BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

ROSHAN.S MB A- J

RESEARCH

Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method.

In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.

The research provides the needed information that guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems.

BUSINESS RESEARCH:

It is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide managerial decisions.

It

is

process

of

planning,

acquiring,

analyzing

and

disseminating relevant data and information and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate performance. actions that, in turn, maximize business

Business research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting that needs a solution.

Business research is an important management activity that helps companies determine which products will be most

profitable for companies to produce. Several steps are necessary when conducting business research; each step must be thoroughly reviewed to ensure that the best decision is made for the company. TYPES OF RESEARCH Research can be classified by purpose or by method. If we categorise it by purpose, it would fall into two major categories: Basic Research and Applied Research, while in case of method, it would be Deductive research and Inductive research. BASIC RESEARCH

Also called Pure or fundamental Research, it is undertaken for increase in knowledge.

There is no direct benefit as it is a research for the sake of research.

It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as: (a) What makes things happen, (b) Why society changes and (c) Why social relations are in a certain way.

In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles and ideas. Basic research rarely helps anyone directly.

It only stimulates new ways of thinking. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge.

There is absolutely no commercial value to the discoveries resulting from such research.

To sum up, basic research is purely theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behaviour but does not seek to solve any existing problem.

APPLIED RESEARACH It is use of basic research or past theories, knowledge and methods for solving an existing problem. It deals with practical problems.

It is opposed to pure research which is not problem-oriented but for the increase in knowledge which may or may not be used in future.

In the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to applied research to solve problems arising out of overpopulation and scarcity of natural resources.

Applied research should not be treated the same as Research & Development (R&D) which is involved in developing products demanded by the existing clients.

Applied Research, on the other hand, focuses on uncovering what needs are not being met and use that information in designing products or services that would create their own demand.

Thus, applied research brings in new customers and also provides better products and services to the existing customers.

In old days, the mobile phone was expensive, bulky and had a short range.

Applied Research foresaw that this product would have a limited market and stressed on cost-cutting, reduced weight and longdistance demand. communication. Such measures caused a heavy

METHODS or APPROACHES

In research, conclusions are based two methods known as the deduction and induction. Both are widely used in research projects. This helps the researchers to understand, explain, or predict business phenomena.

Deduction follows an approach which is top-down or from general to specific. On the other hand, induction is bottomup in nature or from specific to general.

In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available information. In induction, we observe some happening, deduct a pattern and draw conclusion.

EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTION All men are mortal. (General and no specific to one man) Socrates is a man (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal ( specific) EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION This ice is cold. (Specific, based on a direct observation.) All ice is cold. (General, can be applied to any ice)

 Take another example:

3 + 5 = 8 and eight is an even

number. Therefore, an odd number added to another odd number will result in an even number. EXAMPLE OF BOTH DEDUCTION AND INDUCTION 1. You push the light switch and find no light 2. You ask the question, Why no light? (induction) 3. You infer a conclusion (hypotheses) to answer the question and explain the fact that the bulb is burned out. (deduction) 4. You use this hypothesis to conclude (deduce) that the light will not go on when we push the switch. We know from experience that burned-out bulb will not light. DEDUCTIVE METHOD

INDUCTIVE METHOD

PROBLEM DEFINITION: Problem definition is the crucial first stage in the research process- determining the problems to be solved and the objectives of the research. THE PROCESS OF PROBLEM DEFINITION: 1. Ascertain the decision maker's objectives 2. Understand the background of the problem 3. Isolate the identify the problem rather than its symptoms 4. determine the unit of analysis 5. determine the relevant variables 6. State the research question (hypotheses) and research

objectives. 1. ICEBERG PRINCIPLE: Is the idea that the dangerous part of many business problems is neither visible to nor understood by business managers. 2. SITUATION ANALYSIS

Is

preliminary

investigation

or

informal

gathering

of

background information to familiarize researchers or managers with the decision area. 3. VARIABLE

Is defined as anything that changes in value: anything that assumes different numerical or categorical value.

CATEGORICAL VARIABLE

Is any variable that has a limited number of distinct values.

CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

Is any variable that has an infinitive number of possible values.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Is a criterion or a variable that is to be predicted or explained.

Independent variable is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent variable. Its value may be changed

independently of any other variable. 4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE Is the purpose of the research, expressed in measurable terms; the definition of what the research should accomplish. 5. RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Is the written statement of the research design that includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study and a detailed, systematic outline of a particular research methodology. THE NEED FOR THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A Theoretical Framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem.

It discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated.

From the theoretical framework then, testable hypotheses can be developed to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not. THE MAIN DIFFERENTIATING FACTORS BETWEEN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONSULTANTS ARE SUMMARISED BELOW:

External Credibility through brand status and previous experience Broad business perspective bringing new ideas Limited organisation-specific knowledge, possibly at content level only Not made here Perceived as objective Special Low investment in final success Meets clients agenda

Internal Credibility through history of interactions within the business Deep organisational perspective Understands its culture, language and deeper symbolic actions Perceived as an organisational agent The same High investment in final success Meets corporate agenda

Needs time to understand the people may misinterpret actions and interpersonal dynamics On the clock timed, expensive, rare and rationed VARIABLES

which may not be clients Knows the people, but may have preconceptions Free, accessible, and available

A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons.

Examples: Production, Motivation, Absenteeism

DEPENDENT VARIABLE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE MODERATING VARIABLE INTERVENING VARIABLE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

TYPES VARIABLES

OF

The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher.

The

researcher

goal

is

to

describe

and

understand

the

dependent variable or to explain its viability or predict it.

Through the analysis of the dependent variable it is possible to find solutions to the problems. Researcher not only quantifies and measures the dependent variable but explains other variables that influence this variable.

Examples: Manager is interested in analyzing: Debt-Equity Ratio.

Sales is not picking up

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either positive or negative way. When the

independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the dependent variable there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also MODERATING VARIABLE

The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable dependent variable

relationship. INTERVENING VARIABLE

An intervening variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.

Thus there is a temporal quality or time dimension to the intervening variable. Explains the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Theoretical Framework is the foundation on which the entire research project is based.

It is logically developed, described and elaborated network of associations among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and identified through such processes as interviews, observations and literature survey.

Experience and intuition also guide in developing the theoretical framework.

Identify the problem first. Identify the variables that contribute to it. The purpose of interviews and literature review now becomes clear.

Elaborate the network of associations among the variables. So that the hypotheses can be developed and subsequently tested.

THE COMPONENTS OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly

identified and labelled in the discussion.

2. The discussions should state how two or more variables are

related to one another. This should be done for the important relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables.
3. If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized

on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the relationships would be positive or negative.
4. There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect

these relationships to exist. The arguments could be drawn from the previous research findings.5.
5. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be

given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the theorized relationships.

HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT

Hypotheses

can

be

defined

as

logically

conjectured

relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of attest able statement. STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES: FORMATS

 If Then Statements Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses

Null and Alternate Hypotheses TYPES OF HYPOTHESES 1. DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESES

Describes the existence, size, form or distribution of some variable. 60% of investors favours cash dividend.
MBA institutes facing problems in placement

2. RELATIONAL HYPOTHESES

Describes the relationship between two or more variables. The greater the stress experienced in the job the lower the jobsatisfaction.( directional) Women are better than men

There is a relationship between age and job-satisfaction. (Nondirectional)

CORRELATIONAL HYPOTHESES

Only shows the correlation between two or more variables but no claims are made that one causes the other.

EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESES.

Claims are made that one variable causes other to occur.

3. NULL HYPOTHESES

The definitive statement that explains the relationship. The null hypothesis relates to the statement being tested,

4. ALTERNATE HYPOTHESES

All

other

permissible

relationship

refers

to

alternative

hypothesis The alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be accepted if / when the null hypothesis is rejected. IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESES Guides the direction of study; Identifies the facts relevant for the study; Helps in the selection of Research Design; Helps in providing the framework in which the results have to be given. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS 1. ADEQUATE FOR THE PURPOSE Should address the original problem
Clearly identifies the variables relevant in the study.

Helps in knowing the research design Helps in organizing the results of the study 2. TESTABLE Uses acceptable techniques Simple requiring few conditions

 Explanation

can

be

given

from

the

given

theoretical

framework. 3. BETTER THAN ITS RIVALS Explains more facts than its rivals Greater variety or scope of facts RESEARCH DESIGN: A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. "A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served." "Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of

investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance." "A research design is the specification of methods and

procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the overall operational pattern or framework of the project that

stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures." NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN Minimizes time and money

Advance planning Avoid flaws Selection of appropriate tools Eliminate bias and marginal error

FEATURES OF GOOD DESIGN

It should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so on.

It should give a smallest experimental error and high reliability and validity.

Good

research

design

includes

following

five

important

elements. Subjects Variables Time Setting Investigators role PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH DESIGN 1. PRINCIPLE OF REPLICATION According to this principle, the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one.

By doing this method, the accuracy and precision of the study are increased significantly. For example, the effect of two variety of rice.

2. PRINCIPLE OF RANDOMIZATION

This principle provides protection This principle indicates that the researcher should design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the general heading of Chance. Example : effect of two variety of rice

3. PRINCIPLE OF LOCAL CONTROL

The extraneous factors, the know source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error. Example : effect of two variety of rice.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN: Quantitative Research Designs Descriptiv e

Describe phenomena as they exist. Descriptive studies generally take raw data and summarize it in a useable form. Can also be qualitative in nature if the sample size is small and data are collected from questionnaires, interviews or observations. The art of planning and implementing an experiment in which the research has control over some of the conditions where the study takes place and control over some aspects of the independent variable(s) (presumed cause or variable used to predict another variable) A form of experimental research. One in which the researcher cannot control at least one of the three elements of an experimental design: Environment Intervention (program or practice) Assignment to experimental and control groups Qualitative Research Designs Collection and evaluation of data related to past events that are used to describe causes, effects and trends that may explain present or future events. Data are often archival. Data includes interviews. The collection of extensive narrative data over an extended period of time in natural settings to gain insights about other types of research. Data are collected through observations at particular points of time over a sustained period. Data include observations, records and interpretations of what is seen.

Experimen tal

Quasiexperimen tal

Historical

Ethnograp hic

Case Studies

An in-depth study of an individual group, institution, organization or program.

Data include interviews, field notes of observations, archival data and biographical data. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Exploratory

research

is

conducted

to

clarify

ambiguous

problems. Management may have discovered general problems, but research is needed to gain better understanding of the dimensions of the problems. Exploratory studies provide information to use in analyzing a situation, but uncovering conclusive evidence to determine a particular course of action is not the purpose of exploratory research. Usually, exploratory research is conducted with the expectation that subsequent research will be required to provide conclusive evidence, it is a serious mistake to rush into detailed surveys before less expensive and more readily available sources of information have been exhausted. In an organisation considering a program to help employees with childcare needs, for example, exploratory research with a small number of employees who have children might determine that many of them have spouses who also work and that these employees have positive reactions to the possibility of an onsite child-care program. In such a case exploratory research

helps to crystallize a problem and identify information needs for future research. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH METHODS The quickest and the cheapest way to formulate a hypothesis in exploratory research is by using any of the four methods: Literature search Experience survey Focus group Analysis of selected cases A. LITERATURE SEARCH

This refers to "referring to a literature to develop a new hypothesis". The literature referred are trade journals,

professional journals, market research finding publications, statistical publications etc. Example: Suppose a problem is "Why are sales down?" This can quickly be analyzed with the help of published data which should indicate "whether the problem is an "industry problem" or a "firm problem". THREE POSSIBILITIES EXIST TO FORMULATE THE HYPOTHESIS.

1. The company's market share has declined but industry's figures are normal. 2. The industry is declining and hence the company's market share is also declining.

3. The industry's share is going up but the company's share is declining. If we accept the situation that our company's sales are down despite the market showing an upward trend, then we need to analyse the marketing mix variables. Example 1: A TV manufacturing company feels that its market share is declining whereas the overall television industry is doing very well. Example 2: Due to a trade embargo imposed by a country, textiles exports are down and hence sales of a company making garment for exports is on the decline. The above information may be used to pinpoint the reason for declining sales. B. EXPERIENCE SURVEY In experience surveys, it is desirable to talk to persons who are well informed in the area being investigated. These people may be company executives or persons outside the organisation. Here, no questionnaire is required. The approach adopted in an experience survey should be highly unstructured, so that the respondent can give divergent views. Since the idea of using experience survey is to undertake problem formulation, and not conclusion, probability sample need not be used.

Those who cannot speak freely should be excluded from the sample. EXAMPLE 1: 1) A group of housewives may be approached for their choice for a "ready to cook product". . 2) A publisher might want to find out the reason for poor circulation of newspaper introduced recently. He might meet (a) Newspaper sellers (b) Public reading room (c) General public (d) Business community; etc. These are experienced persons whose knowledge researcher can use Focus Group Another widely used technique in exploratory research is the focus group. In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together to study and talk about some topic of interest. The discussion is co-ordinated by a moderator. The group usually is of 8-12persons. While selecting these persons, care has to be taken to see that they should have a common background and have similar experiences in buying. This is required because there should not be a conflict among the group members on the common issues that are being discussed. During the discussion, future buying attitudes, present buying opinion etc., are gathered.

Most of the companies conducting the focus groups, first screen the candidates to determine who will compose the particular group.

Firms also take care to avoid groups, in which some of the participants have their friends and relatives, because this leads to a biased discussion.

Normally, a number of such groups are constituted and the final conclusions of various groups are taken for formulating the hypothesis.

Therefore, a key factor in focus group is to have similar groups. Normally there are 4-5 groups.

Some of them may even have 6-8 groups. The guiding criterion is to see whether the latter groups are generating additional ideas or repeating the same with respect to the subject under study.

When this shows a diminishing return from the group, the discussions stopped. The typical focus group lasts for 1-30 hours to 2 hours.

The moderator under the focus group has a key role. His job is to guide the group to proceed in the right direction

C. ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CASES

Analysing a selected case sometimes gives an insight into the problem which is being researched. Case histories of companies which have undergone a similar situation may be available.

These case studies are well suited to carry out exploratory research. However, the result of investigation of case histories arc always considered suggestive, rather than conclusive.

In case of preference to "ready to eat food", many case histories may be available in the form of previous studies made by competitors.

We must carefully examine the already published case studies with regard to other variables such as price, advertisement, changes in the taste, etc.

2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation. The methods involved range from the survey which describes the status quo, the correlation study which investigates the relationship between variables, to developmental studies which seek to determine changes over time. A. CASE STUDIES:

A research strategy that focuses on exploration of a complex phenomenon and related context.

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves.

A form of qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that specific context.

Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth, nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on exploration and description.

TYPES OF CASE STUDIES

1. EXPLANATORY: Used to do causal investigations. 2. EXPLORATORY: A case study that is sometimes used as a

prelude

to

further,

more

in-depth

research.

This

allows

researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses.
3. DESCRIPTIVE: Involves starting with a descriptive theory. The

subjects are then observed and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.

4. INTRINSIC: A type of case study in which the researcher has a

personal interest in the case.

5. COLLECTIVE: Involves studying a group of individuals. 6. INSTRUMENTAL: Occurs when the individual or group allows

researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers. B. OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH A method of data collection in which the situation of interest is watched and the relevant facts, actions and behaviours are recorded. An observational study is a study in which a researcher simply observes behaviour in a systematic manner without influencing or interfering with the behaviour. The researcher would record the behaviour that he or she observes. There may be rating scales that the researcher would use when observing the behaviour.

Observational studies can involve naturalistic observation or laboratory observation.

Naturalistic observation would involve observing behaviours in the natural environment. Laboratory observation involves

observing behaviours in a research laboratory. C. SURVEY RESEARCH

Structured questions to assess peoples beliefs, attitudes, and self- reports of behaviour. If the researcher wishes to generalize the responses to a population, it is important to have a representative sample.

Surveys

that

rely

on

self-selection

(respond

if

you

are

interested) produce non-generalizable results.

Surveys also provide information for co relational research. One can correlate responses to some questions (often demographic questions) with responses to other questions (often attitudes or reports of behaviour).

Survey question must be clear and unambiguous. Even if the questions are unambiguous and non-leading, people may

display a social desirability bias and give positive or socially acceptable and desirable answers. SURVEY METHODS INCLUDE: 1. the interview or face-to-face method which is generally viewed as the best method for obtaining a high rate of responses but is also very costly; 2. phone surveys, which are less expensive but have a higher nonresponse rate (which has probably increased with caller ID); and
3. Written or mail surveys, which are least expensive but have a

very high non-response rate. Follow-up messages can help increase the response rate.

D. ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Analysis of pre-existing data or records. Archival research often involves content analysis, a qualitative analysis of material. For example, one would use content analysis to determine whether there had been an increase in the frequency with which women and minorities were mentioned in US history books between 1920 and 2000.Some archival research is quasiexperimental. 3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Science revolves around experiments, and learning the best way of conducting an experiment is crucial to obtaining useful and valid results. When scientists speak of experiments, in the strictest sense of the word, they mean a true experiment, where the scientist controls all of the factors and conditions. Real world

observations, and case studies, should be referred to as observational research, rather than experiments. For example, observing animals in the wild is not a true experiment, because it does not isolate and manipulate an independent variable.

With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something new about the world, an explanation of why something

happens. The experiment must maintain internal and external validity, or the results will be useless. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIME (DIMENSION 2)
1. The categories of the second dimension for classifying non

experimental research, which refer to time, are:

2. Cross-sectional research, in which data are collected at one

point in time, often in order to make comparisons across different types of respondents or participants.
3. Prospective or longitudinal research, in which data are collected

on multiple occasions starting with the present and going into the future for comparisons across time. Data are sometimes collected on different groups over time in order to determine subsequent differences on some other variable.
4. Retrospective research, in which the researcher looks back in

time using existing or available data to explain or explore an existing occurrence. This backwards examination may be an attempt to nd potential explanations for current group

differences.

CASUAL VS CORRELATION:

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines correlation as mutual relation between two or more things causing or producing an effect. and causation as

If two variables are highly correlated it does not necessarily mean that one causes the other. To simply say that a correlation exists does not imply causation.

Correlation is when two or more things or events tend to occur at about the same time and might be associated with each other, but aren't necessarily connected by a cause/effect relationship.

For example, sick people tend to have a runny nose and a sore throat. These two variables correlate to each other in that they tend to show up in the same patients. That doesn't mean runny noses cause sore throats, or that sore throats cause runny noses

WHAT IS CORRELATION RESEARCH?

In

correlation

research,

researchers

investigate

possible

relationships among variables without trying to influence those variables. Although correlation studies cannot determine the causes of relationships, they can suggest them.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CORRELATION RESEARCH? Correlation research is carried out for one of two basic purposes-either to help explain important human behaviours or to predict likely outcomes.

WHAT IS CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH? In Causal-Comparative research allows researchers to

investigate the possibility of a causal relationship among variables that cannot, as in experimental research, be

manipulated. Two groups that are different on a particular variable are compared on another variable. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH? In Causal-Comparative research, investigators attempt to

determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of individuals SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE AND CORRELATION RESEARCH.

Both causal-comparative and correlation studies are examples of associational research. Researchers who conduct both studies seek to explore relationships among variables.

Both seek to identify variables that are worthy of later exploration through experimental research, and both often provide guidance for subsequent experimental studies.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE AND CORRELATION RESEARCH. Causal-comparative studies typically compare two or more groups of subjects, while correlational studies require a score on each variable for each subject.

Correlational studies investigate two (or more) quantitative variables, whereas causal-comparative studies involve at least one categorical variable.

Correlational studies analyze data using scatter plots and/or correlation coefficients, while causal-comparative studies

compare averages or use cross break tables. In experimental research, the independent variable is

manipulated; in causal comparative research, no manipulation takes places DATA COLLECTION: Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods for data collection.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

THE QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.

They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.

Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not

feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability

sampling to select participants. TYPICAL QUANTITATIVE DATA GATHERING STRATEGIES INCLUDE: EXPERIMENTS/CLINICAL TRIALS.

Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., faceto face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc.).

INTERVIEWS

In Quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative research.

In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more.

A. FACE -TO -FACE INTERVIEWS

FACE -TO -FACE INTERVIEWS have a distinct advantage of

enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefor gain their cooperation.
These

interviews

yield

highest

response

rates

in

survey

research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information.
Disadvantages

include impractical when large samples are

involved time consuming and expensive. B. TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less

expensive and the researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone.
Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the

face-to- face interview as but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire.

 The sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences. C. COMPUTER ASSISTED PERSONAL INTERVIEWING Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of completing a

questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or handheld computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills. QUESTIONNAIRES Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks.

 Majority of the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative of the originally selected sample.

WEB BASED QUESTIONNAIRES: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer.
Also the validity of such surveys is in question as people might

be in a hurry to complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales.

These devices help simplify and quantify people's behaviours and attitudes.
A checklist is a list of behaviours, characteristics, or other

entities that te researcher is looking for. Either the researcher

or survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true or vice versa.
A rating scale is more useful when behaviour needs to be

evaluated on a continuum. They are also known as Likert scales.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in

impact evaluation by providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in peoples perceptions of their well-being.
Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the

quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. THESE METHODS ARE CHARACTERIZED BY THE FOLLOWING

ATTRIBUTES: they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)

they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data

they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)

generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time.

The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means.

The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories: IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW OBSERVATION METHODS DOCUMENT REVIEW

DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS ARE GIVEN BELOW.

BEHAVIOUR OBSERVATION CHECKLIST: A list of behaviours or actions among participants being observed. A tally is kept for each behaviour or action observed. KNOWLEDGE TESTS: Information about what a person already knows or has learned. OPINION SURVEYS: An assessment of how a person or group feels about a particular issue. PERFORMANCE TESTS: Testing the ability to perform or master a particular skill. DELPHI TECHNIQUE: A method of survey research that requires surveying the same group of respondents repeatedly on the same issue in order to reach a consensus. Q-SORTS: A rank order procedure for sorting groups of objects. Participants sort cards that represent a particular topic into different piles that represent points along a continuum. SELF-RATINGS: A method used by participants to rank their own performance, knowledge, or attitudes. QUESTIONNAIRE: A group of questions that people respond to verbally or in writing.

TIME SERIES: Measuring a single variable consistently over time, i.e. daily, weekly, monthly, annually. CASE STUDIES: Experiences and characteristics of selected persons involved with a project. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS: Individuals responses, opinions, and views. GROUP INTERVIEWS: Small groups responses, opinions, and views. WEAR AND TEAR: Measuring the apparent wear or accumulation on physical objects, such as a display or exhibit. PHYSICAL EVIDENCE: Residues or other physical by-products are observed. PANELS, HEARINGS: Opinions and ideas. RECORDS: Information from records, files, or receipts. LOGS, JOURNALS: A persons behaviour and reactions recorded as a narrative. SIMULATIONS:

A persons behaviour in simulated settings. ADVISORY, ADVOCATE TEAMS: Ideas and viewpoints of selected persons. JUDICIAL REVIEW: Evidence about activities is weighed and assessed by a jury of professionals PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot

find the data needed in secondary sources.

Market

researchers are interested in primary data about characteristics,

demographic/socioeconomic

attitudes/opinions/interests, awareness/knowledge, intentions, motivation, and behaviour. Three basic means of obtaining primary data are observation, surveys, and experiments. The choice will be influenced by the nature of the problem and by the availability of time and money. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and

ethnographic research. A good researcher knows how to use both primary and secondary sources in her writing and to integrate them in a cohesive fashion. Conducting primary research is a useful skill to acquire as it can greatly supplement research in secondary sources, such as journals, magazines, or books. Primary research is an excellent skill to learn as it can be

useful in a variety of settings including business, personal, and academic TYPES OF PRIMARY RESEARCH: Many types of primary research exist. This guide is designed to provide you with an overview of primary research that is often done in writing classes. INTERVIEWS: Interviews are one-on-one or small group question and answer sessions. Interviews will provide a lot of information from a small number of people and are useful when you want to get an expert or knowledgeable opinion on a subject.

SURVEYS: Surveys are a form of questioning that is more rigid than interviews and that involve larger groups of people. Surveys will

provide a limited amount of information from a large group of people and are useful when you want to learn what a larger population thinks. OBSERVATIONS: Observations involve taking organized notes about occurrences in the world. Observations provide your insight about specific people, events, or locales and are useful when you want to learn more about an event without the biased viewpoint of an interview. ANALYSIS: Analysis involves collecting data and organizing it in some fashion based on criteria you develop. They are useful when you want to find some trend or pattern. A type of analysis would be to record commercials on three major television networks and analyze gender roles. INTERVIEWING Interviewing is a great way to learn detailed information from a single individual or small number of individuals. It is very useful when you want to gain expert opinions on the subject or talk to someone knowledgeable about a topic. TYPES OF INTERVIEWING: Several different types of interviews exist. You should choose one based on what kind of technology you have available to you, the

availability of the individual you are interviewing, and how comfortable you feel talking to people. 1. FACE TO FACE INTERVIEWS: Face to face interviews are when you sit down and talk with someone. They are beneficial because you can adapt your questioning to the answers of the person you are interviewing. You will need recording equipment for the interview, and it is highly recommended that you bring two recording devices with you in case one fails. 2. PHONE INTERVIEWS: Phone interviews can be used when you need to interview someone who is geographically far away, who is too busy to meet with you to talk, or who does not want to use Internet technology. You have to purchase a special recording device for use with most phone systems. 3. EMAIL INTERVIEWS: Email interviews are less personal than face-to-face or phone interviews, but highly convenient for most individuals. You may not get as much information from someone in an email interview because you are not able to ask follow-up questions or play off the interviewees responses. However, email interviews are useful because they are already in a digital format. 4. CHAT/MESSAGING INTERVIEWS:

It is also possible to interview someone via an instant messaging service such as MSN Messenger, ICQ, or AOL Instant Messenger. These interviews allow you to talk to people at great distances and give you the benefit of adapting your questioning based on the responses you receive. Some people are not fluent at typing, however, so you may not get as lengthy responses from this option SECODARY SOURCES OF DATA: Data from a secondary source is any data which has been collected by another researcher, whether it is a group of people or just one person. The data may have originally been used for a different type of research, but you can manipulate it to fit your research, instead of using it as it was intended to be used. Here are some examples of secondary sources of data for research:

GOVERNMENTAL STUDIES If the government of your country has collected data on a particular topic, you can manipulate this data in any way you choose.

For example, the government has records on the types of benefits it awards each year, and how much money is spent on benefits.

You could manipulate this data for any topic you wish to research, for example, if you were doing a study surrounding the unemployed people of your country.

LARGE COMPANIES Large companies and manufacturers keep all kinds of data on their products and business. For example, computer and software manufacturers like Apple and Microsoft will have records of how much of each of their products has been bought in a particular year. You could use data from two different companies in order to compare them, or you could use data from one particular company in order to do an in-depth analysis. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES You could manipulate data gathered by scientists as a result of particular research they have carried out. Teams of scientists are constantly undertaking research and collecting and recording data as a result, which you could manipulate into your research.

However, scientific reports and results sheets are often difficult to decipher, as they use a great deal of scientific jargon.

SAMPLING: Sampling Method means selection of a limited number of items representing the population or universe for studying the characteristics of the whole population or universe. Example: to know the IQ of the Students of age between 15-16, suppose in the class of 70 students. We conduct the study on 20 students who represent the class. Population = 70 Sample = 20 ESSENTIALS OF SAMPLING Sample should possess same characteristics as the population. Absolute accuracy is not essential. Regulating conditions should be same for every individual item in the sample ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING The result obtained is generally more reliable than that obtained from a complete count. Total financial burden of a sample survey is generally less than that of complete census. Possible to collect more detailed information in a sample survey.

 Causes less damage and wastage. DISADVANTAGES: Shortage of experts in the sampling field is a serious hurdle in the way of reliable statistics. Sampling plan may be complicated that it requires more time, labour and money than a complete count. Must be carefully planned and executed otherwise the results obtained may be inaccurate and misleading. SAMPLING: A Sampling is a part of the total population. It can be an individual element or a group of elements selected from the population. Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable for research in terms of cost, convenience, and time. The sample group can be selected based on a probability or a non-probability approach. A sample usually consists of various units of the population. The size of the sample is represented by n. Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the purpose of

determining the characteristics of the whole population.

In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a population using special sampling techniques called sampling.

It should be ensured in the sampling process itself that the sample selected is representative of the population.

POPULATION OR UNIVERSE: The entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn is known as a population. In sampling, the population may refer to the units, from which the sample is drawn. Population or populations of interest are interchangeable terms. The term unit is used, as in a business research process; samples are not necessarily people all the time. A population of interest may be the universe of nations or cities. This is one of the first things the analyst needs to define properly while conducting a business research. Therefore, population, contrary to its general notion as a nations entire population has a much broader meaning in sampling. N represents the size of the population. CENSUS: A complete study of all the elements present in the population is known as a census. It is a time consuming and costly process and is, therefore, seldom a popular with researchers. The general notion that a

census generates more accurate data than sampling is not always true. Limitations include failure in generating a complete and

accurate list of all the members of the population and refusal of the elements to provide information. The national population census is an example of census survey. PRECISION: Precision is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to be, to the true value of a parameter. Precision is a measure of similarity. Precision is usually

expressed in terms of imprecision and related to the standard error of the estimate. Less precision is reflected by a larger standard error.

BIAS: Bias is the term refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter it is estimating, that is, the error, which arises when estimating a quantity. Errors from chance will cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not. Bias can take different forms. STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS: An operational sampling process can be divided into seven steps as given below:

1. Defining the target population. 2. Specifying the sampling frame. 3. Specifying the sampling unit. 4. Selection of the sampling method. 5. Determination of sample size. 6. Specifying the sampling plan. 7. Selecting the sample. 1. DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION: Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook). However this definition is too broad and will include every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000.

This reduces the target population size and makes the research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well-defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the research objective of the company.

For ex, if the population is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING FRAME: Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20, 000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed along various demographic and economic variables.

Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire population and lists the names of its elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the total population or when some elements of the population are missing another drawback in the sampling frame is over representation.

telephone

directory

can

be

over

represented

by

names/household that have two or more connections. 3. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING UNIT: A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the business research, every individual element would be a

sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households as the sampling unit and interview all females above

20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling unit. 4. SELECTION OF THE SAMPLING METHOD: The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling. 5. DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE: The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those hold primary importance and are worth

mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of

budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of

analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques used to determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter. 6. SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING PLAN: In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses.

What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the re contact procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research process.

These are guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the process.

As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. SELECTING THE SAMPLE: This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey. TYPES OF SAMPLES The best sampling is probability sampling, because it increases the likelihood of obtaining samples that are representative of the population. PROBABILITY SAMPLING (REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES) Probability samples are selected in such a way as to be representative of the population. They provide the most valid or credible results because they reflect the characteristics of the population from which they are selected (e.g., residents of a particular community, students at

an elementary school, etc.). There are two types of probability samples: random and stratified.

RANDOM SAMPLE The term random has a very precise meaning. Each individual in the population of interest has an equal likelihood of selection. This is a very strict meaning -- you can't just collect responses on the street and have a random sample. The assumption of an equal chance of selection means that sources such as a telephone book or voter registration lists are not adequate for providing a random sample of a community.

In both these cases there will be a number of residents whose names are not listed. Telephone surveys get around this problem by random-digit dialling -- but that assumes that everyone in the population has a telephone.

The key to random selection is that there is no bias involved in the selection of the sample. Any variation between the sample characteristics and the population characteristics is only a matter of chance.

STRATIFIED SAMPLE

A stratified sample is a mini-reproduction of the population. Before sampling, the population is divided into characteristics of importance for the research.

For example, by gender, social class, education level, religion, etc. Then the population is randomly sampled within each category or stratum. If 38% of the population is collegeeducated, then 38% of the sample is randomly selected from the college-educated population.

Stratified samples are as good as or better than random samples, but they require a fairly detailed advance knowledge of the population characteristics, and therefore are more difficult to construct.

NONPROBABILITY SAMPLES (NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES) As they are not truly representative, non-probability samples are less desirable than probability samples. However, a researcher may not be able to obtain a random or stratified sample, or it may be too expensive. A researcher may not care about generalizing to a larger population. The validity of non-probability samples can be increased by trying to approximate random selection, and by eliminating as many sources of bias as possible. QUOTA SAMPLE

The defining characteristic of a quota sample is that the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample.

This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population.

The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population. The researcher sets a quota, independent of population characteristics.

Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not many in that state).

To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions in the population.

This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLE A purposive sample is a non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives.

It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whoever is available.

A subset of a purposive sample is a snowball sample -- so named because one picks up the sample along the way, analogous to a snowball accumulating snow.

A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study.

Snowball

samples

are

particularly

useful

in

hard-to-track

populations, such as truants, drug users, etc. CONVENIENCE SAMPLE A convenience sample is a matter of taking what you can get. It is an accidental sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample. Non-probability generalization. samples Because are they limited do not with truly regard represent to a

population, we cannot make valid inferences about the larger group from which they are drawn.

Validity can be increased by approximating random selection as much as possible, and making every attempt to avoid

introducing bias into sample selection. QUESTIONNAIR DESIGN: Two important aspects of questionnaire design are the structure of the questions and the decisions on the types of response formats for each question. Broadly speaking, survey questions can be classified into three structures: closed, open-ended, and contingency questions. CLOSED: Closed (or multiple choice) questions ask the respondent to choose, among a possible set of answers, the response that most closely represents his/her viewpoint. The respondent is usually asked to tick or circle the chosen answer. Questions of this kind may offer simple alternatives such as Yes or No. They may also require that the respondent chooses among several answer categories, or that he/she uses a frequency scale, an importance scale, or an agreement scale.

How often do your parents ask you about your homework? (Please, circle one answer only) Never . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 or 2 times a week . . . . . . . 2 3 or 4 times a week . . . . . . 3 Nearly every day . . . . . . . . 4

THE MAIN ADVANTAGE OF CLOSED QUESTIONS ARE: The respondent is restricted to a finite (and therefore more manageable) set of responses, They are easy and quick to answer, They have response categories that are easy to code, and

They permit the inclusion of more variables in a research study because the format enables the respondent to answer more questions in the same time required to answer fewer openended questions.

THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES WITH CLOSED QUESTIONS ARE: a. They can introduce bias, either by forcing the respondent to choose between given alternatives or by offering alternatives that otherwise would not have come to mind,

b. They do not allow for creativity or for the respondent to develop ideas, c. They do not permit the respondent to qualify the chosen response or express a more complex or subtle meaning, d. They can introduce bias, where there is a tendency for the respondent to tick systematically either the first or last category, to select what may be considered as the most socially desirable response alternative, or to answer all items in a list in the same way, and e. They require skill to write because response categories need to be appropriate, and mutually exclusive. The response format for closed questions can range from a simple yes/no response, to an approve/disapprove alternative, to asking the respondent to choose one alternative from 3 or more response options. The possibility of format effects or response bias for this type of question can be reduced by changing the sequence of response categories and values. For example, if responses to an item range from 1 to 5, going from negative to positive, then a number of items in the questionnaire can be designed to have 1 as the most positive alternative and 5 as the most negative. This is a particularly important technique for the construction of attitude scales.

Some closed questions may have a dichotomous response format, which means only two mutually exclusive responses are provided. What is your sex? (Please tick one box only) o Male o Female

For the above example a dichotomous response format is appropriate. However, this type of format should not be overused in a survey because it elicits much less information than multiple choice formats.

For example, if seeking information on degree of interest in public affairs, the question Do you read a daily newspaper? yields a yes/no response. This could be reworded to:

How many times per week do you read a daily newspaper? to which multiple choice responses could be: 1. Seven times a week 2. Five to six times a week 3. Three to four times a week 4. One to two times per week 5. Less than once per week

6. Never Such a multiple category response format would provide more specific and more useful information than the dichotomous one. OPED ENDED:

Open-ended or free-response questions are not followed by any choices and the respondent must answer by supplying a response, usually by entering a number, a word, or a short text. Answers are recorded in full, either by the interviewer or, in the case of a self-administered survey, the respondent records his or her own entire response. What are your favourite TV programmes? (Please specify their titles)

.................................................... ..... .................................................... ..... What do you like most about school? .................................................... ..... .................................................... ..... THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS ARE: a. They allow respondents to express their ideas spontaneously in their own language, b. They are less likely to suggest or guide the answer than closed questions because they are free from the format effects associated with closed questions, and

c. They can add new information when there is very little existing information available about a topic. THE MAIN DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS ARE: a. They may be difficult to answer and even more difficult to analyze, b. they require effort and time on behalf of the respondent, c. They require the development of a system of coded categories with which to classify the responses, d. They require the respondent to have some degree of writing ability, and e. Respondent handwriting can be illegible. There is always the possibility with open-ended questions that responses may come in very different forms, and these may lead to answers that cannot be systematically coded for analysis. For example, if asked When did you leave school?, the respondent may answer in a variety of ways: Seven years ago. When I got my first job. When my brother started going to high school. When my parents moved into this house. If the survey is administered by an interviewer, appropriate probing helps clarify such answers. In the case of a selfadministered survey, guidance by writing specific instructions

on how to answer the question can often minimize the number of responses that have very different dimensions. Care should be taken in writing open-ended questions so as to avoid formats that elicit a dichotomous yes/no or agree/disagree response. In addition, the wording of questions should seek to reduce the possibility of eliciting responses that are aligned along very different dimensions and therefore cannot be systematically coded. For example, asking What do you think about your school? can elicit responses such as nothing or school is useless. However, asking What recommendations would you have for improving your school? would be more likely to elicit

informative answers.

A good case for using open-ended questions is when the aim is to have the respondents reply spontaneously, or when the investigator questionnaire, is or pilot testing the the first version wants to of the

when

investigator

collect

evidence on the parameters of an issue with the aim of later formulating a multiple choice or closed version of a question. Generally, open-ended questions can produce useful information in an interviewer administered survey, provided that the interviewers responses. are alert and trained to probe ambiguous

In self-administered surveys, it is useful to provide instructions on the format of the response that is required so as to minimize opportunities for the respondents to answer the question according to very different dimensions.

CONTINGENCY QUESTIONS A contingency question is a special case of a closed-ended question because it applies only to a subgroup of respondents. The relevance of the question for a subgroup is determined by asking a filter question. The filter question directs the subgroup to answer a relevant set of specialized questions and instructs other respondents to skip to a later section of the questionnaire. The advantage of contingency questions is that detailed data may be obtained from a specific subgroup of the population. Some questions may apply only to females and not to males; others may apply only to people in school, and not to those who are employed. At the base of good contingency questions are clear and specific instructions contingency to respondents. can The formats One for is filter to and write

questions

vary.

option

directions next to the response category of the filter question.

Are you enrolled in secondary school? 1. Yes (answer the following question) 2. No (skip to question 5)

Alternatively, the contingency question can be placed at the end of the questionnaire set apart from ordinary questions that are to be answered by everybody: ANSWER THIS FINAL SET OF QUESTIONS ONLY IF YOU PLAN ON ENTERING AN ADULT EDUCATION COURSE NEXT YEAR. OTHERWISE, YOU HAVE NOW COMPLETED THE QUESTIONNAIRE.

INTERVIEWS: TYPES: STUCTURED AND UNSTUCTURED: STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS A structured interview is when the interviewer has a series of questions written down on a piece of paper, and the process involves asking those questions verbatim and then noting the answers given.

Sometimes the script for a structured interview is created in advance by the interviewer, and other times it is given to her by the human resources department.

It is not uncommon for an interviewer to prefer the structured interview and spend time creating a customized script for each interview.

Other interviewers use a standard script that has been approved by the human resources department.

UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW An unstructured interview is one where there may be a script to get the process started, but once the interview gets going the interviewer will start to follow her own points of interest and stop following any script. You will find that some managers use unstructured interviews in a business setting. An unstructured interview helps in

examining an issue that may not have been outlined in a resume or application but is still relevant to the job. The unstructured interview is also used in media interviews with celebrities. The interviewer may find the subject's thoughts on a particular topic interesting and relevant to the conversation, and the unstructured format allows the interviewer to pursue that line of questioning deeper.

DIFFERENCES A candidate will prepare for an interview whether it is

structured or unstructured, but it is easier to find out how a candidate interview. With an unstructured interview it is also possible to explore statements that may come up during the course of the interview that the interviewer may not have been expecting. Examples include reasons for leaving previous jobs or details about past job experiences that may not be mentioned in a resume. A structured interview allows the company to find out exactly what it needs to help quickly determine if a candidate should move on to the next level of the interview process. A structured interview also takes the pressure off of the interviewer as he will know exactly what to ask next. A structured interview is an effective tool for the phone interview and the initial interview in the hiring process. It can help to weed out candidates that do not have the necessary qualifications. performs under pressure in an unstructured

The unstructured interview is effective in finding out more about a candidate's personality, how a candidate reacts in a pressure situation and in learning other details about candidate before making a hiring decision. a

OTHER TYPES: TRADITIONAL FACE-TO-FACE INTERVIEW a. Most interviews are face-to-face. The most traditional is a oneon-one conversation. b. Your focus should be on the person asking questions. Maintain eye contact, listen and respond once a question has been asked. c. Your goal is to establish rapport with the interviewer and show them that your qualifications will benefit their organization. PANEL/COMMITTEE INTERVIEW a. In this situation, there is more than one interviewer. Typically, three to ten members of a panel may conduct this part of the selection process. b. This is your chance to put your group management and group presentation skills on display. c. As quickly as possible, try to 'read' the various personality types of each interviewer and adjust to them. Find a way to connect with each interviewer.

d. Remember to take your time in responding to questions. Maintain primary eye contact with the panel member who asked the question, but also seek eye contact with other members of the panel as you give your response.

BEHAVIOURAL INTERVIEW a. The basic premise behind this type of interview is that your past behaviour is the best predictor of your future actions. These types of questions may be asked in any interview format telephone, panel or one-on-one. b. If the employer asks behaviour-oriented questions, they are no longer asking hypothetical questions but are now asking questions that must be answered based on facts. c. With a behavioural question, the interviewer is looking for results, not just an activity list. They are listening for names, dates, places, the outcome and especially what your role was in achieving that outcome. d. This type of question generally starts with the words Give me an example when... or Tell me about a time when CASE INTERVIEW a. In some interviews you may be asked to demonstrate your problem-solving skills. The interviewer will outline a situation or

provide you with a case study and ask you to formulate a plan that deals with the problem. b. You do not have to come up with the ultimate solution. The interviewers are looking for how you apply your knowledge and skills to a real-life situation. c. Speak and reason aloud so interviewers have a full

understanding of your thought process. d. Before answering a case interview question, be prepared to ask the employer numerous questions for clarity and informational purposes. Most employers will provide responses that could result in additional inquiries. e. The more you are able to analyze and dissect the case study, the more you will likely impress your interviewer. f. This is the only interview for which it is acceptable, even encouraged, to bring a pad of paper and pencil. Most

interviewers will allow you to take notes and jot down thoughts as you work through the case. TELEPHONE INTERVIEW a. Many organizations will conduct interviews by telephone to narrow a field of candidates. Telephone interviews may also be used as a preliminary interview for candidates who live far away from the job site.

b. It is important to treat this interview as you would a face-to-face connection. Arrange for a quiet space and time to schedule the conversation. Clear a work surface to minimize distractions. c. Focus on the conversation. Listen to the questions carefully before you answer. Since your voice is key, convey energy with inflection in your voice. d. Have a copy of your resume nearby as a reference. e. Avoid using a phone with call waiting. You do not want to be interrupted during an interview. f. Try to use a landline phone or a cell phone that is not prone to dropping calls. GROUP INTERVIEW a. A group interview is usually designed to uncover the leadership potential of prospective managers and employees who will be dealing with customers. b. The front-runner candidates are gathered together in an

informal, discussion type interview. A subject is introduced and the interviewer will start off the discussion. c. The goal of the group interview is to see how you interact with others and how you use your knowledge and reasoning to influence others. LUNCH/DINNER INTERVIEW

a. The same rules apply at a meal as those in an office. The setting may be more casual, but remember that it is a business meal and you are being watched carefully. b. Use the interview to develop common ground with your interviewer. Follow his/her lead in both selection of food and etiquette. c. Avoid messy foods and do not drink alcohol at any point in this part of the interview process. d. See the CPCC tip sheet The InterviewEtiquette for additional tips.

STRESS INTERVIEW a. This form of interview was more common in sales positions and is rare today. However, you should be aware of the signals. The stress interview is usually a deliberate attempt to see how you handle yourself under pressure. b. The interviewer may be sarcastic or argumentative, or may keep you waiting. Do not take it personally. c. Calmly answer each question. Ask for clarification if you need it and never rush into an answer. d. The interviewer may also lapse into silence at some point during the questioning. This may be an attempt to unnerve you.

e. Sit silently until the interviewer resumes the questions. If a minute goes by, ask if he/she needs clarification of your last comment. DATA PROCESSING: Coding is the development and use of a language that will be used to transfer data from the instrument which was employed in the data collection process to a "codebook" or directly to the computer in a form that is appropriate for data analysis and reporting results. For the purpose of this course, this means making decisions about how to represent the data you collected on questionnaires in a way that the SPSS program will use effectively to do analysis. Since numbers usually work best as the way to represent the different responses made by the people you surveyed, the task is to find ways to code every response with a number. Entering data is then done by putting the appropriate number for each datum (the singular of data) into an appropriate place in a data file. The first computer assignment requires you to build a data file which contains coded responses from at least fifty of the people who completed your questionnaire.

There are some concepts which students need to be very clear about before they begin the coding process. These include the differences between variables and values.

Variables are "logical groupings of attributes." (Rubin and Babbie) Values are the attributes thus grouped. So the variable gender has two attributes or values: female and male (the way it is usually constructed in our society).

The variable age has many possible values: 18, 19, 20, 21, 34, 67, etc. It is important to remember that a variable needs more than one value. If all your respondents are social work majors, then major is not a variable. Don't waste your time coding and entering that data.

So each variable which you measured in your survey needs to be coded. If you start with an attitude, such as the first item on the demonstration questionnaire, "My heart goes out to people in wheelchairs," you need to have a code for each of the possible values: strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree. One way to do this, which I think is the easiest way, is to start with one and use as many numbers as you need, so the coding becomes: 1 for "strongly agree," 2 for "agree," 3 for "undecided," 4 for "disagree," and 5 for "strongly disagree."

These are entirely arbitrary. You can reverse these or use any numbering scheme you want, but you need to be sure that you

remember what the codes mean. A good way to remember is to prepare a code sheet. This is best done by using a blank copy of the questionnaire which you used to collect data. It will give you a place to write variable names which are explained on the hand-out for the first computer assignment. Also, write down the numbers you use as codes for each value of every variable. Variables that have the same values will be coded identically. Since all of the attitude items on the demonstration

questionnaire have the same choices, they would all be coded the same, 1 for "strongly agree," 2 for "agree," 3 for

"undecided," 4 for "disagree," and 5 for "strongly disagree." The next group of items, behaviour variables, are all Yes/No questions. These can be coded 1 for "Yes" and 2 for "No." It is OK for the 1 to be the code for "strongly agree" for one variable and for 1 to mean "Yes" for another. Later we will tell the computer what everything means.

It is usually the case that the values for each demographic will be coded differently, so that gender has the codes 1 for "Female" and 2 for "Male" (they can be in the other order if that's the way they are on your instrument); marital status would be: 1 for "Single," 2 for "Married," etc.

A variable such as age, which is already represented by numbers, uses those numbers as the code, so, for example, the written in age of "22" is coded 22.

Other open-ended responses, such as major, are a little more complicated. Often we just code the first response we get as 1, the second as 2, and so on. However, you may want to reserve the low numbers for frequently occurring values.

For example, if you have several social work majors in your sample, use 1 for "social work" since it is easy to remember. Open-ended items that have more individualistic responses, such as "What else do you think about this topic?" need to be coded more creatively.

Remember: write things down! Keep a record of these codes on your code sheet so that you can remember what they mean. Once you are clear about the coding process you are ready to begin data entry.

TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES: The various types of scaling techniques used in research can be classified into two categories: (a) COMPARATIVE SCALES, AND (B) NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES.

In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to compare one object with another. For example, the researcher can ask the

respondents whether theyprefer brand A or brand B of a detergent.

On the other hand, in non-comparative scaling respondents need only evaluate a single object.

Their evaluation is independent of the other object which the researcher is studying.

Respondents using a non-comparative scale employ whatever rating standard seems appropriate to them.

Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales. shows the classification of these scaling

techniques COMPARATIVE SCALES The comparative scales can further be divided into the following four types of scaling techniques: (a) Paired Comparison Scale, (b) Rank Order Scale, (c) Constant Sum Scale, and (d) Q-sort Scale.

(A) PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE:

This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one object (rate between two objects at a time) according to some criterion.

The data obtained are ordinal in nature. For example, there are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and Limca.

The respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc. In all we can have the following six comparisons.

CokePepsi CokeSprite CokeLimca PepsiSprite PepsiLimca SpriteLimca

In

general,

with

brands

we

have

n1)/2

paired

comparisons. The following is the data recording format using the paired comparisons (B). RANK ORDER SCALE:

This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with several items simultaneously and asked to rank them in the order of priority.

This is an ordinal scale that describes the favoured and unfavoured objects, but does not reveal the distance between the objects.

For example, if you are interested in ranking the preference of some selected brands of cold drinks, you may use the following format for recording the responses.

Instructions: Rank the following brands of cold drinks in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand you like most and assign it a number1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2.

Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of cold drinks in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 4. Also remember no two brands receive the same rank order Brand (a) Coke (b) Pepsi (c) Limca (d) Sprite Rank 3 1 2 4

Like

paired

comparison,

the

rank

order

scale,

is

also

comparative in nature. The resultant data in rank order is ordinal data.

This method is more realistic in obtaining the responses and it yields better results when direct comparisons are required between the given objects.

The major disadvantage of this technique is that only ordinal data can be generated.

TYPES OF SCALES: Measurement is essential to carry on with everyday living. This process involves the assignment of numbers to observations and interpretations as per rules and norms.

The manner in which these numbers are allocated is the actual determinant of the scale of measurement. Scales of

measurement are broadly classified into nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. NOMINAL SCALES A nominal scale is the lowest level of measurement that anyone can use. This method involves grouping data into categories without structuring or categorizing. This scale has no numeric significance. The only permitted and allowable arithmetic operation on this scale is counting. Yes/no, male/female, married/single, etc., are examples of nominal scale data. There is therefore no order and there is no distance between any two variables. Only non-parametric statistics like mode and calculation of chisquare can be used here.

ORDINAL SCALES The next level of measurement after the nominal scale is the ordinal scale. Ranking is a form of ordinal scale. Value is assigned to people and objects on the basis of some attribute. Intermediate intervals are allocated to adjacent values. "Greater than," "equal to," and "less than," are the arithmetic operations that are permissible. In this scale of measurement, one can only interpret the total order and not the relational distances. Here to only non-parametric statistics can be used. The ones that could be computed are median, mode, ranks and variance (non-parametric). INTERVAL SCALE The interval scale of measurement is one that is very widely used. It is used in all surveys and researches. It is known as an interval scale, as all scale elements are assumed to be equidistant from one another. This is known as interval scale, as the interval variables have units of

measurement. Therefore the intervals between adjoining values are equal with respect to the attribute that is being measured.

The

allowable

arithmetic

operations

are

addition

and

subtracted. Each scale value could be added or subtracted from the adjacent one. Parametric statistic techniques can be used here. Mean,

standard deviation, correlation, regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and factor analysis all can be computed. RATIO SCALE The ratio scale of measurement is the topmost level of measurement. This scale has a true and pure zero point. This its most definitive point. The ratios again are equidistant. Almost all of the measurements in sciences use the ratio scales. This scale cannot be used much for social research. The arithmetic operations allowed are that the scale values can be multiplied and divided. Parametric statistics are used here. In addition to computing the mean, standard deviation, ANOVA, correlation and regression, the coefficient of variation can also be computed. PARAMETRIC TEST: To perform a parametric test and for the result to be reliable your data must fulfil certain criteria. Strictly speaking you should check for these criteria. A less cautious approach would be to assume that these criteria apply if you have no reason to know or suspect that they do not. With small sample sizes in particular it is hard to

assess normality so making this assumption will be your only choice if you want to use a parametric test. Alternatively, you can use an equivalent non-parametric test. Remember, data not measured at scale level cannot be normally distributed. PARAMETRIC CRITERIA FOR: T-TEST (DEPENDENT VARIABLE MUST BE MEASURED AT THE SCALE LEVEL. 1. Each sample must be approximately normally distributed. 2. The variances of the two samples must be similar. THE PAIRED T-TEST (DEPENDENT VARIABLE MUST BE MUST BE MEASURED AT THE SCALE LEVEL.*) 1. The differences between the related data points should be normally distributed. ONE-WAY ANOVA (DEPENDENT VARIABLE MUST BE MEASURED AT THE SCALE LEVEL.*) 1. Each sample must be approximately normally distributed; 2. The variances of the different samples must be similar. REGRESSION AND THE PARAMETRIC CRITERIA (DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES MUST BE MEASURED AT THE SCALE LEVEL.*) 1. The residuals for any value of the independent variable, y, must be normally distributed; 2. The variance of the dependent variable should be similar for all values of the independent variable, y.

Since typically we only have one value of the dependent variable, y, for every value of the independent variable, x, we cannot actually check our data for these features.

The precedent is that, providing you have no reason to think that the data might not conform to these criteria you can assume that they do.

In practice this means that the most important thing to double check before proceeding with a regression test is that the dependent variable is measured at scale level.

NB: Remember that this test also assume linearity which you can check using a scatterplot.

PEARSON CORRELATION (BOTH VARIABLES MUST BE MEASURED AT THE SCALE LEVEL.*) 1. The variables come from a bivariate normal distribution. This means that for each value from one of the variables the corresponding values of the other variable should be normally distributed and vice versa. Since typically we only have one value we cannot actually check our data for these features. The precedent is that, providing you have no reason to think that the data might not conform to these criteria you can assume that they do. In practice this means that the most important thing to double check before proceeding with a

regression test is that the dependent variable is measured at scale level. NB: Remember that this test also assume linearity which you can check using a scatterplot. SCALE LEVEL DATA Parametric tests assuming the normal distribution can only be carried out on scale level data. Strictly speaking this ought actually to be continuous scale rather than discrete scale but this is a grey area and you shouldn't worry about it. Basic methods for checking for: NORMALITY: If your frequency-distribution graph is roughly symmetrical and not obviously skewed, then you can assume that your data approximate the normal distribution. SIMILARITY OF VARIANCES: If the standard deviation of your most-variable sample is less than 10 times the standard deviation of your least-variable sample, then you can assume that your variances are

sufficiently similar.

NON- PARAMETRIC TEST:

Nonparametric tests are also referred to as distribution-free tests. These tests have the obvious advantage of not requiring the assumption of normality or the assumption of homogeneity of variance.

They compare medians rather than means and, as a result, if the data have one or two outliers, their influence is negated.

Parametric tests are preferred because, in general, for the same number of observations, they are more likely to lead to the rejection of a false hull hypothesis.

That is, they have more power. This greater power stems from the fact that if the data have been collected at an interval or ratio level, information is lost in the conversion to ranked data (i.e., merely ordering the data from the lowest to the highest value).

The following table gives the non-parametric analogue for the paired sample t-test and the independent samples t-test.

There is no obvious comparison for the one sample t-test. Chisquare is a one-sample test and there are alternatives to chisquare but we will not consider them further.

Chi-square is already a non-parametric test. Pearson's correlation also has non-parametric alternative (Spearman's correlation) but we will not deal with it further either.

There are a wide range of alternatives for the two group t-tests, the ones listed are the most commonly use ones and are the defaults in SPSS.

Generally, running nonparametric procedures is very similar to

running parametric procedures, because the same design principle is being assessed in each case. So, the process of identifying variables, selecting options, and running the procedure are very similar. The final p-value is what determines significance or not in the same way as the parametric tests. SPSS gives the option of two or three analogues for each type of parametric test, but you need to know only the ones cited in the table. PARAMETRIC TEST One-sample t-test Paired sample t-test Independent samples ttest Pearson's correlation WRITTEN REPORT GUIDELINES TITLE PAGE: The TITLE PAGE identifies

NON-PARAMETRIC ANALOGUE Nothing quite comparable Wilcoxon T Test Mann-Whitney U Test Spearman's correlation

The full name of the project The course (ChE E 3810) The name of the principal author (write NONE if a principal author was not used) The names of the other group members and the group number

ABSTRACT: The ABSTRACT is not a part of the body of the report itself. Rather, the abstract is a brief summary of the report contents

that is often separately circulated so potential readers can decide whether to read the report. The abstract should very concisely summarize the whole report: why it was written, what was discovered or developed, and what is claimed to be the significance of the effort. The abstract does not include figures or tables, and only the most significant numerical values or results should be given. INTRODUCTION: The INTRODUCTION should provide a clear statement of the problem posed by the project, and why the problem is of interest. It should reflect the scenario, if available. If needed, the introduction also needs to present background information so that the reader can understand the significance of the problem. A brief summary of the unique approach your group used to solve the problem should be given, possibly also including a concise introduction to theory or concepts used later to analyze and to discuss the results.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The purpose of the MATERIALS AND METHODS section is to describe the materials, apparatus, and procedures used to carry out the measurements.

Most

importantly,

the

section

needs

to

provide

clear

presentation of how key measurements were obtained and how the measurements were analyzed. This is where the particular approach followed to reach the project's objectives should be described. The detail should be sufficient so that the reader can easily understand what was done. An accurate, schematic diagram depicting the apparatus should be included and referred to in the text as needed (if a diagram has been already provided it can be used in the report, provided that the source is properly referenced). To improve clarity of presentation, this section may be further divided into subsections (ex. a Materials subsection, an

Apparatus subsection, a Methods or Procedures subsection, etc.). RESULTS: The RESULTS section is dedicated to presenting the actual results (i.e. measured and calculated quantities), not to

discussing their meaning or interpretation.

The results should be summarized using appropriate Tables and Figures (graphs or schematics). Every Figure and Table should have a legend that describes concisely what is contained or shown.

Figure legends go below the figure, table legends above the table. Throughout the report, but especially in this section, pay attention to reporting numbers with an appropriate number of significant figures.

A formal error analysis (such as, perhaps, was done in Physics lab) is not necessary.

Still, features of the data-taking and processing that may have especially contributed to errors should be pointed out.

One classical example is the taking of small differences between large numbers; for instance, 11.5+0.2 - 10.8+ 0.3 yields a very large fractional error (about 70 %) on the resulting difference, 0.7+0.5.

Another procedure that usually increases error is numerical differentiation.

DISCUSSION: The DISCUSSION interprets the results in light of the project's objectives.

The most important goal of the DISCUSSION section is to interpret the results so that the reader is informed of the insight or answers that the results provide.

The DISCUSSION should also present an evaluation of the particular approach taken by the group. For example: Based on the results, how could the experimental procedure be improved?

What

additional,

future

work

may

be

warranted?

What

recommendations can be drawn? CONCLUSIONS: The CONCLUSIONS should summarize the central points made in the Discussion section, reinforcing for the reader the value and implications of the work. If the results were not definitive, specific future work that may be needed can be (briefly) described. The conclusions should never contain "surprises". Therefore, any conclusions should be based on observations and data already discussed. It is considered extremely bad form to introduce new data in the conclusions. REFERENCES: The REFERENCES section should contain complete citations following standard form.

The form of the citation depends on the type of source being referenced, and is different for whole books, chapters in books, and articles published in a journal.

One good format to follow is that used in the Chemical Engineering Progress journal, published by AIChE.

The references should be numbered and listed in the order they were cited in the body of the report.

In the text of the report, a particular reference can be cited by using a numerical superscript that corresponds to its number in the reference list.

If a reference has not been actually consulted, it should be listed "as discussed in [name of the work that discussed the reference]".

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT Reports must be clear, concise, complete and correct. Good reports follow the four Cs rule. CLEAR Information has to be understood at the first reading. The report has to be easy to read with legible writing and a clear message. Clear Rotated the mattress so the head end became the foot end. Unclear Turned the bed over.

CONCISE Your report is only to be as long as you need to include the necessary information. Use short, simple sentences. Do not use jargon or words that arent required. Concise Not concise

On his return he was asked to And then I said to him that if put the groceries away. put the groceries away when he came back from the shops. COMPLETE Ensure all required information is in the report. Complete Incomplete He spat out his dinner it was possible he should

He pushes carrot out of his mouth again. whenever I feed it to him.

CORRECT Every piece of information must be accurate and verifiable. Accurate I will ask Terry if he likes being brother called bags and by whom. gave him the nickname Inaccurate Someone said Terrys

bags because his trousers always hang around his butt and he likes it.

you

It is important that you know the objective of the report before write it. Be clear on what information you need to

communicate and who will be reading it. For example, the object of the shift report in accommodation

services is to let the other team members know what occurred on the shift. Report writing is a means of passing on information to

each other.

(OR)

1. GOOD REPORT HAS A CLARITY OF THOUGHT A good report is one which is drafted in a simple, clear and lucid language. Its language should not be difficult and confusing. There should be no ambiguity as regards the statements made in the report. A reader should be able to understand the entire report easily, exactly and quickly. In fact, this is the basic purpose of report writing. 2. GOOD REPORT IS COMPLETE AND SELF-EXPLANATORY A good report is always a complete and self-explanatory

document. For this, repetition of facts, figures, information, conclusions and recommendation should be avoided. Report writing should be always complete and self-explanatory. It should give complete information to the readers in a precise manner. 3. GOOD REPORT IS COMPREHENSIVE BUT COMPACT A lengthy report is not necessarily a good report. In fact, report should be a brief and compact document.

 At the same time, it should give complete picture of the problem under investigation. In this sense the report writing should be comprehensive but compact.

4. GOOD REPORT IS ACCURATE IN ALL ASPECTS One more feature of a good report is that it should be correct in all aspects. The data given and statements made in the report must be based on facts and must be verified carefully. Report writing is a responsible job as report is used as a reliable document for taking decisions and framing policies. Thus, report writing should be always accurate, factual and reliable. 5. GOOD REPORT HAS SUITABLE FORMAT FOR READERS A good report needs proper format. It should be convenient to the type of the report. The report should have all essential components such as title, introduction, findings and recommendations. This gives

convenience to the reader. 6. GOOD REPORT SUPPORT FACTS AND IS FACTUAL A good report is always factual. The findings, conclusions and recommendations included in the report should be supported by information and data collected from reliable sources.

 Statistical tables, should support statements made in the report. Attention needs to be given to this reliability aspect in report writing. 7. GOOD REPORT HAS AN IMPERSONAL STYLE A good report should be drafted in an impersonal manner. The report writing should be in third person. This is necessary as the report is prepared for the benefits of a person who needs it and not for the benefit of the person who prepares it. 8. GOOD REPORT HAS A PROPER DATE AND SIGNATURE A good report should be properly dated and signed by the concerned authority or by the chairman of the committee or by all committee members. This has legal significance and needs special attention in report writing. 9. GOOD REPORT HAS A REFERENCE TO RELEVANT DETAILS In effective report writing, reference to relevant details is necessary. A good report should cover all relevant details for the

methodology used, questionnaire prepared for data collection and the procedure followed by the committee. 10. GOOD REPORT FOLLOWS AN IMPARTIAL APPROACH A good report is always fact finding and not fault finding. It should be prepared in an impartial manner.

 The writers of the report should be impartial in their outlook and approach. In other words, there should be objectivity in report writing. Emotions, sentiments, personal views etc. should be kept away while drafting a report. The approach of report writer should be broad based, positive and constructive. He should be neutral and self effecting in his reports writing. 11. GOOD REPORT HAS ALL ESSENTIAL TECHNICAL DETAILS In a good report writing attention should be given to certain essential technical details. For example, the pages and paragraphs of the report should be numbered properly. Marginal heading and titles should be given. This gives convenience to readers. 12. GOOD REPORT IS PRESENTED IN A LUCID STYLE
A good report is one which is presented in a lucid style. It needs

logical and systematic arrangement of different parts. It should be easily and clearly understandable by all those for whom it is meant. A good report should create interest among readers because of its lucid and convincing style.

 Clear

thinking,

objective

tone

and

logical

arrangement

of

thoughts make the report simple and lucid. 13. GOOD REPORT IS A RELIABLE DOCUMENT The data collection, analysis and interpretation of the data, conclusions drawn and recommendations made in the report should be accurate so as to make the whole report reliable and dependable for future reference and also for policy decisions. This, reliability is one important aspect of effective report writing. 14. GOOD REPORT IS ARRANGED IN A LOGICAL MANNER The different parts of the report should be arranged in a logical order so as to make it an integrated document.
Proper planning is essential while drafting report. Attention to

format of a report is a must in effective report writing. CONTENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT Title Page (name of the agency, product, program, or service that is being researched; date) Table of Contents Executive Summary (one-page, concise overview of findings and recommendations) Purpose of the Report (what type of research was conducted, what decisions are being aided by the findings of the research, who is making the decision, etc.)

Background about Agency/Product/Service/Program that is being researched Organization Description/History Product/Service/Program Description (that is being researched) i. ii.
iii.

Problem Statement Overall Goal(s) of Product/Service/Program Outcomes (or client/customer impacts) and Performance Measures (that can be measured as indicators toward the outcomes)

iv.

Activities/Technologies Product/Service/Program

of

the

(general description of how the product/service/program is developed and delivered)

v.

Staffing (description of the number of personnel and roles in the organization that are relevant to developing and

delivering the product/service/program) Overall Evaluation Goals (what questions are being answered by the research?) Methodology

a) Types of data/information that were collected

b) How data/information were collected (what instruments were used, etc.) c) How data/information were analyzed

d) Limitations

of

the

evaluation

(cautions

about

findings/conclusions and how to use the findings/conclusions, etc.) Interpretations data/information) Recommendations (regarding the decisions that must be made about the results) Appendices (content of the appendices depends on the goals of the research report)
a) Instruments used to collect data/information

and

Conclusions

(from

analysis

of

the

b) Data (tabular format, etc.) c) Testimonials, comments made by users of the

product/service/program d) Case studies of users of the product/service/program e) Any related literature ORAL PRESENTATION: Making a good oral presentation is an art that involves attention

to the needs of your audience, careful planning, and attention to delivery. This page explains some of the basics of effective oral

presentation. It also covers use of notes, visual aids and computer presentation software.

THE AUDIENCE Some basic questions to ask about an audience are: 1. Who will I be speaking to? 2. What do they know about my topic already? 3. What will they want to know about my topic? 4. What do I want them to know by the end of my talk? By basing the content and style of your presentation on your

answers to these questions, you can make sure that you are in tune with your audience. What you want to say about your topic may be much less important than what your audience wants to hear about it.

PLANNING YOUR PRESENTATION In an effective presentation, the content and structure are

adjusted to the medium of speech. When listening, we cannot go back over a difficult point to understand it or easily absorb long arguments. A presentation can easily be ruined if the content is too difficult for the audience to follow or if the structure is too complicated. As a general rule, expect to cover much less content than you

would in a written report. Make difficult points easier to understand by preparing the listener for them, using plenty of examples and going back over them later. Leave time for questions within the presentation.

Give your presentation a simple and logical structure. Include an

introduction in which you outline the points you intend to cover and a conclusion in which you go over the main points of your talk.

DELIVERING YOUR PRESENTATION People vary in their ability to speak confidently in public, but

everyone gets nervous and everyone can learn how to improve their presentation skills by applying a few simple techniques. The main points to pay attention to in delivery are the quality of

your voice, your rapport with the audience, use of notes and use of visual aids. Voice quality involves attention to volume, speed and fluency,

clarity and pronunciation. The quality of your voice in a presentation will improve dramatically if you are able to practise beforehand in a room similar to the one you will be presenting in. Rapport with the audience involves attention to eye contact,

sensitivity to how the audience is responding to your talk and what you look like from the point of view of the audience. These can be improved by practising in front of one or two friends or video-taping your rehearsal.

EFFECTIVE USE OF NOTES Good speakers vary a great deal in their use of notes. Some do

not use notes at all and some write out their talk in great detail. If you are not an experienced speaker it is not a good idea to

speak without notes because you will soon lose your thread. You should also avoid reading a prepared text aloud or

memorising your speech as this will be boring. The best solution may be to use notes with headings and points

to be covered. You may also want to write down key sentences. Notes can be on paper or cards. Some speakers use overhead

transparencies as notes. The trick in using notes is to avoid shifting your attention from

the audience for too long. Your notes should always be written large enough for you to see without moving your head too much.

VISUAL AIDS

Visual aids help to make a presentation livelier. They can also

help the audience to follow your presentation and help you to present information that would be difficult to follow through speech alone. The two most common forms of visual aid are overhead

transparencies (OHTs) and computer slide shows (e.g. PowerPoint). Objects that can be displayed or passed round the audience can

also be very effective and often help to relax the audience.

Some speakers give printed hand-outs to the audience to follow

as they speak. Others prefer to give their hand-outs at the end of the talk, because they can distract the audience from the presentation.