, the differentials for enthalpy and energy are exact differentials, which are and , respectively. The symbol for exact differentials is the lowercase letter d. In contrast, neither nor represents the state of the system (i.e. they need not return to their original values when returning to same step in the following cycle). Thus, the infinitesimal expressions for heat and work are inexact differentials, and , respectively. The lowercase Greek letter delta, , is the symbol for inexact differentials. The integral of any inexact differential over the time it takes to leave and return to the

same thermodynamic state does not necessarily equal zero. However, for slow enough processes involving no change in volume (i.e. ), applied magnetic field, or other external parameters (i.e. differential, . Likewise, for an isentropic process (i.e. and ), forms the and ), forms the exact

, wherein the following relation applies:

exact differential, . [edit]Path-independent

, wherein the following relation applies:

examples for an ideal gas

For a simple compressible system such as an ideal gas inside a piston, the internal energy change at constant volume and the enthalpy change at constant pressure are modeled by separate heat capacity values, which are and , respectively.

Constrained to have constant volume, the heat, , required to change its temperature from an initial temperature, T0, to a final temperature,Tf, is given by this formula:

Removing the volume constraint and allowing the system to expand or contract at constant pressure, the heat, , required to change its temperature from an initial temperature, T0, to a final temperature, Tf, is given by this formula:

Note that when integrating an exact differential (e.g. ), the lowercase letter d is substituted for (e.g. ), and when integrating an inexact differential (e.g. Greek letter is removed with no replacement (e.g. ), the lowercase ).

[edit]Incompressible For incompressible

substances
such as solids and liquids, the

substances,

distinction between the two types of heat capacity (i.e. which is based on constant pressure and which is based on constant volume) disappears, as no work is performed.

Sound is a mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas,
composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard, or the [1] sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations. The perception of sound in any organism is limited to a certain range of frequencies. For humans, hearing [3] is normally limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz) , although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally decreases with age. Other species have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz, but are deaf to anything below 40 Hz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation,predation, and communication. Earth's atmosphere, water, and virtually any physical phenomenon, such asfire, rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds. Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also developed special organs to produce sound. In some species, these produce song and speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound. The scientific study of human sound perception is known as psychoacoustics. he mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through all forms of matter:gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Longitudinal and transverse waves

Sinusoidal waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies than those above. The horizontal axis represents time.

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also calledcompression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressuredeviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression andrarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation. Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium.

Sound wave properties and characteristics

Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which are characterized by these generic properties: Frequency, or its inverse, the period Wavelength Wavenumber Amplitude Sound pressure Sound intensity Speed of sound Direction

Sometimes speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector; wavenumber and direction are combined as a wave vector. Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have the additional property, polarization, and are not a characteristic of sound waves.

Speed of sound

U.S. Navy F/A-18 breaking the sound barrier. The white halo is formed by condensed water droplets thought to result from a drop in air pressure around the aircraft (see Prandtl-Glauert Singularity).[4][5]

Main article: Speed of sound

The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a fundamental property of the material. In general, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of theratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the medium to its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20 C (68 F) air at the sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s (1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula "v = (331 + 0.6 T) m/s". In fresh water, also at 20 C, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph). In steel, the speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s [6] (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph). The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive (a secondorder anharmonic effect) to the sound amplitude, which means that there are nonlinear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array).

Acoustics
Main article: Acoustics Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be called an acoustical or audio engineer. The application of acoustics can be seen in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control industries.

Noise
Main article: Noise Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal.

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