Bahir Dar University, Institute of Technology

School of Computing and Electrical Engineering

Power system and control stream

Power system planning and operation Assignment - 3

Dagnachew tefera ID.No. Eng /R/ 097/2000

January 2012

Power system planning and operation assignment 3 Questions

1. Define interconnected power system and discuss all the advantages over isolated power system. 2. Explain the types of transmission losses in power system operation with their methods of minimization. 3. Discuss (explain) how the following power quality problems (sources of power quality problems) affect the quality of power system. a. Non linear loads b. Harmonics c. Flicker d. Sag 4. State the solutions for the above problems in question number three.

Answers 1. An interconnected power system: A distribution system with multiple available power sources that can loop throughout the network. If one source goes down, a different source can be activated to maintain service. Electric power systems that constitute a form of economic integration and cooperation in the generation and consumption of electricity. Advantages of IC power system There are number of technical rationales for grid interconnections, many of which have economic components as well. Technical rationales for grid interconnection include: Improving reliability and pooling reserves: The amount of reserve capacity that must be built by individual networks to ensure reliable operation when supplies are short can be reduced by sharing reserves within an interconnected network. Reduced investment in generating capacity: Individual systems can reduce their generating capacity requirement, or postpone the need to add new capacity, if they are able to share the generating resources of an interconnected system. Improving load factor and increasing load diversity: Systems operate most economically when the level of power demand is steady over time, as opposed to having high peaks. Poor load factors (the ratio of average to peak power demand) mean that utilities must construct generation capacity to meet peak requirements, but that this capacity sits idle much of the time. Systems can improve poor load factors by interconnecting to other systems with different types of loads, or loads with different daily or seasonal patterns that complement their own. Economies of scale in new construction: Unit costs of new generation and transmission capacity generally decline with increasing scale, up to a point. Sharing resources in an interconnected system can allow the construction of larger facilities with lower unit costs. Diversity of generation mix and supply security: Interconnections between systems that use different technologies and/or fuels to generate electricity provide greater security in the event that one kind of generation becomes limited (e.g., hydroelectricity in a year with little rainfall). Historically, this complementarity has been a strong incentive for interconnection between hydro-dominated systems and thermal-dominated systems. A larger and more diverse generation mix also implies more diversity in the types of forced outages that occur, improving reliability.

 Economic exchange: Interconnection allows the dispatch of the least costly generating units within the interconnected area, providing an overall cost savings that can be divided among the component systems. Alternatively, it allows inexpensive power from one system to be sold to systems with more expensive power. Environmental dispatch and new plant sitting: Interconnections can allow generating units with lower environmental impacts to be used more, and units with higher impacts to be used less. In areas where environmental and land use constraints limit the sitting of power plants, interconnections can allow new plant construction in less sensitive areas. Coordination of maintenance schedules: Interconnections permit planned outages of generating and transmission facilities for maintenance to be coordinated so that overall cost and reliability for the interconnected network is optimized. Some costs and benefits of interconnections are difficult to quantify, but as a rough figure of merit it has been estimated that interconnections in North America. Other advantages: It enables the participating parties to share the benefits of large power systems, such as optimization of power generation, utilization of differences in load profiles and pooling of reserve capacity. From this follows not only technical and economical benefits, but also environmental, when for example surplus of clean hydro resources from one region can help to replace polluting fossil-fuelled generation in another. 2. Types of transmission losses in power system operation: Energy losses occur in the process of supplying electricity to consumers due to technical and commercial losses. The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the conductors and equipment used for transmission, transformation, sub- transmission and distribution of power. These technical losses are inherent in a system and can be reduced to an optimum level. The losses can be further sub grouped depending upon the stage of power transformation & transmission system as Transmission Losses (400kV/220kV/132kV/66kV), as Sub transmission losses (33kV /11kV) and Distribution losses (11kV/0.4kv). The commercial losses are caused by pilferage, defective meters, and errors in meter reading and in estimating unmetered supply of energy.

a. Ohmic power loss: the losses in transmission lines resistance of conductors against current flow. Its value is simply: Ploss = I2 R The flow of power across the transmission system causes power losses in the various elements of the system. Most of these power losses are a function of the square of the current flowing through the circuit or transformer windings and cause unwanted but inevitable heating of transmission lines, cables and transformers. Since such losses are variable they are often referred to as the variable power losses. b. corona losses: are fixed losses associated with overhead lines and transformers. Relative to the variable losses they are reasonably static, but they can and do vary. Fixed losses on overhead transmission lines take the form of corona losses that are a function of voltage levels and weather conditions. Corona loss is the loss of power to the air and insulation surrounding high-voltage equipment and is generally visible in the dark as a luminous glow surrounding highvoltage conductors. c. Fixed losses in a transformer: take the form of iron losses. Iron losses occur in the iron core of the transformer when subjected to an alternating magnetic field and as such vary with the frequency of the power flow producing the alternating magnetic field. Iron losses are further sub divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Transformers also have variable copper losses and fixed iron losses. Methods of minimization of the transmission losses: Reducing the expected value of the transmission loss for a specified range of source impedance values at different buses by using inductor-capacitor compensators where it is desired to maintain a given power factor at a specified value.

Corona can be reduced: By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: This is accomplished by using good high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance between conductors that have large voltage differentials, using conductors with large radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges. Surface Treatments: Corona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or corona dope. Homogenous Insulators: Use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting materials work well. If you are limited to using air as your insulator, then you are left with geometry as the critical parameter. Finally, ensure that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate unwanted voltage transients, which can cause corona to start. Using Bundled Conductors: This is a common way of increasing the effective diameter of the conductor, which in turn results in less resistance, which in turn reduces losses. Elimination of sharp points: electric charges tend to form on sharp points; therefore when practicable we strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line components. Using Corona rings: These rings have smooth round surfaces which are designed to distribute charge across a wider area, thereby reducing the electric field and the resulting corona discharges. By increasing the spacing between the conductors: Corona Discharge Effect can be reduced by increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the transmission lines. However increase in the phases results in heavier metal supports. Cost and Space requirement increases. By increasing the diameter of the conductor: Diameter of the conductor can be increased to reduce the corona discharge effect. By using hollow conductors corona discharge effect can be improved.

To reduce transformer losses: Using proper cooling systems to reduce Copper loss which is mainly due to the heating effect of electric current. Hysteresis loss which is more of a magnetic loss of the core or the Iron loss, can be reduced by preparing the core silicon steel laminated instead of preparing it out of a single block of iron.

3. Power quality problems a. Nonlinear Load: Non linear loads are loads that draw current that is not sinusoidal and include such equipments as arc furnace, gas discharge lighting, solid state motor drives, battery chargers, UPS systems, rectifier, and the increasingly common power supply. The rectifier, for converting alternating current to direct current, is the most common nonlinear load found in electrical systems. It is used in equipment that ranges from 100-W personal computers to 10,000-kW adjustable speed drives. b. Harmonics In power systems harmonics appear as a waveform distortion of the voltage or the current. The harmonics are generated by nonlinear loads. The sinusoidal voltage applied to the nonlinear load. Alongside with the harmonics, inter harmonics and dc-component may distort the waveform. Voltage or current waveforms assume non-sinusoidal shape. The waveform corresponds to the sum of different sine-waves with different magnitude and phase, having frequencies that are multiples of power-system frequency. This is caused by electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve (magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush motors, all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment including switched mode power supplies, data processing equipment, high efficiency lighting.

The consequences: Increased probability in occurrence of resonance, neutral overload in 3-phase systems, overheating of all cables and equipment, loss of efficiency in electric machines, electromagnetic interference with communication systems, errors in measures when using average reading meters, nuisance tripping of thermal protections. c. Flicker The term flicker is sometimes considered synonymous with voltage fluctuations, voltage flicker, light flicker, or lamp flicker. Light flicker resulting from frequently recurring, low amplitude voltage fluctuations. The phenomenon being referred to can be defined as a fluctuation in system voltage that can result in observable changes (flickering) in light output. Because flicker is mostly a problem when the human eye observes it, it is considered to be a problem of perception. The voltage variations resulting from flicker are often within the normal service voltage range, but the changes are sufficiently rapid to be irritating to certain end users. Flicker can be separated into two types: cyclic and non cyclic. Cyclic flicker is a result of periodic voltage fluctuations on the system; while non cyclic is a result of occasional voltage fluctuations. Typically, flicker occurs on systems that are weak relative to the amount of power required by the load, resulting in a low short-circuiting ratio. This, in combination with considerable variations in current over a short period of time, results in flicker. d. Sag Voltage sags are considered the most common Power Quality problem. These can be caused by the utility or by customer loads. When sourced from the utility, they are most commonly caused by faults on the distribution system and Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders). Faults in consumers installation are caused by Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors is also the main cause of voltage sages. These sags will be from 3 to 30 cycles and can be single or three phase. Depending on the design of the distribution system, a ground fault on 1 phase can cause a simultaneous swell on another phase.

Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage, tripping of contactors and electromechanical relays, disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines. 4. Solutions to the above power quality problems include the following. a. Non linear loads By the use of Harmonic Mitigating Transformers. Since harmonics cause much more problems than simply overheating the transformers, it is more appropriate to make use of a resource that is able to reduce the system voltage distortion. Harmonic Mitigating Transformers are efficient in solving overheating and the power quality problems generated by harmonics. The voltage distortion at the output is kept very low because of the cancellation of the harmonic magnetic fluxes within the transformers windings. b.Harmonics Harmonic filtering Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems: The control over the amount of harmonic current injected into the system takes place at the end-use application. Assuming the harmonic current injection is within reasonable limits, the control over the voltage distortion is exercised by the entity having control over the system impedance, which is often the utility. c. Flicker Using flicker mitigating devices including the following. I.SVC light SVC Light is a flicker mitigating device. It achieves this by attacking the root of the problem, the erratic flow of reactive power through the supply grid down into the furnaces. The reactive power consumption is measured, and corresponding amounts are generated in the SVC Light and injected into the system, thereby decreasing the net reactive power flow to an absolute minimum. As an immediate consequence, voltage flicker is decreased to a minimum, as well.

II. VSC (voltage source converter) The function of the VSC is a fully controllable voltage source matching the bus Voltage in phase and frequency, and with amplitude which can be continuously and rapidly controlled so as to be used as the tool for reactive power control. d. Sag Several things can be done by the utility, end user, and equipment manufacturer to reduce the number and severity of voltage sags and to reduce the sensitivity of equipment to voltage sags. Protection for small loads [e.g., less than 5 kilovolt amperes (kVA)]. This usually involves protection for equipment controls or small, individual machines. Many times, these are single-phase loads that need to be protected. Protection for individual equipment or groups of equipment up to about 300 kVA. This usually represents applying power conditioning technologies within the facility for protection of critical equipment that can be grouped together conveniently. Since usually not all the loads in a facility need protection, this can be a very economical method of dealing with the critical loads, especially if the need. Protection for large groups of loads or whole facilities at the low-voltage level. Sometimes such a large portion of the facility is critical or needs protection that it is reasonable to consider protecting large groups of loads at a convenient location (usually the service entrance). New technologies are available for consideration when large groups of loads need protection. Protection at the medium-voltage level or on the supply system. If the whole facility needs protection or improved power quality, solutions at the medium-voltage level can be considered.